398 PART 2 Measuring Devices

4.13 COORDINATE-MEASURING MACHINES

Modern manufacturing processes for discrete parts require fast and accurate meas-
uring devices to check critical dimensions against their specified values. In a numer-
ically controlled machining center with an automatic tool changer, one of the tool
241
E. O. Doebelin, "System Modeling and Response," Wiley, 1980, pp. 268-270.
242
Crossbow Technology, Inc., San Jose, CA, 408-965-3300 (www.xbow.com).
243
G. P. Wachtell, "Fluidic Vortex Angular Rate Sensor," USAAV LABS Rep. 70-25, Fort Eustis, VA, 1970.
244
Eng. Bull. 1075, Humphrey, San Diego, CA, 858-565-6631 (www.humphreyinc.com).
245
Ibid.
 CHAPTER 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 399

Figure 4.98
Axis arrangements in coordinate-measuring machines.

positions may be occupied by a gaging probe, so that each part can be measured,
and corrections made, as that part is being machined. This is called in-process
gaging. When this approach is not possible or desirable, off-line gaging may be
used. Here the parts are not measured until they leave the machining process and
reach a separate gaging station. Each part (or perhaps a statistically selected partial
sample of the total production) is then measured, and statistical data on average
values and deviations are accumulated. These data are periodically compared with
part specifications, and machine-setting corrections are made when necessary.
Many gaging techniques ranging from simple, manually operated ones to complex,
computer-controlled systems have been developed for in-process248 and off-line
gaging.247 In this section we briefly describe a versatile off-line technique based on
locating critical part features in a Cartesian coordinate system.
A typical coordinate-measuring machine246 (CMM) has a probe mounted on a
set of three mutually perpendicular slides such that the probe can be positioned at
any desired x, y, z location within the machine's working space. Different arrange-
ments of the slides offer specific advantages, so manufacturers offer CMMs in a
variety of configurations; Fig. 4.98 shows one. Each slide has an accurate motion
transducer with a digital readout. Machine cost and performance are related to the
accuracy and resolution of the slide motion transducers, with optical encoders,
Inductosyns, and laser interferometers in common use and providing a range of
resolutions from about 1 to 0.01 (40 to 0.4 ). Since the machine working

246
S. D. Murphy, "In-Process Measurement and Control," Marcel Dekker, New York, 1995.
247
C. W. Kennedy, E. G. Hoffman, and S. D. Bond, "Inspection and Gaging," 6th ed., Industrial Press,
New York, 1988.
248
J. A. Bosch, "Coordinate Measuring Machines and Systems," Marcel Dekker, New York, 1995.
PART 2 Measuring Devices

volume may be as large as about a 2-m cube, careful mechanical design of the slides
is essential to ensure straightness, squareness, etc., of the coordinate motions. Both
precision rolling-contact bearings and hydrostatic air bearings have been success-
fully used to achieve accuracies as good as about 1 for a slide with 1 -m travel.
"Volumetric" (three-dimensional) accuracy is also important but more difficult to
specify and measure. Many machines may be fitted with a precision rotary table,
allowing even more versatile application. Figure 4.99 249 shows a sample measured
part and the kinds of features which may be routinely checked. Small CMMs of
modest accuracy may cost $10,000 to $20,000 while larger, more accurate machines
range up to several hundred thousand dollars.
Although various types of probes may be used with CMMs first we discuss the
widely used touch-trigger type, invented in the early 1970s. Here the probe is used
only to provide a sensitive and reproducible indication of when the probe touches
the measured part; the three-dimensional position of the probe is actually read from
the slide-position transducers on each machine axis. Thus to measure the width w
of the part shown in Fig. 4.100, we drive the slide from position 1 in the negative x
direction until contact is made, at which instant the x, y, z readings will be "frozen"
so that we (or a machine memory) can record them. Then we move the slide to posi-
tion 2 (same y and z readings as position 1) and drive it in the positive x direction
until a "touch" signal again freezes the readings. Knowing the diameter of the
probe's spherical trip, we can easily calculate w from the difference between the two
x readings. In an actual CMM, the probe may be positioned anywhere in the work-
ing space manually (air bearings and z-axis counterweights allow you to grasp the
probe body in one hand and easily move all three slides where you wish), by using
a. joystick control to manually command electric motor drives at preselected speeds
or by using computer-commanded electric motor servodrives to accomplish the
desired moves automatically under program control. This last computer numerical
control capability provides a powerful measurement tool when it is combined with
software to automate the various geometric calculations needed to extract part
features from slide-position readings. A common and important use of CMMs is to
check, for conformance to specifications, the first machined part in a production run
from some numerically controlled machine tool. This verification of the part-
programming process and all other aspects of machining is necessary before you
can confidently proceed with the production run.
As in so many other measurement systems, the addition of powerful computing
capability to basic CMM functions has greatly increased the versatility, ease of use,
speed, and accuracy of these machines. For example, parts of basically rectangular
shape need not be carefully aligned with the fixed x, y, z coordinate system of the
CMM before measurements are taken. Rather, the part is fixed in any convenient
position, a'nd three mutually perpendicular part faces are chosen to define a part
coordinate system with axes xp , yp , zp . By touching the probe to three widely
spaced points on each part surface, the equations of the three planes which define
the part axes can be numerically calculated and the intersection point of these planes

249
L K Tool Division, Cincinnati Milacron, Tempe, AZ.
 CHAPTER 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 401

Holes 19
Shoulders 6
Center distances 15
Angles 9
Radii 10
Total checks 59
Total number of checked points 96
Inspection cycle 4 min 55 s

Figure 4.99
Measurements and timing on a typical manufactured part.

(origin of xp, yp, zp) can be solved for. Once the part coordinate system has thus
been located in the machine's axis system, all further part measurements can be
automatically converted from machine coordinates to the more convenient part
PART 2 Measuring Devices

Figure 4.100
Simple dimension measurement with touch probe

coordinates. Computing power has thus replaced a tedious physical part-alignment

procedure with a convenient mathematical rotation of the axes. Similar geometric
algorithms allow us to determine the center coordinates and radius of a circular hole
by touching the probe at three or more points on the hole's circumference. For any
of the common geometric features of machined parts (lines, planes, circles, cylin-
ders, cones, spheres, etc.), analytic geometry tells us the minimum number of "touch
points" necessary to define that feature. Because real machined surfaces are never
perfect geometric objects (and to increase statistical reliability of the results), it is
conventional to use more touch points than are theoretically necessary. We then
need to use some kind of "least-squares" algorithm to compute the "best" estimate
of the feature's parameters. Although lines and planes can be fitted with familiar
algorithms, even the seemingly simple circle will not yield to "ordinary" least-
squares curve-fitting techniques. If readers familiar with standard least-squares
curve-fitting routines available in many computer libraries try them on a circle, they
will find that
1. The circle is a double-valued function.
2. The equations to be solved are not the usual set of linear algebraic equations.
3. For certain physically possible touch points, impossible results or calculations
arise, such as taking square roots of negative numbers or finding angles whose
cosines exceed 1.0.
These problems defeat the conventional linear or nonlinear regression tech-
niques, and thus special algorithms must be developed.250 Algorithms actually used
on CMMs are considered proprietary by the CMM manufacturers, and I was unable
to obtain any details.

250
I. Kasa, "A Circle Fitting Procedure and Its Error Analysis," IEEE Trans. Inst. Meas., vol. IM-25,
pp. 8-14, March 1976.
 CHAPTER 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 403

We now want to give a little more detail on probe types [passive ("hard"),
switching ("touch trigger"), analog-proportional, analog-nulling] and machine oper-
ating modes (free-floating manual, driven manual, direct computer-controlled).
Perhaps the simplest operation is free-floating manual mode with a passive probe.
For free-floating operation, the machine slides must be nearly friction-free (as with
hydrostatic air bearings), since the human operator simply grasps the probe holder
and moves all three axes, to position the probe at the feature to be measured. The
"probe" is nothing but a rigid piece of metal whose shape is appropriate to the
feature being gaged. For simple width measurement of a rectangular part, the probe
could just be a cylinder of known diameter which is manually pressed against the
flat part surface (once for each side). Clearly such a method will suffer from vari-
ability in the force applied by the operator; however, it is entirely satisfactory for
many applications. The centers of holes are quite nicely located with a conical
probe, which is self-centering as it is gently lowered into the hole.
Perhaps the most widely used probe is the touch-trigger251 type, usable in all
three machine operating modes. As explained briefly earlier, this probe is an on/off
switching type which "freezes" the readings of the three slide motion sensors as the
probe tip touches and is deflected by the part surface. Its most common form is
shown in Fig. 4.101. The probe stylus is kinematically located in a single unique
position by the six contacts of the three cylindrical rods with the six balls, with a
light spring preload maintaining this position when no external forces are applied to
the stylus. The six contacts are electrically wired in series, as shown, and a constant-
current source of about 0.5 mA is connected. The total resistance of the six contacts
in the neutral position is on the order of a few ohms, making the voltage e0 a few
millivolts. When the probe's spherical tip is deflected against the spring preload by
contact with a measured part, one or more of the contact resistances increase very
greatly with tiny deflections. When the total resistance exceeds about 3000 volt-
age e0 passing through 1.5 V trips a circuit which freezes all three slide-position
readouts, recording the position of the probe at the instant of touch. A uniquely
favorable feature of the probe is its three-dimensional nature; tip deflections in ± x,
± y, + z directions will all cause triggering, thus the probe may approach the meas-
ured part from various directions. Note that - z forces are opposed, not by the light
spring preload, but by the very stiff rod-and-ball contacts. Thus the — z direction
cannot be used for gaging; however, this is rarely a problem.
An important detail of probe operation which was ignored in Fig. 4.100 is probe
bending and "pretravel." The probe does not actually trigger at the instant of touch
since it does require a small, but finite, force and deflection to increase the electric
resistance to the 3000- trigger point. Also bending deflection of the probe (mini-
mized by using short, stiff probes whenever possible) causes a small unmeasured
deflection between touching and triggering. Fortunately, these effects are largely
repeatable and may be corrected by calibration. For example, in Fig. 4.100 before

251
Renishaw Inc., Schaumberg, IL (www.renishaw.com).
404 PART 2 Measuring Devices

Figure 4.101
Details of touch-trigger probe.

measuring an unknown w, one would measure a precisely known w (such as a gage

block), to find the "effective working diameter" de of the probe from the equation
de — measured size — actual size
Then this one de value can be used to correct for all three effects (ball diameter,
pretravel, and bending) by using the formula
Actual size = measured size - de
In practice, de is usually found by touching a calibration sphere at about 10 points
on the sphere's surface and using a special algorithm to compute de. This more
 CHAPTER 4 Motion and Dimensional Measurement 405

complicated scheme is better since it "exercises" the probe's characteristics in many

directions, making the de value more correct for a general measurement.
Although the construction and operation of the probe seem quite simple,
continuous high accuracy and reliability depend on subtle design details and use of
appropriate materials. Lubricants with special electrical, lubricating, and corrosion-
resistant properties, for example, are used on the ball-rod contacts. Probes used for
in-process gaging with, say, a lathe (rather than in a CMM) use higher spring
preloads to prevent false triggering due to vibration, etc. This degrades some other
probe characteristics, such as accuracy, but these trade-offs are necessary to opti-
mize the probe's overall performance for a specific application. Special materials
are also used for the rods, balls, and stylus tips. Rod and ball materials are consid-
ered proprietary, but stylus tips are often synthetic ruby, an aluminum oxide ceramic
noted for hardness, smoothness, and dimensional stability. Touch-trigger probes
also have favorable overtravel characteristics. That is, in touching the probe to the
part, some motion past the touch point is unavoidable, especially if one is moving
the probe manually. For example, a probe with 0.1 • repeatability, 0.15-g trigger
force, and 10- tip deflection to trigger may have a safe overtravel of ± 2.5 mm
and a maximum probe approach velocity of 7 mm/s. High probe-approach velocity
speeds machine operation and increases throughput but degrades accuracy. Driven
manual operation (operator controls probe motion with a joystick) and direct
computer control (probe motion is commanded by computer) obviously give better
control of probe velocity than does free-floating manual operation.
Analog probes 252 give a voltage output proportional to probe deflection from
the null position. They are available in both contact and noncontact (optical)
versions. Analog probes are capable of higher resolution and accuracy than the
on/off touch-trigger probes, but tend to be more fragile and expensive with poorer
overtravel. Duplicating the three-dimensional capabilities of touch-trigger types
leads to rather complicated mechanical configurations. Note that to obtain a number
for, say, the x location of the probe tip, we must now add the reading of the probe to
that of the slide-motion sensor. An alternative to this is the nulling operation of the
probe/CMM system. Here the probe's signal (plus or minus from null) is used as an
error signal in a feedback loop which controls the CMM slide position, causing the
machine slide to automatically drive to a position where the probe signal is zero (or
some selected bias position). For "three-dimensional" operation, this can lead to
quite complicated servosystems.
Although most CMMs are used to measure discrete part features, as in Fig. 4.99
("point-to-point" mode), form documentation for "sculptured surfaces" such as
turbine blades ("contouring" mode) is also possible, though it presents special prob-
lems.253 Here analog nulling type probe systems have some advantages in smoothly
following the part surface under servo control as data are taken. In overall design

252
EMD, Inc., East Budd Lake, NJ, 973-691-4755 (www.emdsceptre.com). This website includes a very
interesting history of CMM probes.
2S3
B. Van den Berg, "Closed Loop Inspection of Sculptured Surfaces in a Computer Integrated
Environment," Proc. 8th International Conf. on Automated Inspection and Product Control,
pp. 145-156, 1987.
406 PART 2 Measuring Devices

philosophy, CMM manufacturers have adopted different viewpoints. One approach

strives for perfection in manufacture and assembly of each mechanical component,
to achieve overall machine accuracy. Other designers have opted for less stringent
requirements on components, followed by an individual calibration of each machine
to obtain numerical values for a software error-correction scheme built into the
CMM's computer. This latter approach is often feasible since the major machine
errors254 tend to be systematic (reproducible) rather than random. Recently CMM
manufacturers and users collaborated in producing a national standard255 devoted
to defining methods for evaluating CMM performance. I found this document
extremely useful and recommend it highly to anyone interested in CMM design and
operation. Up to this point we have concentrated on the CMM itself; however, the
ambient thermal environment in which the machine operates is critical, as empha-
sized in B89.1.12M and explored in detail in another standard.256 Large, high-
accuracy machines present the greatest thermal problems, as related in a recent
article.257 Theoretical finite-element studies of thermally induced deflections
showed that when the temperature of the machine's bridge was 0.6°C higher than
its base, the bridge bowed upward by 10.4 or 8 times the desired measuring
tolerance. This led to the design of a sophisticated air-flow and temperature-control
system which maintains large volumes of the machine room air at 20 ± 0.06°C, a
considerable feat of engineering in itself. While thermal problems are a major
factor, barometric pressure, humidity, gaseous and particulate concentrations, light-
ing, and floor vibration may also require careful attention. Finally, the integration
of CMMs into the total manufacturing process is receiving increasing study and
promises great benefits as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manu-
facture (CAM), and computer-aided inspection (CAI) are all coordinated.258
NIST is developing a "super CMM" to advance the state of the art in this
important technology. They also study the evaluation of software for CMMs.259
Three-D measurement of free-form surfaces can be accomplished optically, using
260
triangulation of 2-D images, with accuracy of about 20

254
R. B. Zipin, "Measuring Machine Accuracy," Sheffield Measurement Division, Dayton, OH.
255
"Methods for Performance Evaluation of Coordinate Measuring Machines," ANSI/ASME B89.1.12M-
1990, AS ME, New York, 1985.
256
ASME B89.6.2.
257
W. Hobson and M. L. Majlak, "Special Room for Special CMM," Quality, pp. 22-27, November 1987.
258
W. Tandler, "High Performance Coordinate Measuring Systems," Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
Paper M584-713, 1984.
259
E. D. Teague, "The National Institute of Standards and Technology Molecular Measuring Machine
Project: Metrology and Precision Engineering Design," J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B7(6), Nov./Dec. 1989,
pp. 1898-1902. Cathleen Diaz, "Algorithm Testing and Evaluation Program for Coordinate Measuring
Systems: Testing Methods," NISTIR, p. 5686, July 1995.
260
CogniTens Ltd., Ramat Hasharon, Israel, www.cognitens.com.