Measurement by Velar

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By Velar H. Elias Measurement.
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1 By Velar H. Elias
Measurement

2 Introduction
CHAPTER ONE
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INTRODUCTION
Measurement: measurement means, to monitor a process or a
Buttons:
operation and using an instrument, express the parameter, quantity or
a variable in terms of meaningful numbers.
Measurement of a given parameter or quantity is the act or result of a
quantitative comparison between a prede ned standard and an
3
unknown quantity to be measured.
4 Evolution of Instruments I Cancel Download

Mechanical
Electrical
Electronic Instruments
Mechanical:
these instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. But
their disadvantage is that they are unable to respond rapidly to
measurements of dynamic and transient conditions.
5 Evolution of Instruments II
Electrical:
it is faster than mechanical, indicating the output are rapid than
mechanical methods. But it depends on the mechanical movement of
the meters. The response is between 0.5 to 24 seconds.
Electronic:
it is more reliable then other system. It uses semiconductor devices
and weak signal can also be detected.
6 Advantages of Electronic Measurement

Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the
electrical or electronic signals.
Electronic signals can be ampli ed, ltered, multiplexed, sampled and
measured.
Measured signals can be transmitted over long distance through
cables or radio links, without any loss of information.
Many measurements can be done simultaneously or in rapid
succession.
Electronic circuits can measure the events of very short duration.
Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of
reliability are the important features.
7 Performance Characteristics
/
Static Characteristics: the set of criteria de ned for the instruments,
which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with
time or mostly constant, i.e., do not vary with time is called static
characteristics. 
Dynamic Characteristics: when the quantity under measurement
changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study the dynamic
relations existing between input and output which is expressed as
di erential equations.
8 CALIBRATIONButtons:
calibration is the process of making an adjustment or making a scale
so that the reading on an instrument agree with the accepted and
certi ed standard.
Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the 3
standard) and the measurement using your instrument. Typically, the
accuracy of the standard should be ten times the accuracy of the
measuring device being tested. However, accuracy ratio of 3:1 is
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acceptable by most standards organizations.
In practice, calibration also includes repair of the device if it is out of
calibration.
9 CALIBRATION
Calibration of your measuring instruments has two objectives:
It checks the accuracy of the instrument
And it determines the traceability of the measurement.
Calibration improves the accuracy of the measuring device. Accurate
measuring devices improve product quality.
When should you calibrate your measuring device?
According to recommendation of the manufacturer.
After any mechanical or electrical shock.
Periodically (Daily, monthly, before use)
10 De nitions
Instrument: a device for determining the value or magnitude of a
quantity or variable.
Accuracy: closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the
true value of the variable being measured.
Precision: a measure of the reproducibility of the measurement i.e.,
given a xed value of a variable, precision is a measure of the degree
to which successive measurements di er from one another.
11 De nitions
Sensitivity: the ratio of output signal or response of the instrument to a
change of input or measured variable.
Resolution: the smallest change in measured value to which the
instrument will response.
Error: deviation from the true value of the measured variable. Several
techniques may be used to minimize the e ect of error.
/
the algebraic di erence between the indicated value and the true value
of the quantity to be measured is called an ERROR

12 Precision and accuracy comparison
Accuracy refers to the degree of closeness or conformity to the true
value at the quantity under measurement. Precision refers to the
degree of agreement within a group of measurements or instruments.
In critical work, good practice dictates that the observer make an
independent set of measurements, using di erent instruments or
di erent measurement techniques, not subject to the same systematic
Buttons:
errors. He must also make sure that the instruments function properly
and are calibrated against a known standard, and that no outside
in uence a ects the accuracy of his measurements.
3
13 Precision and accuracy comparison
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14 Sources of Errors Faulty design of instrument
Insu cient knowledge of quantity and design conditions
Improper maintenance of the instrument.
Sudden change in the parameter to the measured.
Unskilled operator
E ects of environmental conditions.
15 Errors
A study of errors is a rst step in nding way to reduce them.
Errors types:
Gross errors: Largely human errors, among them misreading of
instruments incorrect adjustment and improper application of
instruments, and computational mistakes.
Systematic errors: Short coming of the instruments, such as defective
or wrong parts, and e ective of environment on the equipment or the
user. (Instrument Error)
Random errors: these errors are due to unknown causes and occur
even when all systematic errors have been accounted for.
16 Gross Error: (Personal Errors)

Occurs due to carelessness of human while reading, recording and
calculating results.
Due to incorrect adjustments of instruments.
To eliminate error
Take care while reading, recording and calculating results.
Take 3 or more reading with 3 or more persons.
17 Systematic Error Types Instrumental error Environmental

error
Observational error
/
18 Systematic-Instrumental Errors
De ned as shortcoming of the instrument, and can be avoided by: 
Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement
application
Applying correction factors after determining the amount of
instrument error
Calibrating the instrument against the standard
Buttons:
19 Systematic-Environmental errors
Due to external conditions a ection the measurement, environmental
errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device,
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument, such 3as
the e ect of change in temperature, humidity, barometric pressure, or
of the magnetic or electrostatic elds
Systematic errors can also be subdivided into static or dynamicCancel
errors. Download
20 Systematic-Environmental errors
To eliminate the error:
Proper correction factors given by the manufacturer.
Make arrangements to keep surrounding constant .
Sealing the components to avoid dust, humidity
Providing magnetic or electrostatic shields
21 Observational errors Errors made by observes

Ex: parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection
To eliminate the error
Use instruments with mirrors
Knife edged pointers
22 Random errors
In well designed experiments, few random errors usually occur, but
they become important in high accuracy work.
The only way to o set these errors is by increasing the number of
readings and using statistical means to obtain the best approximation
of the true value of the quantity under measurement
They cannot be corrected by any method.
23 CHAPTER TWO UNITS, STANDARDS and INSTRUMENTS
24 UNITS
It is necessary to specify type and magnitude for the reading. Where
unit represents the type of the physical quantity and reading on the
instrument represents its magnitude.
Di erent system of units are
M.K.S
/
C.G.S
S.I (System International units)

25 System International Units (SI)
Quantity
Units
Symbol
Length
Meter
M Buttons:
Mass
Kilogram Electromagnetic
Kg Induction
Time 3
Second
S
Electrical current
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Ampere
A
Thermal temperature
Kelvin
K
Luminous intensity
Candela
cd
Amount of substance
Mole
mol
26 Table of units Name Symbol Equivalent Yotta Y 10^24 Zetta

Z 10^21 Exa
10^18
Peta
P
10^15
Tera
T
10^12
Giga
G
10^9
Mega
M
10^6
Kilo
K
10^3
Hecto
h
10^2
Deca
/
da 10
Deci
d
10^-1 
27 Table of Units Name Symbol Equivalent Centi c 10^-2 Mili m

10^-3 Micro
μ
10^-6
Nano Buttons:
n
10^-9 1 Chapter 1: Units and
Pico Dimensions SI
p 3 Mechanical Units –
10^-12 Fundamental Units Length:
Femto meter (m) Mass: kilogram
f (kg) Time: second (s) –
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10^-15 Derived Units Meter.
Atto
a
10^-18
Zepto
z
10^-21
Yocto
y
10^-24
28 UNITS Units categories Fundamental Units: Fundamental

Units
Supplementary Units
Derived Units
Fundamental Units:
Units which are independently chosen and not dependent on any
other units are called fundamental units of base units.
29 UNITS Primary fundamental units Auxiliary fundamental

units Length
Thermal
Mass
Electrical
Time
Illumination
Amount of substance
30 UNITS Supplementary Units: Derived Units:

Radian for the plane angle(θ,φ)
Plane angle subtended by an arc of a circle equal in length to the
radius of the circle. /
Derived Units:
These units are derived from fundamental and supplementary units.
Ex: velocity (m/s), acceleration (m/s2), force (N)

31 UNITS Table of some of the derived units Quantity Units

Symbol
Electrical capacitance
Farad (1C/1V)
F
Electrical charge Buttons:
Coulomb (1A.1Sec)
C
Electric conductance
Siemens (1/ohm) 3
S
Electric potential
Volt (1J/1C)
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V
Electric resistance
Ohm (V/A)
Ω
Energy
Joule (1N.1meter)
J
Force
Newton (1Kg*meter)/sec^2
N
Frequency
Hertz (1/sec)
Hz
Magnetic ux
Weber (Kg*meter^2)/(A*sec^2) = (1V*1sec)
Wb
Magnetic ux density
Tesla (V*sec/meter^2)
T
Plane angle
Radian (length of a corresponding arc of a unit circle)
rad
Power
Watt (1J/1Sec) (V^2 / Ω) = (A^2 * Ω)
W
32 Units Radian =360/2π degree=180/π degree

1 Coulomb = 6.28 *10^18 Electrons
Light speed = m/sec
What is mean by Unitless value?
Conversion of UNITS
33 English to SI unit conversion

English Units
/
Symbol
Metric equivalent
Length foot
1 inch 
ft in
30.48 cm
25.4 mm
Mass pound We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to
Lb kg download it, please recommend it to your friends in any social
Density lb/ft^3 system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!
kg/m^3
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Velocity ft/sec^2
m/sec^2
Force poundal
pdl 3
N
Work, energy 1 ft*pdl
J
Power horse-power Cancel Download
hp W
Temperature degree Fº
Fahrenheit
5(t-32)/9 Cº
34 STANDARDS Type of standards

a standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of
measurement.
a unit is realized by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to
natural phenomena including physical and atomic constant.
Type of standards
International standards
Primary standards
Secondary standards
Working standards
Just as there are fundamental and derived units of measurement, we
nd di erent types of standards of measurement, classi ed by their
function and application in the following categories.
35 International Standards
These standards are maintained at the (IBS) international bureau of
weights and measures and are periodically evaluated and checked by
absolute measurements.
These standards are not available for ordinary users for calibration.
For accuracy they are replaced by absolute units which are more
accurate than international standards.
36 Primary Standards
They are maintained at national standard laboratories in di erent
countries (NBS).
/
These standards represents fundamental units as well as electrical and
mechanical derived calibrated by absolute measurements at each
national laboratories.
Used for calibration and veri cation of secondary standards. 
37 Secondary Standards
Since primary standards are not available for outside users, various
industries need some reference.
They are used by measurement and calibration laboratories and are
maintained by the particular
Buttons: industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own standards
38 Working Standards 3
These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory.
Use to check and calibration for accuracy and performance or to
perform comparison measurements in industrial applications. Cancel Download
Ex: resistor industry maintains a standard resistor for checking the
values of manufactured resistors
39 IEEE Standards
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering standards are checking
of secondary standards.
Used for testing and evaluating of electronic systems and components.
The most important standards is (IEEE 488) digital interface for
programmable instrumentation for test and other equipment.
IEEE classi cation (word le)
40 Analog and Digital Instruments

An analogue instrument are the instrument that use analogue signal to
display the magnitude of quantity under measurement.
An analogue instrument gives an output that varies continuously as the
quantity being measured changes. The output can have an in nite
number of values within the range that the instrument is designed to
measure.
41 Analog and Digital Instruments

The digital instrument use digital signal to indicate the results of
measurement in digital form.
A digital instrument has an output that varies in discrete steps and so
can only have a nite number of values. like binary signal which take
only two levels zero and one.
42 Analog to Digital Converter ADC

Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an
analogue-to-digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue
output signal from the instrument into an equivalent digital quantity
/
that can be read into the computer.
This conversion has several disadvantages. Firstly, the A/D converter
adds a signi cant cost to the system. Secondly, a nite time is involved
in the process of converting an analogue signal to a digital quantity, 
and this time can be critical in the control of fast processes where the
accuracy of control depends on the speed of the controlling computer.

43 Electromechanical Instruments vs Digital measuring
Instruments
The electromechanical indicating instruments, cheap manually
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balanced bridge instruments or induction type watt-hour meters are
still present everywhere.
There are several advantages of traditional electromechanical
instruments: simplicity, reliability, low price. The most important 3
advantage is that the majority of such instruments can work without
any additional power supply.
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Instruments
Drawbacks of electromechanical analogue instruments:
they do not provide electrical output signal, thus there is a need for
operator’s activity during the measurement (at least for the reading of
an indicated value).
instruments generally use moving mechanical parts, which are
sensitive to shocks, aging or wearing out.

Instruments
Moreover without understanding of the principles of old analogue
measuring methods it can be di cult to understand usually more
complicated digital instruments which often use traditional principles
of operation.
46 Active and Passive Instruments

Active Instruments
– the quantity being measured simply modulates (adapts to) the
magnitude of some external power source.
Passive Instruments
– the instrument output is entirely produced by the quantity being
measured
Di erence between active & passive instruments is the level of
measurement resolution that can be obtained.

1. Active Instruments- e.g. Float-type petrol tank level indicator
/
1. Active Instruments- 
The change in petrol level moves a potentiometer arm, and the output
signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source applied
across the two ends of the potentiometer.
The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source:
the primary transducer oat system is merely modulating the value of
the voltage from this external power source.
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2. Passive Instruments- e.g. Pressure-measuring device
3

The pressure of the uid is translated into a movement of aCancel
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against scale.
The energy expanded in moving the pointer is derived entirely from
the change in pressure measured: there are no other energy inputs to
the system.

Another di erent is in resolution:
Passive instrument: Whilst it is possible to increase measurement
resolution by making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip
moves through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly
restricted by the practical limit of how long the pointer can
conveniently be.
Active instrument, however, adjustment of the magnitude of the
external energy input allows much greater control over measurement
resolution.

In terms of cost, passive instruments are normally of a more simple
construction than active ones and are therefore cheaper to
manufacture.
Therefore, choice between active and passive instruments for a
particular application involves carefully balancing the measurement
resolution requirements against cost.
53 Measuring Instruments
Classi ed measuring instruments in to two groups:
Absolute Instruments (Standard instruments)
Secondary Instruments
54 Absolute Instruments
/
These instruments gives the magnitude of quantity under
measurement in terms of physical constants of the instrument
e.g. Tangent Galvanometer. These instruments do not require
comparison with any other standard instrument 
These instruments give the value of the electrical quantity in terms of
absolute quantities (or some constants) of the instruments and their
de ections.
In this type of instruments no calibration or comparison with other
instruments is necessary.
Buttons:
55 Absolute Instruments
• They are generally not used in laboratories and are seldom used in
practice by electricians and engineers. They are mostly used as means
of standard measurements and are maintained lay national 3
laboratories and similar institutions.
• Some of the examples of absolute instruments are:
* Tangent galvanometer * Raleigh current balance * Absolute
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electrometer
57 Absolute instruments
Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small
electric currents. It consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on
a circular non-magnetic frame. Its working is based on the principle of
the tangent law of magnetism
An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric
charge or electrical potential di erence. The absolute electrometer was
rst proposed by Lord Kelvin
Raleigh current balance (or ampere balance), a device used to
reproduce the unit of electric current, the ampere. Made of
nonmagnetic materials.
58 Secondary Instruments
There are direct reading instruments.
These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument or another secondary instrument, they are used in general
for all laboratory purposes.
Therefore secondary instruments are most commonly used.
They are direct reading instruments. The quantity to be measured by
these instruments can be determined from the de ection of the
instruments.
Some of the very widely used secondary instruments are: ammeters,
voltmeter, wattmeter, energy meter (watt-hour meter), ampere-hour
meters etc.
Secondary instrument may be grouped on the basis of various e ects
of electric current as follows: /
Magnetic e ect (usually for Ammeters and Voltmeters)
Heating e ect (for Ammeters and Voltmeters)
Electromagnetic e ect (ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter, watt-hour
meter) 
Electrostatic e ect (for Voltmeters only)
Chemical e ect (DC Ampere-Hour meter

61 Secondary Instrument e ects
62 Secondary instruments
Buttons:
Secondary instruments can be classi ed due to the method of taking
reading from the instruments as follow:
Indicating Instruments
Recording instruments 3
Integrating instruments
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63 1. Indicating Instruments
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the instantaneous
value of the electrical quantity being measured at the time at which it is
being measured.
Their indications are given by pointers moving over calibrated dials.
The moving system is subjected to the following three torque forces:
De ecting (Torque) force
Controlling (Torque) force
Damping (Torque) force
64 1. A. De ecting Torque (Td)

The de ecting or operating torque which causes the moving system of
the instrument to move from its zero position by utilizing any one of
the e ects already measured (magnetic, electrostatic, thermal or
inductive …).
The de ection of the moving system would be inde nite if these were
no controlling or restoring torque.
65 1. B. Controlling Torque (Tc)

This torque is oppose the de ecting torque and increases with the
de ection of the moving system.
This force control and limits the de ection of the pointer on scale
which must be proportional to the measured value, and also ensure
that the magnitude of the de ection is always the same for the same
values of quantity.
Without such at torque, the pointer would swing over to the maximum
de ected position irrespective of the magnitude of the current to be
measured.
Absence of a restoring torque, the pointer one de ected, would not
return to its zero position
/
66 1. B. Controlling Torque Function of controlling torque:
It balance the de ecting torque,presentation
and insures that the magnitude of the 
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de ection is always same for a particular value of the quantity to be
measured.
It brings back the moving system
We think you (pointer)
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its zero position. If you wish to
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Tc=Td (Equilibrium) download
at measured (position)
it, please value.
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Controlling torque obtained be:
Controlling by Spring.
Controlling by Gravity.
Buttons:
67 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring

A hair spring (usually of phosphor-bronze) attached to the moving
3
system from one end and second end of the spring is xed.
With the de ection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite
direction. Cancel Download
The twist in the spring produce restoring torque which is directly
proportional to the angle of de ection of the moving system.
The pointer comes to a position of rest (equilibrium) when the
de ecting torque and controlling torque are equal.
Note that the controlling torque is in opposite direction to the
de ecting torque.

Td α I (Td=Kd * I)
And for spring control Tc α ϴ (Tc=Kc * ϴ)
As Tc =Td at measured value
ϴ α I ; ϴ Kc=I Kd ϴ= Kd / Kc * I
Then ϴ= K * I
Linear relation
Kd : de ecting constant
Kc : controlling constant
K : relation constant

Tc = Kc * ϴ
Tc Controlling torque
E Young’s modulus of spring material (Kg/m)
Td De ecting torque
L Total length of spring strip (m)
b Depth of the strip (m)
t Thickness of the strip (m)
ϴ Angular of de ection (rad)
I Moment of inertia of spring (m^4)
/
The control torque Download
is provided by two hair springs, coiled in opposite 
presentation
directions acting one against the other.
Equilibrium force of two springs equal to zero, therefore the pointer
remains at zero position.
Springs are made of such material which
Are non-magnetic
Are not subject to fatigue
Have low speci c resistance
Buttons:
Have low temperature-resistance coe cient
72 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring 3
73 1. B. II. Controlling Torque by Gravity

In Gravity controlled instruments a small weight is attached to the
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moving system such that the de ecting torque has to act against the
action of gravity. Thus the controlling torque is obtained.
The another weight is used for ZERO adjustment and balancing of the
moving system.
When the current ows through the instrument, the pointer de ects
through an angle ϴ. Controlling mass also de ect from its original by
an angle ϴ thus providing a control-line torque equal to the product of
the controlling weight and speci c distance.

Controlling torque is proportional to the sine of the angle of de ection:
Tc α sin ϴ Tc = W L sin ϴ
W =controlling weight
L = de ecting distance Kc=W L
Tc=Kc*sin ϴ and Td=Kd * I
At equilibrium
Tc =Td Kc sin ϴ = Kd * I
Then

This is nonlinear relation
Gravity control is not suited for the indicating modern instrument.
Instead spring control is used in almost all types of indicating
instruments.
77 Comparison between spring and gravity control

In Gravity the controlling torque increases very slow because it is
proportional to the sine of angular de ection. But in spring increases
very fast because the controlling torque is proportional to angle of
/
de ection.
Gravity instrument must used vertically, but spring instrument can be
used vertically and horizontally.
Gravity instrument must be leveled before being used. Otherwise there 
will be a serious zero error.
Gravity instruments has lower cost compared to spring instrument.

78 1. C. Damping torque
Due to the Inertia of the moving system, the pointer would oscillate
about its nal position for a long time before it comes to rest position
Buttons:
(steady state position).
To overcome these di culties, damping torque is essential.
A damping torque is act on the moving parts of the instrument only
when it is moving and its always opposed its motion. 3
A damping torque is necessary to bring the pointer to rest position
quickly.
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The degree of damping should be adjusted to a value which is
su cient to enable the pointer to rise quickly to de ected position
without overshooting .
If the instrument is under damping, the moving system oscillates a lot
before it nally settles down to its steady value.
In case of critically damped instruments, the pointer reaches its nal
steady position rapidly and smoothly (such an instrument is also called
dead-beat instrument).
An over damped instrument produces damping torque more than the
required value, as such the pointer moves slowly to its nal steady
value.
There are three types of damping torque
81 1. C. I. Air Friction Damping system
82 1. C. I. Air Friction Damping system

In the rst case, a thin aluminum vane moves in a sector shaped box.
The vane is contacted to the spindle of moving system.
In the second method, a light piston made of aluminum attached to
the moving system, moves in an air chamber closed at one end.
When the piston moves rapidly into the chamber, the air enclosed in
the chamber is compressed and pressured, thus developed, opposes
the motion of the moving system.
The motion of the moving system is again opposed by the air on the
open side to the piston, when it is moving out the chamber as the
pressure outside is greater than that on the operate side.
/
83 1. C. II. Fluid Friction Damping system

84 1. C. II. Fluid Friction Damping system
In this case the disc or vane attached to the spindle moves in a
damping oil. We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to
The oil used must ful ll the following
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it, please recommend it to your friends in any social
It should not evaporate quickly
It should not have any corrosive action upon metals.
Its viscosity should not change with temperature.
Buttons:
It should be good insulator.
In the rst system, a disc is immersed in the oil. The friction drag
developed during the motion of the disc attached to the moving
system always opposes the motion. 3
In second system, vans are used.
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85 1. C. III. Eddy Current Friction Damping system
86 1. C. III. Eddy Current Friction Damping system

This form is most e cient form of damping.
The essential component in this method is a permanent magnet and a
light disc of conducting materials, mostly of aluminum.
When a sheet of a conducting material moves in a magnetic eld, eddy
currents are induced in it, and a force is produced opposing the
motion.
This principle has been applied to provide damping torque in many
instrument.
Damping torque is directly proportional to the movement of the
moving system.
87 Types of Indicating Instruments
88 2. Recording Instruments
these instruments record continuously the variations of an electrical
quantity or physical quantities such as ow, pressure, temperature as a
function of time.
instruments like recording devices, X-Y plotter, and oscilloscope.
89 3. Integrating Instruments
These instruments measure the total amount of quantity of electricity
(Ampere-Hour) or the total energy (Watt-Hour) supplied to a circuit
over speci ed period.
These type of energy meters is used both for AC and DC.
90 CHAPTER THREE INSTRUMETS
91 Ammeters and Voltmeters

/
The operation principles of ammeters and voltmeters are the same,
and hence both these meters are discussed together.
In all types of ammeter, the de ecting torque is produced by the
current to be measured. 
For voltmeters, the de ecting torque is also produced by the same
current, which is proportional to the voltage being measured.

Ammeters are used to measure the current owing in a circuit, as such
these are connectedButtons:
in series with the circuit.
The voltage drop across the terminals of the ammeter should be as low
as possible, so that the power consumed by the meter is small. Hence
the resistance of the ammeter should be very low.
3

Voltmeters are used in a circuit for the measurement of voltage across
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any two points of the circuit.
Thus these are connected in parallel with the circuit.
When connected in a circuit, the voltmeter must draw a very small
current, so that the power consumption of the meter is small. The
resistance of the voltmeters should be very high.
94 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeters and voltmeters are
used for measuring current and voltage respectively in dc systems.
The PMMC type instrument uses two permanent magnets in order to
create stationary magnetic eld.
And it consists of a moving coil suspended between the poles of a
horseshoe type permanent magnet is called the D’Arsonval meter.

This design o ers the largest magnet in a given space and is used
when maximum ux in the air gap is required.
Also, Shoe poles are curved to have a uniform magnetic eld through
the coil.
It provides an instrument with very low power consumption and low
current required for full scale de ection (fsd).
97 PMMC construction
(a) Stationary part or magnet system: In the present time we use
magnets of high eld intensities, high coercive force instead of using U
shaped permanent magnet having soft iron pole pieces.
(b) Moving coil: The moving coil can freely moves between the two
permanent magnets as shown in the gure given below. The coil is
wound with many turns of copper wire and is placed on rectangular
/
aluminum which is pivoted on jeweled bearings.
98 PMMC construction

(c) Control system: The spring generally acts as control system for
PMMC instruments. The spring also serves another important function
by providing the path to lead electric current in and out of the coil.
(d) Damping system: The damping force hence torque is provided by
movement of aluminum former in the magnetic eld created by the
permanent magnets.
(e) Meter: Meter of these instruments consists of light weight pointer to
Buttons:
have free movement and scale which is linear or uniform and varies
with angle.
3
99 Error in PMMC instruments
(a) Errors due to permanent magnets: Due to temperature e ects and
aging of the magnets the two magnet may lose their magnetismCancel to Download
some extent. The magnets are generally aged by the heat and vibration
treatment.
(b) Error may appear in PMMC Instrument due to the aging of the
spring. However the error caused by the aging of the spring and the
errors caused due to permanent magnet are opposite to each other,
hence both the errors are compensated with each other.
(c) Change in the resistance of the moving coil with the temperature:
Generally the temperature coe cients of the value of coe cient of
copper wire in moving coil is very low. Due to lower value of
temperature coe cient the temperature rises at faster rate and hence
the resistance increases. Due to this signi cant amount of error is
caused.
100 Advantages of PMMC instruments

(1) High sensitivity
(2) The scale is uniformly divided as the electric current is directly
proportional to de ection of the pointer. Hence it is very easy to
measure quantities from these instruments.
(3) Power consumption is also very low in these types of instruments.
(4) Higher value of torque is to weight ratio.
(5) These are having multiple advantages, a single instrument can be
used for measuring various quantities by using di erent values of
shunts and multipliers.
101 Disadvantages of PMMC instruments

(1) These instruments cannot measure ac quantities.
(2) Cost of these instruments is high as compared to moving iron
instruments.
(3) develop errors due to ageing of control springs and permanent
magnets.
/
102 Moving Iron Instruments
Moving iron type instruments 
Downloadare of mainly two types. Attraction type
presentation
and repulsion type instrument.
Whenever a piece of iron is placed nearer to a magnet it would be
attracted by the magnet.
The force of this attraction
downloaddepends
it, pleaseupon the strength
recommend of magnetic
it to your friends in any social
eld. system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!
If the magnet is electromagnet then the magnetic eld strength can
easily be increased Buttons:
or decreased by increasing or decreasing electric
current through its coil.
Accordingly the attraction force acting on the piece of iron would also
be increased and decreased. Depending upon this attraction the
moving iron instrument was developed. 3
103 Moving Iron Instrument

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As well as measuring d.c. signals, the moving-iron meter can also
measure a.c. signals at frequencies up to 125 Hz.
The signal to be measured is applied to a stationary coil, and the
associated eld produced is often ampli ed by the presence of an iron
structure associated with the xed coil.
The moving element in the instrument consists of an iron vane that is
suspended within the eld of the xed coil.
When the xed coil is excited, the iron vane turns in a direction
that increases the ux through it.

Advantages
They can be used for both DC and AC circuits.
They robust and cheaper
Disadvantage
E ect of frequency variations
Power consumption is more
Low accuracy.
Note: the current is proportional to the voltage to be measured.
106 Moving Iron (Attraction type)

A thin disc of soft coil iron (moving iron) is pivoted at the end of the
core of the coil (current carrying).
When the current being measured ows in the coil, a uniform magnetic
eld is produced inside the coil and in the direction of the axes of the
coil.
the moving iron tends to move from the weaker magnetic eld outside
the coil into the stronger eld inside it.
Whatever the direction of current through the coil, the iron disc would
always be magnetized in such a way that it is pulled inwards.
And cause the pointer to de ect. /
107 Moving Iron (Repulsion type)
If two pieced or (Vanes) of soft iron are mounted close together inside 
a coil and current is passed through the coil, the iron vane are
magnetized, with north poles at one end and south poles at the other.
Repulsion takes place between
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108 Theory of Buttons:

operation of the moving iron instruments
A general expression for the torque of a moving iron instrument may
be derived by considering the energy relations when there is a small
increment in current applied to that instrument.
3
Therefore, there will be a small de ection (dϴ) of the pointer with
mechanical torque (Td).
The applied voltage on the coil (e) = - induced emf
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109 Theory of operation of the moving iron instruments

Let the initial current is Io, the instrument inductance L, and de ection
ϴ.
If the current increases by dI, the de ection changes by dϴ, and the
inductance by dL.
ϴ = IL/N
dϴ : change in the position of the moving iron due to the changing in
ux.
dt : time taken for the above change
N : number of turns of the coil

Then :-
Multiplying both side
of equation with (I)
power drawn from the supply = e.I (W)
The de ection torque is proportional to the square of the
measured current.
And, the scale of instrument is non-uniform,

For an excitation current I, the torque produced that cause the vane to
turn is given by
Where L is the mutual inductance and ϴ is the angular de ection.
Rotation is opposed by a
Spring that produced a backwards torque given by:
At equilibrium, Td=Tc, and ϴ is therefore given by:
From the last equation
I : in Amp.
L : in Henry
ϴ : in Rad
/

114 EX1/
A 250-volt moving download
iron voltmeter takes
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0.05A when
friends in any social
connected to a 250system.
volt DCShare
supply. The coil has an inductance of 1
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Henry. Determine the reading on the meter when connected to a 250
Buttons:
volt, 100 Hz AC supply.
Ex2/
The change of the inductance for a moving-iron ammeter is
2μH/degree. The control spring constant is (5*10^-7 N.m/degree). The
maximum de ection of the pointer is 100 ͦ , what is the current 3
corresponding to the maximum de ection
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115 Suspension Galvanometer Ballistic Galvanometer
116 Introduction
Early measurements of Direct Current (DC) required a suspension
galvanometer.
This instrument was the former of the moving coil instrument, basic to
most DC indicating movements currently used.
A coil of ne wire is suspended in a magnetic eld produced by a
permanent magnet.
The coil will rotate in the magnetic eld when it carries an electric
current.
117 Introduction
the coil de ection is a measure of the magnitude of the current carried
by the coil.
The coil continue to de ect until its electromagnetic torque balances
the mechanical counter torque of the suspension.
118 Introduction
The suspension galvanometer is still used certain high sensitivity
laboratory measurements when the accuracy of the instrument is not
objectionable and portability is not required.
Galvanometer are used to indicate or measure small current in bridge
circuits, potentiometers and other measuring equipment.
119 Torque and De ection of the Galvanometer

Steady-State De ection
Dynamic Behavior
120 Steady-State De ection

/
The principle working of galvanometer represented by PMMC .
The basic movement often called the d’Arsonval movement after its
inventor.
When the current ows in the coil, the developed electromagnetic (EM) 
torque causes the coil to rotate.
The EM torque is counterbalanced by the mechanical torque of control
springs attached to the movable coil.
The balance of torque and therefore the angular position of the
movable coil, is indicated by a pointer against a xed reference, called
a scale.
Buttons:

The equation of developed torque is:
T=BAIN 3
T: torque in N.M.
B: ux density in the air gap in weber/m (Tesla)
A: e ective coil area in m^2.
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I: current in the movable coil in amperes A.
N: turns of wire on the coil.

The developed torque is a direct indication of the current in the coil.
This torque causes the pointer to de ect to a steady-state position
where it is balanced by the opposing control spring torque.
123 Dynamic Behavior

If current is passed through the coil to give it a de ection and then the
circuit is opened, the coil swing back toward the zero position.
The oscillation decrease slowly and last for a considerable time unless
something is done to provide a damping e ect.

The motion of a moving coil in a magnetic eld is characterized by
three quantities:
The moments of inertia (J) of the moving coil about its axis of rotation.
The opposing torque (S) developed by the coil suspension.
The damping constant (D).
If the coil is de ected to an initial ϴ, and then allowed to swing freely,
we may write for the torque acting on it:
Acceleration torque + damping torque + suspension torque =0

Quadric equation
/
There are three possible cases, depending on the quantity under the
root:
Case I:
Case II: 
Case III:
Roots real and unequal
Roots conjugate-complex
Roots real and equal

Buttons:
128 Working of suspended galvanometer

T=nIAB sinϴ
When ϴ =90 degree, the eld is called radial eld 3
Then T=nIAB
And this torque twist the suspension strip
Restoring torque (of twisted strip)Tc=Kϴ
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K is the restoring torque per unit twist
When at equilibrium restoring torque =de ection torque.
nIAB=Kϴ
I=Kϴ / nAB I=Gϴ
G is the galvanometer constant G=K/nAB
Then Iαϴ
129 Ex/
A PMMC instrument has a coil of dimension (10mm*8mm). The ux
density in the air gap is 0.15Wb/m² . If the coil wound for 100 turns,
carrying a current of 5mA . Then calculate the de ection torque .
Calculating the de ection if the spring constant is (0.2*10^-6
N.m/degree)
130 Ballistic Galvanometer

if the control springs of such an instrument are purposely made of
large moment of inertia, then it can be used as ballistic galvanometer.
Constructionaly, it is similar to a moving-coil galvanometer except that:
It has extremely small electromagnetic damping
Has long period of undamped oscillation (several second).
These conditions are necessary if the galvanometer is to measure
electric charge rather than current.
for the large moment of inertia permits the passage of a quantity of
charge before the coil moves signi cantly.

The passage of the charge produces an impulse, a momentary torque,
which causes the coil then to swing slowly to some maximum position.
Such a galvanometer was often used to standardize capacitors. Ballistic
galvanometer is a type of mirror galvanometer.
Unlike a current measuring galvanometer, the moving part has a large
moment of inertia, thus giving it a long oscillation period. /
It is really an integrator measuring the quantity of charge discharged
through it.

In fact, the moment of inertia of the coil is made so large that whole of
the charge passes through
We think the
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passing through the galvanometer.
After this swing hasButtons:
been observed, the oscillation coil may be rapidly
brought to rest by using eddy-current damping.
i.e. the coil moves after the charge to be measured has passed through
it. Obviously, during the movement of the coil, there is no current
owing through it. 3

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135 Classi cation of magnetic material

All materials possess magnetic properties to a greater or lesser degree
and these are determined by the facts that
Magnetic eld exerts forces and torques on the bodies
A body placed in a magnetic eld distorts the eld.
The magnetic properties of the materials are characterized by relative
Permeabilities. In accordance with the value of relative permeability
the materials may be classi ed in the following three ways:
136 1) Ferromagnetic materials:

The relative permeability of these materials are much greater than
unity and are dependent on the eld strengths. They attract the lines
of force strongly g1. The principal ferromagnetic elements are iron,
cobalt, nickel. However, also comes under this classi cation. These
have high susceptibility.
Binside=Km *Bexternal added
Km is material constant
Km >>>1 near to
137 2) Paramagnetic materials:

These have relative permeability slightly greater than unity and are
magnetized slightly. They attract the lines of force weakly g1.
Aluminum, platinum, and oxygen belong to this category.
Km >=1
138 3) Diamagnetic materials:

The relative permeability of these materials is slightly less than unity.
They repel the lines of force slightly g1. The examples are bismuth,
silver, copper, and hydrogen.
Km<=1
/
139 Diamagnetic, paramagnetic, Ferromagnetic

140 Classi cation of magnetic measurements
Measurements of various magnetic phenomena are called magnetic
measurements. We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to
The magnetic measurements and recommend
download it, please a thorough it toknowledge
your friendsof
in any social
characteristics of magnetic materials are of signi cant importance in
designing and manufacturing electrical equipment.
Buttons: are more inaccurate than other types of
The magnetic measurements
measurements in electrical engineering due to the following reasons:
The magnetic ux cannot be measured directly, because it didn’t have
a de nite path
The magnetic materials are not homogeneous. 3
141 In magnetic measurements, the principal requirements

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are
Measurement of magnetic eld strength in air
Determination of B-H curve and hysteresis loop for soft ferromagnetic
materials
Determination of eddy current and hysteresis losses of soft
ferromagnetic materials
Testing of permanent magnets
142 Di nitions B: is ux density in a spacemen of

ferromagnetic material
H: is magnetizing force produce the ux density
The ux density B is measured by a ballistic galvanometer or a
uxmeter which is a special type of ballistic galvanometer. (ballistic
galvanometer and uxmeter does not measure B in magnetic material
directly, instead measures the changes in the ux)
Magnetic force H is measured by permeameter
143 Di nitions
Magnetomotive force: it is that force which drives or tends to drive the
ux through a magnetic circuit of number of conductors N and current
I passing through them (mmf=NI)
Similar to the way that electromotive force (EMF) drives a current of
electrical charge in electrical circuits, magnetomotive force (MMF)
'drives' magnetic ux through magnetic circuits.
144 EMF
145 Types of tests:

The following tests are normally carried out on ring specimens of the
ferromagnetic materials although bar specimens are much easier to
construct.
/
The study of magnetic measurements has been divided into three
categories:
Dc tests
Ac tests 
Steady state tests

146 DC. Tests These tests are often termed as “ballistic tests”
These are used for system.
determining
Shareof G-H curves
buttons and hysteresis
are a little loop of
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ferromagnetic materials.
These tests provideButtons:
an adjustable MMF on the magnetic circuit and a
ballistic galvanometer of ux meter for measurement of ux density.
147 AC. Tests 3

These tests may be carried at power, audio or radio frequencies.
AC . tests are used to determine iron losses or core losses in strip
(sheet) material when it is subjected to alternating eld Cancel Download
These losses can be separated into hysteresis losses and eddy current
losses
The strip material is assembled as a close magnetic circuit in the form
of square.
There are two types of squares: (1) Epstein square and (2) Lloyd Fisher
square
148 Steady state tests

These are used to measure the steady state value of ux in the air gap
of magnetic circuit.
149 1) Ballistic Tests (or DC. tests)

These test are used for :
Determination of ( ux / ux density) in specimen
Determining of B-H curves
Plotting of hysteresis loop
150 A) Measuring of Flux / Flux density

The ring specimen is wound with a magnetizing winding carries a
current I
A search coil (known as B coil) of convenient number of turns is wound
on the specimen and connected through a resistance and calibrating
coil, to a ballistic galvanometer as shown.
The current through the magnetizing coil is reversed and therefore the
ux linkages of the search coil change inducing an e.m.f. (e) in it. This
e.m.f. sends a current through the ballistic galvanometer causing it to
de ect.
/
Φ = ux linking withDownload
search coil presentation 
R = resistance of the ballistic galvanometer circuit
N = number of turns in the search coil
t = time taken to reverse the you
We think ux have liked this presentation. If you wish to
average emf induced in the search
download coil recommend it to your friends in any social
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And the average current through
system. Sharethe ballistic
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Buttons:
153 Measurement of value of magnetizing force (H)
The value of H inside a specimen can be calculated from the formula,
given by:
i.e., ampere .turns / meter
3
N = number of turns in the specimen
I = current owing through the specimen
l = mean circumference of the ring (m) Cancel Download

H can also be determined from measurements made outside the
specimen from the equation
Where
B ( ux density)
A is cross section aria of the specimen

Flux
ϴ1 is the throw of the galvanometer
Gq is the constant of galvanometer expressed in coulomb per unit
de ection
Gq * ϴ1 is the charge indicated by the galvanometer
That is H cannot be measured directly

Thus the magnetising force of a constant magnetic eld can be
measured indirectly by a ballistic galvanometer and a search coil as
shown in g.
The search coil as positioned in gure, measures the value of ux
density Bo in air.
157 B) Determination of B-H curve

The following two methods are available for the determination of B-H
curve of a specimen:
Method of reversal
Step-by-step method
/
158 B-1) Method of Reversal The circuit 11.8
For determination Download
of B-H curve, a ring shaped specimen whose 
presentation
dimensions are know is used
A layer of thin tape is put on the ring and a search coil insulated by wax
is wounded over theWe tape. Another
think you have layer of this
liked tapspresentation.
is put over the search
If you wish to
coil and the magnetizing winding
download is uniformly
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The circuit 11.8 system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!
The B-H curve may be plotted from the measured values of B
corresponding to the various value of H.
Buttons:
159 B-1) Method of Reversal Procedure:

First of all the specimen is demagnetized and then magnetizing current
3
I is set to its lower value .
The ballistic galvanometer key K is closed and the reversing switch S is
operated about twenty times backward and forward. This is Cancel
done to Download
bring the specimen into a Reproducible cyclic magnetic state
Key K is now opened and the value of ux corresponding to this value
of H is measured by reversing the switch S and noting the throw of
galvanometer. The value of ux density corresponding to this H can be
calculated by dividing the ux by the area of the speciment
The above procedure is repeated for various values of H upto the
maximum testing point.
160 B-2) Step-by-step method

The special feature of this method of determining of B-H curve is that
there is no reversal of magnetizing current.
Connection diagram is 11.8, except that the direct current is now
supplied to the magnetizing coil through a potential divider having a
number of tapping as shown

Procedure:
The tapping switch S2 is set on tapping 1 and switch S1 is closed. The
throw of galvanometer corresponding to this increase in ux density in
the specimen, from zero to some value B1 is observed. The value of B1
can be calculated from the throw of the galvanometer. The value of the
corresponding magnetizing force H1 may be calculated from the value
of current owing in the magnetizing winding at tapping 1.
The magnetizing force is then increased suddenly to H2 by suddenly
changing the position of switch S2 from tapping 1 to tapping 2 and the
corresponding increase the ux density is determined from the
galvanometer throw observed. The ux density B2 corresponding to
magnetizing force H2 will be equal to B1 +ΔB (increase in ux density),
determined from the galvanometer throw.
The process is repeated for other value of H to the maximum point and
complete B-H curve is obtained as gure below:
/

163 C) Determination of Hysteresis loop
Similar to determination of B-H curve, there are two methods for
determination of hysteresis
We thinkloop
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have liked this material specimen:
presentation. If you wish to
Method of reversalsdownload it, please recommend it to your friends in any social
Step-by-step methodsystem. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!
Buttons:
164 C-1) Method of reversals:
R1, R2, and R3 are the variable resistances for adjusting the resistances
in the ballistic galvanometer and magnetizing coil circuits, R4 is a
3
variable shunting resistance, which can be connected across the
magnetizing coil by means of switch S2 thus reducing the magnetizing
current from its maximum value down to any desired value depending
upon the value of R4. Cancel Download

Procedure: refer to gures and 11.13
The value of magnetizing force Hmax required to procedure ux
density Bmax to be used during the test is obtained from the B-H curve
of the specimen
The resistance R2 and R3 are adjusted to give such a current in the
magnetizing coil that magnetizing force Hmax (determined from B-H
curve) is produced with S2 in ‘o ’ position. The resistance in the
galvanometer circuit R1 is adjusted to obtain suitable de ection in
ballistic galvanometer on reversing the maximum magnetizing current.
The shunting resistance R4 is adjusted to give required reduction in
magnetizing current when connected across magnetizing winding.
The reversing switch RS2 is placed on contacts (1,1’) and ballistic
galvanometer is connected to the circuit by opening short-circuiting
key K. the value of Bmax is determined corresponding to Hmax from
the de ection of galvanometer observed on reversing switch RS2 and
point A on the hysteresis loop in obtained Fig
The switch S2 is then thrown from o position to contact b in order to
connect resistance R4 across the magnetizing winding and reduce the
magnetizing force to HK. the corresponding reduction in ux density
ΔB is obtained from the galvanometer throw and thus point K is
obtained on the loop.

The galvanometer is then short circuited by closing key K and reversing
switch RS2 is reversed to contacts (2,2’). Switch S2 is moved to the ‘o ’
position and reversing switch S2 is moved back to contacts (1,1’). This
procedure passes the specimen through the cycle of magnetization
and back to point A.
/
167 Determination of leakage factor in Dynamo-electric
machinery 
In dynamo-electric machine, the leakage factor is de ned as:
Where “useful ux” is the ux in the ARMATURE (i.e., ux crossing the
air gap) We think you have liked this presentation. If you wish to
And “total ux” in the pole bodies
download which
it, please in turn is equal
recommend to the
it to your (useful
ux + leakage ux) existing on the pole body at its root.
Thus in order to measure the leakage factor, we have to measure the
ux in the pole bodies and ux in the armature.
Buttons:
For measurement of leakage factor the (Flux meter) is used,
Ballistic galvanometer is unsuitable due to high inductance of the eld
system of the machine.
3

machinery Cancel Download

machinery
Procedure
The yoke carries HALF of the total ux and therefore it is possible to
measure the value of “Total Flux per pole” by using two “search coils”
on the yoke and connecting them in series across the uxmeter.
The armature is kept stationary and another “search coil” is put on it.
the coil is so positioned that it embraces the “useful ux per pole”. The
search coil is then connected to the uxmeter and this way the “Useful
Flux” is measured.
170 Testing BAR specimens of magnetic materials

The preparation of ring specimens is di cult while bar specimens are
easier to construct.
The di cult in bar specimen are in inaccuracies and encountered.
Because the return circuit for the ux is through air whose resistance is
very high.
Magnetizing force H=Ha-Hd
Ha = applied magnetizing force
Hd = the magnetizing force due to self-demagnetisation or end e ect
171 Testing BAR specimens of magnetic materials
172 Lloyd- sher square for measuring iron loss

AC magnetic testing
The AC magnetic testing is carried out for the following purposes:
To determine the iron losses in magnetic materials at di erent values
of ux density and frequency.
To separate two components of iron losses i.e. eddy current losses and
hysteresis losses
/
Iron losses 
When ferromagnetic materials are subjected to an alternating eld,
power loss due to hysteresis e ects and eddy currents occurs.
Hysteresis loss: ThisWeloss depends
think you haveupon thethis
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presentation. If you wish to
ux density of the magnetic
downloadeld to which
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recommend it toisyour
subjected.
Eddy current loss: system.
this loss depends
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variation of ux with time, frequency and maximum ux density of the
magnetic eld to which the specimen is subjected.
Buttons:

Factors a ecting premeability and hysteresis loss:
3
Generally if the initial permeability is high, the hysteresis loss is low
and vice versa.
The permeability and the hysteresis loss depend upon the following
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conditions:
Physical condition of the sample
Chemical purity of the sample
When the crystrals of a ferromagnetic material are cold worked, they
experience deformation as a result of which the material has very poor
magnetic properties.
The impurity content of the material exercises a limit on the highest
magnetic permeability and the lowest hysteresis loss that can be
obtained.
The main impurities in the magnetic materials used for transformer
cores and electrical machinery are carbon, oxygen, ..

Methods of measurement of iron losses:
The following methods are used to measure iron losses in
ferromagnetic materials
Wattmeter method..
AC bridge methods
AC potentiometer method
Oscillographic method

Wattmeter method
This is perhaps the method of measuring the total loss is sheet steel
with alternating current
The sheet material to be tested is arranged in the form of a magnetic
square [of which there are several forms, Epstein being the originator
of the arrangement] with xed magnetizing and search coils into which
the strips of sheet material to be tested are slipped and clamped.
The clamping arrangement should be such that air gaps in the circuits
are reduced to a minimum possible.
The windings extend as far as possible along the whole length of the
side and reasonable approximation to uniform ux density is obtained. /
A--Wattmeter method-Epstein 
Downloadsquare
presentation
It consists of four stacks of strips. These stacks are bound and then
taped
The individual stripsWe
arethink
insulated fromliked
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in to
the plane of the square
The stacks are slipped into
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projecting beyond the coils
The ends of the strips are interleaved (as in the construction of
Buttons:
transformer core) and clamped at corners.
178 Lloyd- sher square for measuring iron loss 3

A--Wattmeter method-Epstein square
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B--Wattmeter method-Lloyd- sher square
Each strip (usually 0.25mm long and 50 to 60 mm wide) is
perpendicular to the plane of the square. The strips are built up into
four stacks which are placed inside four similar magnetizing coils of
large cross-sectional area. These four coils are connected in series to
form the primary winding.
Each magnetizing coil has two similar single layer coils underneath it;
these are called secondary coils. These secondary coils are connected
in series in group of four, one from each core, to form two separate
secondary windings.
The magnetic circuit is completed by bringing the four stacks together
in the form of a square and joining them at the corners. The corner
joints are made by a set of standard right angled corner pieces.
There is an overlapping of corner pieces and strips at the corners due
to which cross-section of iron is doubled at the corners; therefore, a
correction must be applied for this. Also the measured losses has to be
corrected for loss in the corner pieces.


Advantages:
This square gives rather more reliable than Epstein square, in case
allowance for corner pieces is known with adequate accuracy
The use of corner pieces in this type of square makes it superior for
testing anisotropic material.

/
Setup for the test
Figure below shows the connection diagram for nding the total iron
loss by wattmeter method:
The test specimen is weighed before assembly and its cross-sectional 
area is determined.
The primary winding, which contains the current coil of the wattmeter,
is connected to an AC supply.
The test specimen has two secondary windings s1 and s2, s1 is
connected to the pressure coil of the wattmeter through switch k2. S2
is connected to an electrostatic voltmeter or an electrodynamics
voltmeter of very high impedance. The supply frequency is adjusted to
Buttons:
the correct value.
The voltage applied to the primary winding is adjusted, till the
magnetizing current adjusted to give the required value of Bmax . the
readings of the wattmeter and voltmeter are observed. 3

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184 Hibbert’s magnetic standard:

A is a circular bar permanent magnet. B is an iron Yoke. the Narrow
gap between A and B is about 2 mm. A brass tube containing known
number of turns is allowed to fall though the air gap. The ends of the
coil are brought to the terminals of brass tube which are connected to
the ballistic galvanometer. The brass tube is allowed to gall by a trigger
under gravity vertically downwards by means of a guide.

As the coil passes through the air gap it is cut by lines of force and emf
will be induced in the coil. This emf will drive current through the
ballistic galvanometer B.G. giving a throw on the scale depending on
the quantity of electricity discharged. The number of turns on the brass
tube can be varied from 3 to 100.

It consists of a block of hard steel with a cylindrical slot cut in it. The
block is magnetized so that the eld is radial. A brass tube has a single
layer of coil of n turns wound upon it with its ends connected to the
terminals T1 and T2. The brass tube which can freely slide into the slot
is always dropped into slot from a certain xed height. The magnetic
ux between the north and south poles of the magnet is determined
using a solenoid inductor. The two terminals T1 and T2 are conducted
to a B.G., through a resistance box R and commentator. A resistance
R1 is introduced in the resistance box. The brass tube is now dropped
into the slot between the north and south poles. The change in
magnetic ux linked with the coil is Φn where Φ is the magnetic ux in
the Hibbert’s standard. /
Let G = resistance ofDownload
the B.G., and the coil. Induced charge in the coil} 
presentation
= Φn / (R1 +G) Let θ1 be the corrected rst throw in the B.G., due to
the ow of this charge. Then = Φn / (R1 +G) = Kθ1 …
(1) Now, another resistance R2 ishave
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download The meanrecommend
it, please corrected throw θ1 is
it to your found.
Then, Φn / (R2 +G) = Kθ2 … (2) From (1)
system. Share buttons are a little bit lower. Thank you!and (2),
K = Φn / (R2 - R1) (1/θ1 – 1/ θ2) … (3)
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190 DC Ammeters (Shunt resistor)
3
The basic movement of a DC ammeter is a PMMC galvanometer, since
the coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only
very small currents. Cancel Download
When a large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to bypass
the major part of the current through a resistance, called a shunt.

Calculation of shunt resistance
Rm = internal resistance of the movement (the coil)
Rs=resistance of the shunt ?
Im=full-scale de ection current of the movement
Is=shunt current
I = full-scale current of the ammeter including the shunt
Vshunt =Vmovement
IsRs=ImRm
Since Is=I-Im
-
193 DC Ammeters (Ayrton Shunt)

The current range of the DC ammeter may be extended by a number
of shunts, selected by a Range Switch. Such a meter called a Multirange
Ammeter.
194 DC Voltmeter (Multiplier Resistaor)

The addition of a series resistor, or multiplier. Convert the basic
d’Arsonval movement into a DC voltmeter. The multimeter limits the
current through the movement so as not to exceed the value f the full-
scale de ection current (Ifsd).
V=Im(Rs-Rm)
/
197 Shunt type Ohmmeter
198 Shunt type Ohmmeter E = internal battery voltage


R1 = current-limitingDownload
resistor presentation
Rm = internal resistance of the movement
1)
199 Shunt typedownload
Ohmmeter it, please recommend it to your friends in any social
system.
2) For any value of Rx: Sharecurrent
the meter buttons are a little
decrease and bitislower. Thank you!
given by:
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3) The meter current for any value of Rx, expressed as a fraction of the
full-scale current is: The meter can be calibrated by calculating S 3in
terms of Rx, R1, and Rm.
Cancel Download
4) H.M Calculate the external resistance that causing half-scale
de ection of pointer (shunt type Ohmmeter).
202 Multimeter or VOM

This instrument, which contains a function switch to connect the
appropriate circuits to the d’Arsonval movement, is often called a
multimeter or volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM).
203 AC Indicating Instruments

The d’Arsonval movement responds to the average or DC value of the
current through the moving coil. If the movement current carries an AC
with positive and negative half-cycles, the driving torque would be in
one direction for the positive alternation and in the other direction for
the negative alternation.
For very low frequency, the pointer would swing around the zero point
on the meter scale.
For high frequency, the inertia of the coil is so great that the pointer
cannot follow the rapid reversals of the driving torque and hovers
around the zero mark, vibrating slightly.
To measure AC on a d’Arsonval movement some means must be
devised to obtain a unidirectional torque. First is recti cation of the AC,
and second is using heating e ect of the AC to produce an indication of
its magnitude.
204 Recti er –Type instruments

Recti er converts AC into a unidirectional DC and then to use a DC
movement to indicate the value of the recti ed AC.
This method is very attractive, because a DC movement generally has a
higher sensitivity than either the electrodynamometer or moving-iron
instrument.
Recti er type use PMMC movement combined with recti er. /

Because of the inertia of the moving coil, the meter steady de ection
proportional to the average
We thinkvalue of the
you have current.
liked this presentation. If you wish to
Since alternating current and voltage are expressed itintorms
download it, please recommend yourvalues, the
meter scale is calibrated in terms of the rms value of a sinusoidal
waveform.
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Form-Factor
3
For a sinusoidal waveform
The form is therefore also the factor by which the actual (average) dc
current is multiplied to obtain the equivalent rms scale marking.
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208 Recti er-type Instrument

The idea recti er element should have zero forward and in nite
reverse resistance.
In practice, the recti er is a nonlinear device.
At low values of forward current, the recti er operate in extremely
nonlinear part of its characteristic curve, and the resistance is large as
compared to the resistance at higher current value.
The lower part of the AC scale of a low-range voltmeter is therefore
often crowded, and most manufacturers provide a separate low-
voltage scale, calibrated especially for this purpose.

The resistance of the recti er element changes with varying
temperature.
The meter accuracy is usually satisfactory under normal operating
conditions at room temperature and is generally on the order of ±5%
of full scale reading for sinusoidal waveforms.
If large temperature variations are expected, the meter should be
enclosed in a temperature-controlled box.
Frequency also a ects the operation of the recti er elements.
The recti er exhibits capacitive properties and tend to bypass the
higher frequencies.
Meter reading may be in error as much as 0.5% decrease for every
1KHz rise in frequency.
211 Electrodynamometer
Electrodynamometer is the one of the most important AC movement,
used in accurate AC voltmeters and ammeters, not only at the
powerline frequency but also in the lower audio-frequency range.
/
With some slight modi cation, can be used as a wattmeter, a
VARmeter, a power-factor meter, or a frequency meter.
May also serve as a transfer instrument, because it can be calibrated
on DC and then used directly on AC. 
The d’Arsonval movement uses a permanent magnet to provide the
magnetic eld in which the movable coil rotates.
The electrodynamometer uses the current under measurement to
We think
produce the necessary eld you
ux. have liked this presentation. If you wish to
Buttons:
A xed coil, split into two equal halves, providing the magnetic eld in
which the movable coil rotates.
The two halves are connected in series with moving coil and are fed by
current under measurement. 3
Like d’Arsonval movement, its rotation is controlled by a springs.
And damping is provided by aluminum air vanes, moving in sector-
shaped chambers.
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213 Electrodynamometer Torque = B*A*I*N

1- (T α A) and (T α N) “torque depend on design”
But A and N are constants
2- (T α I) “directly depend on current”
3- but (B α I) “because the ux is generated by current”
4- then ( T α I² )
214 Electrodynamometer If the electrodynamometer is

designed for DC use:
Crowded scale markings at very low current values.
Spreading scale markings at higher current values.
For AC use:
Developed torque at any instant is proportional to the instantaneous
current square (i²)
(i²) is always positive
The meter de ection is function to the mean of the square current.
The scale of the electrodynamometer is usually calibrated in terms of
the square root of the average current square:
Therefore, the meter reads the rms or e ective value of the AC.
The transfer properties of the electrodynamometer becomes apparent
when we compare the e ective value of alternative current and direct
current in terms of their heating e ect or transfer of power.
The average rate of producing heat by an AC of i amperes during one
cycle in resistance R: is
/
The average rate of producing heat by a DC of I amperes in a
resistance R: is

217 Thermo-instruments

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Presentation on theme: "By Velar H. Elias Measurement."—

4 Evolution of Instruments I Cancel Download

6 Advantages of Electronic Measurement

13 Precision and accuracy comparison

16 Gross Error: (Personal Errors)

17 Systematic Error Types Instrumental error Environmental

21 Observational errors Errors made by observes

23 CHAPTER TWO UNITS, STANDARDS and INSTRUMENTS

26 Table of units Name Symbol Equivalent Yotta Y 10^24 Zetta

27 Table of Units Name Symbol Equivalent Centi c 10^-2 Mili m

28 UNITS Units categories Fundamental Units: Fundamental

29 UNITS Primary fundamental units Auxiliary fundamental

30 UNITS Supplementary Units: Derived Units:

31 UNITS Table of some of the derived units Quantity Units

32 Units Radian =360/2π degree=180/π degree

33 English to SI unit conversion

34 STANDARDS Type of standards

40 Analog and Digital Instruments

41 Analog and Digital Instruments

42 Analog to Digital Converter ADC

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44 Electromechanical Instruments vs Digital measuring

45 Electromechanical Instruments vs Digital measuring

46 Active and Passive Instruments

47 Active and Passive Instruments

49 Active and Passive Instruments

50 Active and Passive Instruments

51 Active and Passive Instruments

52 Active and Passive Instruments

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64 1. A. De ecting Torque (Td)

65 1. B. Controlling Torque (Tc)

67 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring

68 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring

69 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring

70 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring

72 1. B. I. Controlling Torque by Spring 3

73 1. B. II. Controlling Torque by Gravity

74 1. B. II. Controlling Torque by Gravity

75 1. B. II. Controlling Torque by Gravity

76 1. B. II. Controlling Torque by Gravity

77 Comparison between spring and gravity control

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81 1. C. I. Air Friction Damping system

82 1. C. I. Air Friction Damping system

86 1. C. III. Eddy Current Friction Damping system

87 Types of Indicating Instruments

90 CHAPTER THREE INSTRUMETS

91 Ammeters and Voltmeters

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93 Ammeters and Voltmeters

94 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

95 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

96 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instrument

100 Advantages of PMMC instruments

101 Disadvantages of PMMC instruments

103 Moving Iron Instrument

104 Moving Iron Instruments

105 Moving Iron Instruments

106 Moving Iron (Attraction type)

108 Theory of Buttons: