CHAPTER 6

INTRODUCTION TO
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CONTENTS
 Energy sources
 Overview of photosynthesis

 The photosynthetic pigments

 Chloroplast structure and functions
 Light dependent reactions

 Light-independent reactions

 Photosynthetic carbon reaction

 Factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis

WHY LEARNING THIS CHAPTER IS IMPORTANT?
 You will……..
 understand how energy flow through
photosynthesis reactions.
 expand understanding how ATP links reactions
that release energy with reactions that require
them.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANISMS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

mosses

trees garden plants

kelp Euglena cyanobacteria diatoms

(Moss): © Steven P. Lynch; (Trees): © Digital Vision/PunchStock; (Kelp): © Chuck Davis/Stone/Getty Images; (Cyanobacteria): © Sherman Thomas/Visuals Unlimited; (Diatoms): © Ed Reschke/Peter
Arnold; (Euglena): © T.E. Adams/Visuals Unlimited; (Sunflower): © Royalty-Free/Corbis
PHOTOSYNTHETIC ORGANISMS
 Statistics….
 Only 42% of sun’s energy directed towards Earth
reaches surface.
 Of this, only 2% is captured by
photosynthesizers.
 Of this, only a tiny portion results in biomass.

 Photosynthetic organisms (algae, plants, and

cyanobacteria) transform solar energy into
carbohydrates.
 Called autotrophs because they produce their own
food.
 Photoautotroph??

5
ENERGY SOURCES AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PIGMENTS
 Photoautotroph use light energy to build organic
molecules from inorganic raw materials (??please
list down…).
 Only light with wavelength between 380 to 750nm
will be captured.
 Certain pigments (?) are the molecular bridges
between sunlight and photosynthesis.
 Pigment molecules are organic compounds that
selectively absorbs light. Wavelengths not absorbed
are reflected.

6
ENERGY SOURCES AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PIGMENTS
 Chlorophyll a is the main photosynthetic pigment in
plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It absorbs violet
and red light, so it appears green.
 Accessory pigments (exp: carotenoids; phycocyanin;
allophycocyanine…) extend the range of wavelengths
usable for photosynthesis.
 The light-trapping part of all pigments consists of an
array of atoms where single bonds alternate with
double bonds.

7
ENERGY SOURCES AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC
PIGMENTS
 Absorption Spectra

 Pigments found in chlorophyll absorb various

portions of visible light
 Chlorophyll is green because it absorbs much of the
reds and blues of white light
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Increasing wavelength

chlorophyll a

chlorophyll b

carotenoids
Increasing energy

Relative Absorption
Gamma Micro- Radio
rays X rays UV Infrared waves waves

visible light

500 600 750 380 500 600 750

Wavelengths (nm) Wavelengths (nm)
8
a. The electromagnetic spectrum includes visible light. b. Absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments.
OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Photosynthesis takes place in the green portions of
plants
 Leaf of flowering plant contains mesophyll tissue
 Cells containing chloroplasts.
 Specialized to carry on photosynthesis
 Their structure plays a critical role in their function.

9
OVERVIEW OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Chloroplasts in plants have three membranes.
 Two membranes enclose a semifluid matrix called
the stroma. Sugars are built in the stroma.
 The third, called the thylakoid membrane, is folded
up into flattened disks inside the stroma.
 The space within the thylakoid membrane is
continuous, forming a single compartment.
 Overall, the equation for glucose formation is written:
sunlight
12H2O + 6CO2 ---------------> 6O2 + C6H12O6 + 6H2O
enzymes

10
LEAVES AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

cuticle

upper
epidermis

Leaf cross section

mesophyll

lower
epidermis
CO2
O2
leaf vein stoma
outer membrane
inner membrane

stroma
stroma

granum

Chloroplast 37,000

thylakoid space

thylakoid membrane

Grana

independent thylakoid overlapping thylakoid

in a granum in a granum

© Dr. George Chapman/Visuals Unlimited

PHOTOSYNTHESIS IS A REDOX REACTION
THAT RELEASES O2

 Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is

the gain of electrons
 Because they always occur together, the entire reaction is
a redox reaction
 Photosynthesis is a redox reaction in which hydrogen
atoms are transferred from water to carbon dioxide
PHOTOSYNTHESIS INVOLVES
TWO SETS OF REACTIONS

 The light dependent reactions

 Only occur when solar energy is available
 Chlorophyll molecules absorb solar energy to
energize electrons used in ATP production
 The light independent (Calvin cycle) reactions
 CO2 is taken up and reduced to a carbohydrate that
can be converted to glucose
 ATP and NADPH from light reactions are needed
PHOTOSYNTHESIS INVOLVES
TWO SETS OF REACTIONS

6-14
LIGHT REACTIONS BEGIN: SOLAR ENERGY IS
ABSORBED BY PIGMENTS
 Solar energy can be described in terms of its
wavelength and its energy content
 Most common pigments chlorophylls a and b and
carotenoids are capable of absorbing various portions
of visible light
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Increasing wavelength

chlorophyll a

chlorophyll b

carotenoids
Increasing energy

Relative Absorption
Gamma Micro- Radio
rays X rays UV Infrared waves waves

visible light

500 600 750 380 500 600 750

Wavelengths (nm) Wavelengths (nm)

a. The electromagnetic spectrum includes visible light. b. Absorption spectrum of photosynthetic pigments.
FALL TEMPERATURES CAUSE
LEAVES TO CHANGE COLOR

 Chlorophyll is not very stable and in the fall,

sufficient energy to rebuild chlorophyll is not
available
 Chlorophyll in leaves disintegrates,

and we begin to see yellow and

orange pigments in the leaves
1A. SOLAR ENERGY BOOSTS ELECTRONS
TO A HIGHER ENERGY LEVEL

 Photosystem I (PS I) & Photosystem II (PS II)

consist of antenna molecules and a reaction center
 Antenna molecules absorb light and pass energy to the
reaction center
 In reaction center excited electrons are passed to
electron acceptors
A GENERAL MODEL OF A PHOTOSYSTEM
A GENERAL MODEL OF PHOTOSYSTEM I & II
1B. ELECTRONS RELEASE THEIR ENERGY AS
ATP FORMS

 Electrons lost from photosystems immediately enter

an electron transfer chain(step 4 and 7 in
photosystem model) that is embedded in the
thylakoid membrane.
 Each electron transfer releases energy that is
ultimately used to make ATP.
HIGH-ENERGY ELECTRONS (E−) RELEASE ENERGY AS THEY
PASS DOWN AN ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
 1C. THE THYLAKOID MEMBRANE IS ORGANIZED
TO PRODUCE ATP AND NADPH
 Electron transfer chains in thylakoid membrane are
organized arrays of enzymes, coenzymes, and other
proteins that accept and donate electrons in turn.
 ATP production is tied to an H+ gradient across the
thylakoid membrane.
 H+ ions move across the membrane through the interior
of ATP synthases.
 The flow causes these proteins to attach phosphate
groups to ADP, creating ATP in the stroma.
 Following transfer through type II to type I, the excited
electrons are stored in NADPH.
DURING THE LIGHT REACTIONS, ELECTRONS FOLLOW A
NON-CYCLIC PATHWAY
6-25
6-26
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS: THE SUGAR
FACTORY
 These reactions constitute a pathway known as the
Calvin-Benson cycle.
 The participants and their roles in the synthesis of
carbohydrates are:
 ATP provides energy;
 NADPH provides hydrogen atoms and electrons;
 Atmospheric air, which provides the carbon and
oxygen from carbon dioxide.
 The reactions take place in the stroma of chloroplasts
and are not dependent on sunlight.
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTIONS: THE SUGAR
FACTORY
 Three stages of the Calvin Cycle
 Stage 1: Fixation of CO2 to form 3-
phosphoglycerate (3PG)
 Stage 2: Reduction of 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG)
to form hexose sugars.
 Stage 3: Regeneration of ribulose 1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP)
CALVIN CYCLE REACTIONS
STAGES IN CALVIN CYCLE
 The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from
the light reactions to produce a carbohydrate.
 Calvin cycle reduces CO2 from the atmosphere to
produce carbohydrate.
Stage 1: CO2 Fixation – CO2 combines with RuBP with the
help of RuBP carboxylase
Stage 2: CO2 Reduction – CO2 is reduced to a carbohydrate
STAGES IN CALVIN CYCLE
Stage 3: RuBP Regeneration – every three turns of the
Calvin cycle, five molecules of G3P reform three molecules
of RuBP
IN PLANTS, CARBOHYDRATE IS THE
STARTING POINT FOR OTHER MOLECULES
Fates of G3P
 DIFFERENT CARBON-FIXING
PATHWAYS:
C3, C4, AND CAM PHOTOSYNTHESIS THRIVE
UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS
PLANT ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
 Stomata close on dry days.
 So, water stays in the plant, oxygen produced in
light dependent reactions cannot diffuse out, and
CO2 for light independent reactions cannot diffuse
in.
 Thus, about 85% of plant species cannot grow in
drier climate without irrigation.
 These plants are called C3 plants because they fix
carbon with the Calvin-Benson cycle in which
three-carbon PGA (3 carbon molecule) is the first
stable intermediate.
 Means that this plant use only Calvin-Benson cycle.
 C3 plants typically conserve water on dry days by
closing their stomata.
PLANT ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
 At high O2 levels (??) the enzyme rubisco attaches
oxygen instead of carbon to RuBP in a wasteful
pathway called photorespiration.
 CO2 becomes a product of photorespiration,
causing the plant to loose carbon instead of
gaining it.
 ATP and NADPH are used to “fuel” this process
instead of being used to make sugars.
 Thus sugar production is limited in C3 plants on hot,
dry days (as it takes extra energy).
 Plants compensate by producing lots of rubisco, it is
the most abundant protein on Earth.
C3 PHOTOSYNTHESIS EVOLVED WHEN
OXYGEN WAS IN LIMITED SUPPLY
PLANT ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
 Unlike C3 plants, C4 plants have adaptations to
minimize photorespiration.
 Bamboo, corn, and other plants that evolved in the
tropics also close their stomata when it is hot and
dry, but their sugar production does not cease.
 They fix carbon twice (in mesophyll cells, then in
bundle-sheath cells) to produce oxaloacetate, a
four-carbon compound.
 In mesophyll cells, carbon is fixed by an enzyme that does
not generate O2.
 An intermediate is transported to bundle-sheath cells and
converted to CO2, which enters the Calvin cycle.
 Thus, C4 can keeps CO2 levels high near rubisco and
minimizes photorespiration.
Anatomy of a C3 plant compared to a C4 plant

6-38
CARBON DIOXIDE FIXATION IN C4 PLANTS AS EXEMPLIFIED
BY CORN
PLANT ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE
 CAM is another evolutionary adaptation of
plants in hot, dry climates.
 Unlike C4, extra reactions in CAM plants run at
a different time rather than in different cells.
 CAM plants such as cacti, open their stomata and
fix CO2 only at night (is this different from C3
and C4??), storing the intermediate product for use
in photosynthesis the next day.
 C4 reactions run during the day
 Calvin-Benson cycle runs at night
CARBON DIOXIDE FIXATION IN CAM PLANTS AS
EXEMPLIFIED BY PINEAPPLE
FACTORS LIMITING THE RATE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

 Photosynthesis can be affected by many things,

including:
1. Sunlight
 ↑light, ↑photosynthesis (This is true up to a
point, where the plant has reached maximum
photosynthesis levels)
2. Temperature
 Higher temperatures are better than cold
temperatures for photosynthesis.
 However if it is humid, and the air is saturated

with water vapour, photosynthesis is limited.

FACTORS LIMITING THE RATE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

3. CO2 and water

 Basically the more CO2 in the air, the better the

rate of photosynthesis.
 Fertilisers increase the number of soil fungi and
bacteria, thus increasing the levels of CO2 from
their respiration and decomposition processes.
 When they have a deficiency of water, their

stomata close, so CO2 cannot diffuse into the

leaves
4. Any factor that influences the production of
chlorophyll, enzymes, or energy carriers(ATP and
NADPH).
 FACTORS LIMITING THE RATE OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 CO2 and water
 Basically the more CO2 in the air, the better the rate
of photosynthesis.
 Fertilisers increase the number of soil fungi and
bacteria, thus increasing the levels of CO2 from their
respiration and decomposition processes.
 When they have a deficiency of water, their stomata
close, so CO2 cannot diffuse into the leaves
DESTROYING TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
CONTRIBUTES TO GLOBAL WARMING

 Tropical rain forests contribute greatly to uptake of

CO2 because they are the most efficient of all
terrestrial ecosystems
 CO2 in our atmosphere traps radiant heat from
the sun and warms the world
 Deforestation in tropical rain forests accounts for 20–
30% of all carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
 Burning also removes trees that would ordinarily
absorb CO2
GLOBAL WARMING: PAST TRENDS AND FUTURE
PREDICTIONS

6-46
CONNECTING THE CONCEPTS
 General equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
 Two separate sets of reactions
 Light reactions (in thylakoid membrane)
 Absorb solar energy and produce NADH and
ATP, which are provided to the Calvin cycle to
reduce CO2
 Calvin cycle reactions (in stroma)
 Reduce carbon dioxide to a carbohydrate
CONNECTING THE CONCEPTS
 C4 and CAM are alternative means of supplying
RuBP carboxylase with CO2 while limiting its
exposure to oxygen.
 Photosynthesis keeps the biosphere functioning by
supplying energy to all organisms
 Organisms use cellular respiration, which occurs in
the mitochondria, to get energy out of
carbohydrates