Handout of Advanced Fire Fighting On Ships

Advanced Firefighting Course

Macaé, RJ
This book is in accordance with the sequence determined by

the summary of the Brazilian Maritime Authority
Curse’s
Name
File’s Name 20161201 AP CACI–EN–REV02

CACI – Advanced Firefighting Course
INDEX
FALCK RULES ................................................................................................... 12
COURSE GENERAL GUIDELINES ....................................................................... 13
1. ONBOARD OPERATIONS CONTROL .......................................................... 14
1.1 SAFETY PRINCIPLES .................................................................................. 14
1.2 MAIN AREAS COMPRISING FIRE RISKS ..................................................... 15
1.3 PREVENTING FIRE ..................................................................................... 16
1.4 PROCESS AND CARE IN DRY DESTILLATION, CHEMICAL REACTIONS, FIRE
IN GAS COLLECTORS AND WATER TUBE BOILERS ............................................ 17
1.5. FIRE CONTROL PROCEDURES .................................................................... 25
1.6. FIRE CONTROL STRATEGY AND PROCEDURES ........................................... 31
1.7. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS ......................................................................... 40
1.8. WATER AS AGENT EXTINGUISHER ON BOARD , ITS EFFECT ON
STABILITY, PRECAUTIONS AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES ................................ 53
1.9. COMMUNICATION AND COORDINATION DURING FIRE FIGHTING
OPERATIONS ................................................................................................... 59
1.10. VENTILATION CONTROL PROCEDURES ................................................. 64
1.11. PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRE AND THE DANGERS ASSOCIATED WITH
CERTAIN MATERIAL STOWAGE AND HANDLING............................................... 77
1.12. PROCEDURES OF COORDINATING AND CONTROLLING REMOVAL OF
INJURED PERSONNEL ...................................................................................... 80
1.13. PROCEDURES COORDINATED BETWEEN SUPPLY BOAT'S DAMAGE
CONTROL TEAMS AND NEARBY UNITS ............................................................. 85
2. FIRE FIGHTING TEAMS ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING ......................... 85
2.1. FIREFIGHTING CONTIGENCY PLAN ....................................................... 85
2.2. FIRE TEAM AND CREW MEMBERS COMPOSITION AND ALLOCATION ..... 88
2.3. FIRE FIGHTING TRAINING ................................................................... 91
2.4. FIRE CONTROL PLANS .......................................................................... 94
2.5. ORGANIZING THE UNIT EVACUATION AND ABANDONMENT ................. 95
2.6. FIRE CONTROL TACTICS THROUGHOUT THE UNIT ................................ 97
3. FIRE DETECTION AND EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS INSPECTION ............ 107
3.1. AUTOMATIC FIRE ALARMS .................................................................. 107
3.2. FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMEN .............................................................. 107
3.3. FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT .......................................... 109
3.4. FIRE PUMPS, HOSES, HYDRANTS AND NOZZLES ................................. 117
3.5. MOBILE AND PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPAMENTS AND
THEIR APPLICATIONS, OF PERSONAL PROTECTION, OF RESCUE, FOR RESCUE
AND COMMUNICATION. ................................................................................. 124
3.6. AUTOMATIC FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS ................................................ 137
3.7. BOARD INSPECTORS ON FIRE PREVENTION ....................................... 138
3.8. INVESTIGATION AND REPORT OF FIRE ON BOARD ............................. 138
4. BREAKDOWN CONTROL NOTION ........................................................... 142
4.1. BREAKDOWN CONTROL CONCEPT AND PURPOSE ............................... 142
4.2. VESSEL CHARACTERISTICS......................ERRO! INDICADOR NÃO DEFINIDO.
4.3. VESSEL MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS ......................................... 147
4.4. STRUCTURE REINFORCED SPACES FOR CARGO AND LASHING ............ 148
4.5. DAMAGE PREVENTION ........................................................................ 150
4.6. OPEN WATER ...........................................ERRO! INDICADOR NÃO DEFINIDO.
4.7. TIGHTNESS AND WATERTIGHT DOORS ............................................... 155
4.8. LASTRO SYSTEM: PUMPS, NETWORKS, TANKS AND VALVES. .............. 158
4.9. RIGGING............................................................................................. 165
4.10. AIRCRAFT CRASH TEAM DUTIES AND COMPOSITION ......................... 169
4.11. CRASH OPERATION STAGES ............................................................... 170
4.12. PROCEDURES TO ESCAPE FROM AN AIRCRAFT CRASH ONBOARD OR ON
THE WATER .................................................................................................... 171
5. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE ................................................................. 174
FALCK RULES
 Respect all warning signs, safety warnings and instructions;
 Loose clothes, jewelry, piercings, etc. must not be used during practical exercises;
 It is not allowed to wear sleeveless shirts, shorts or mini-skirts; wearing trousers
and shoes is mandatory;
 Instructors and assistants will have priority in accessing the cafeteria;
 Do not walk through training areas without permission. Use the Personal
 Protective Equipment (PPE) in recommended areas;
 The trainees are responsible for their belongings. Lockers with padlocks and keys
are available and they shall be used when instructed. Falck Safety Services is not
responsible for any loss or damage;
 Smoking is harmful to health. It is allowed only in areas previously identified;
Individuals considered to be under the effect of alcohol or illegal drugs will be cut off
from the training and sent back to their employer; Cell phones must be turned off
during the briefing; We advise women not to wear high heels;
 Discussions, discrimination and inconvenient behavior of any kind are not tolerated;
 The trainees must follow Falck’s employees instructions at all times;
 Every trainee is responsible for ensuring the training safety under the best possible
conditions. Unsafe acts or conditions must be immediately reported to the
instructors;
 Photographs, films or any image owned by the company can only be obtained upon
prior authorization;
 Pregnant women cannot carry out training due to the practical exercises.
 If an absence during the training period is inevitable, request the specific form for a
permission to leave. Your employer will be informed about it, and if it exceeds 10%
of the discipline hours you won't be able to continue the training;
 Falck Safety Services ensures the trainee’s safe transport during their stay in the
Company in its selected vehicles. The Company is not responsible by transport in
private vehicles;
 The Certificates / Training Cards will be sent to the contractor Company, unless if
authorized otherwise. Private students must wait for the assessment results, and if
approved, they will receive their Training Card;
 The individuals who violate these rules or who intentionally subtract or damage the
equipment will be held accountable, and the measures required by the situation will
be taken.
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COURSE GENERAL GUIDELINES
The applicant, upon registration, shall submit to the institution that will teach the
course, copy and the original (for verification) or certified copy of the following vouchers:
 Certificate of good standard of physical and mental health;

 Passport.
 Regarding class attendance
The class attendance and practical activities are mandatory.

The student must obtain a minimum of 90% attendance in all classes taught in
the course.
For the purposes of paragraphs above, will be considered a fault: the failure to
attend classes, the delay exceeding 10 minutes of the start of any scheduled activity or
unauthorized output during its development.
 On the Course Approval
It will be considered approved the student:

 Gets equal to or greater than 6.0 (six) on a scale of 0 to 10 (zero to ten) in
theoretical evaluation and achieve satisfactory concept in practice activities.
 The required minimum frequency (90%).
If the student does not meet the conditions described in the preceding
paragraphs, it will be considered disapproved.
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1. ONBOARD OPERATIONS CONTROL
1.1 SAFETY PRINCIPLES
The main targets of fire safety are minimizing life-threatening situations and
reducing property loss. Life-threatening situations are those including severe exposure of
crew members to smoke or heat and eventual collapse of structural elements on the
crew or fire team. Property loss is the partial or complete destruction of a vessel, its
cargo, documents and equipment.
A fire protection system comprises a set of active means (heat or smoke
detection, automated sprinklers, fire team, etc.) and passive means (structural fire
resistance, compartmentalization, emergency exits, etc.) which may ensure people safe
escape from the vessel, damage reduction and firefighting operations safety, if they are
required. The selection of the adequate fire protection system shall be made based on
fire spots risks, their spread and consequences. Not only the possible property damage
due to fire must be identified, but also the damage extension considered tolerable.
Safety is spread as a set of social conventions called safety measures. The safety
rules mentioned herein must be followed by the fire team because they are extremely
important for future situation onboard. Having everyone onboard aware of these
measures is essential for people and property protection.
Main Fire Causes
The most efficient way to fight a fire is to avoid it at all. The most common causes
of fires are human failure to observe safety measures, lack of attention when handling
dangerous material and deficient equipment maintenance.
The main causes of fire onboard vessels according to official statistics:
 Cigarettes and matches thrown on improper places;
 Cloths and rags soaked in oil and grease;
 Fat accumulation on screens and extraction ducts in the galley;
 Tasks involving oxy-acetylene or electrical welding;
 Oil and garbage accumulation in the hold;
 Open recipients containing volatile fuels;
 Unnecessary use of fuels;
 Faulty electrical equipment and facilities;
 Flammable material and fuels onboard, such as oils, greases, paints,
solvents etc., improperly stored;
 Fuel or lubricant systems leakage;
 Machines' hot parts near oil pipework;
 Electrical or manual tools use in tanks which were not properly degassed, or
in the nearby compartments;
 Overhead electrical fryers;
 Clothes drier and similar.
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1.2 MAIN AREAS COMPRISING FIRE RISKS
Fire is one of the most dangerous situations onboard. Fortunately it is not

frequent. Despite that, some areas need special attention due to their operation and
presence of fuels. It is important that the crew members always bear in mind that fire
onboard is a constant threat. Vessels are full of flammable material, for example, the
bulkheads coating, the wood of finish, pyrotechnic material, curtains, upholstery
furniture, fuels and gas, among others. Preventing fire depend on some measures.
Extinguishing it, if it occurs, depends on relatively simple and immediate procedures.
Extinguishers containing special gases are preferred in vessels because they are lighter
and more efficient than CO2, besides being easier to use. Short-circuits and electrical
system overload, fuel or gas leakage, lit cigarettes and specially the galley itself are
considered critical things to start a fire. The areas below are some that comprise fire
risk:
 Holds and areas on the bottom of the vessel;
 Electrical workshops;
 Galley when used to prepare food.
 Accommodations;
 Welding and cutting workshop;
 Engine Room;
 Production facilities;
 Laundry room, etc.
Fire Risk Areas
These are the areas requiring greater attention due to their risks or the damage
they may cause to the vessel. They can be divided as: small risk, medium risk and high
risk areas.
 Small Risk Areas- These are the areas containing small quantities of
materials which may cause class “A”, “B” and “C” fires (including structural
parts, furniture and stored or handled material). The material is arranged in
a way that fast flames spread is not possible, for example:
accommodations, TV room, offices, etc.
 Medium Risk Areas - These are the areas containing greater quantities of
materials which may cause class “A”, “B” and “C” fires, in which flames are
easily spread, such as: workshops, parking lots, galley, etc.
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 High Risk Areas - These are the areas containing huge quantities of
materials which may cause class “A”, “B” and “C”, such as: engine room,
paint lockers, warehouse, etc.
1.3 PREVENTING FIRE
Considering fire cannot be 100% prevented onboard, especially during dangerous

situations, it is necessary to adopt measures not only to prevent them, but also to
extinguish if they occur.
Preventive Measures
Some preventive measures are already part of shipbuilding standards, while

others are directly related to the Command. The Safety Officer, the Department Heads,
the Supervisors and the Coordinators are responsible for ensuring its fulfillment.
These measures aim to identify and correct onboard irregularities presenting fire
risk. As mentioned before, fire prevention includes the restriction of fuels onboard, as
well as the control of the ones required for operation. Concerning flammable material,
the preventive measures and fire restriction can be summarized into five basic aspects:
 Flammable material restriction;
 Onboard material specification;
 Fuels storage and protection;
 Limited amount of flammable material, the minimum required by planned
operations;
 Vessel maintenance concerning fire resistance.
 Removal of Unnecessary Material - The vessel must have the risks

related to this material identified, thus taking the appropriate measures. Its
location and the special measures to be taken in case of damage shall be
also acknowledged, and a Flammable Material List is to be elaborated. Every
material brought aboard must be acknowledged by the safety department.
Firefighting measures include the use of this list, removing and reducing the
quantity of such substances.
 Onboard material Specification - The Maritime Units projects must
include the lowest quantity possible of equipment and fittings requiring
flammable material.
 Fuels Storage and Protection - They must be stored in a way to prevent
greater damage to the vessel. Volatile fuels cannot be stored near engine
rooms' air intakes or exhaustion. Liquid fuels, especially the ones that
release highly flammable vapors, must be stored in proper containers
provided with airtight covers. Flammable liquids, such as paints, varnishes,
oils and greases must be properly stored in an area provided with forced
ventilation. Spare material is usually wrapped with flammable material,
which must be removed and discarded as soon as possible.
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 Vessel Maintenance Concerning Fire Resistance - It can be

accomplished as follows:
 Carry out regular inspections in order to keep fire risks as low as
possible;
 Continuously train the crew to keep the vessel safe. It can be
made by individual or team training, and during safety briefings for
work shifts.
1.4 PROCESS AND CARE IN DRY DESTILLATION, CHEMICAL REACTIONS,

FIRE IN GAS COLLECTORS AND WATER TUBE BOILERS
Dry Distillation
Almost all solids, such as wood, rocks, glass and others, are a mixture. Some can
have their components separated by dry distillation, which is the distillation of a solid
without using a solvent. It is a combustion process in which the flammable material
burns with a quantity of oxygen that is not enough for a complete combustion. When this
process is applied to wood, it comprises two heating stages: the first reaches
approximately 230ºC, in which the wood dries, and the second is the distillation itself,
from this temperature on (230ºC), which is spontaneous and should not exceed 350ºC,
because the burn is to be incomplete. There three fractions collected when wood is
distilled:
 1st - Gaseous Fraction
 Gaseous Stage: it is composed mainly by methane, ethylene, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and water vapor;
 Oily Stage (low density): essential oil.
 2nd - Liquid Fraction
 Aqueous Stage: pyro ligneous acid consisting mainly of water, acetic acid
and acetone;
 Oily Stage (high density): tar consisting mainly of high molecular weight
phenols.
 3rd - Solid Fraction
It is basically Coal. We can experimentally check (when the standard device
scheme is used for this method) the wood fractions after heating it with a
weak flame. First, after the wood is completely dry, the smoke and
flammable gases release are observed inside a test tube, because when a lit
match is put near the tube a flash and gases combustion are seen. In the
second fraction pyro ligneous acid formation can be easily observed: it is
the yellowish liquid resulted from the distillation. Tar is a very viscous brown
liquid on the test tube upper side (on the flame region).Besides these
products, the final one is coal, which is concentrated on the lowest part
(where the flame is) and as we all know it is a black substance. The events
sequence exemplifying dry distillation dangers is:
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 Fire in confined space;

 Oxygen deficiency in environments containing material which heat, get
fire, but do not completely burn;
 Sudden opening of an access to this compartment, which provides air
supply;
 This sudden air introduction is a flash exactly directed to the open
access;
 The person opening the access my get burnt by the sudden flame (flash),
unless he/she is protected.
The dry distillation dangers may be reduced by:

 Externally cooling the closed compartment on fire using hoses and plenty
of water;
 Door opening techniques;
 Entering the area lowered, protected by a water curtain produced by a
sprinkler;
 Directing water mist to the compartment roof.
That is why the sudden, inappropriate and precipitated entry in a

closed compartment when smoke is observed is not recommended at all,
unless the measures described above are taken.
Chemical Reactions
It is the effect caused when certain substances (reagents) combined with another
or other substances (also reagents) produce another substance or substances (products)
provided with different characteristics (chemical, physical and organoleptic) from the
original ones, and the products cannot go back to their previous reagent conditions.
Some chemical reactions may be produced by adding a chemical, heat, water, vapor,
foam, CO2 or even sand.
Effects - among many different effects we can find:
 The production of flammable gas;
 Explosion;
 Spontaneous combustion;
 The production of toxic vapors;
 Smoke release.
Chemical reactions during fire are more common when it occurs on cargo or
accommodations.
Some chemical reaction examples causing or worsening the fire include:
 Acetylene production, when calcium carbonate is combined with water;
 Vapor decomposition when applied to coal combustion;
 Hydrogen production when Direct Reduced Fire (DRI) is combined with
water;
 Certain cargo oxidation, such as fertilizers, which sustain fire even under
the action of extinguishing agents;
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 Spontaneous combustion, like occurs with phosphorus when its packing is

damaged;
 Self-heating, which occurs with some grains when they are wet;
 Methane production from coal when it reaches dangerous levels of
ventilation restriction.
When it comes to fire on dangerous goods, the most important guidance must be
referred in the Emergency Procedures for Dangerous Goods.
When it comes to fire on bulk substances that produce chemical dangers, the most
important guidance must be referred in the Emergency Procedures Code and Safe
Practices for Bulk Solid Cargoes.
By checking IMDG Code and Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous
Goods general index, the measure to be taken can be identified for each fire situation.
Fire in Gas Collectors and Water Tube Boilers
These boilers in which water circulates inside a pipe, while the hot gases
circulating outside of this pipe. They are used in medium and large industrial facilities.
Its steam production is higher than that of Fire-tube boilers. The water tube boilers are
more widely used because they have internally pressurized vessels and smaller relative.
This technically and economically feasible the use of greater thicknesses and
therefore the operation at higher pressures. Another important feature of this type of
boiler is the possibility of adaptation of accessories such as the super heater, which
allows the supply of superheated steam, necessary for the operation of the turbines.
In water tube boilers the volume of water is distributed over a large number
of subject tubes outwardly to contact the flue gas. The tubes may be straight or curved,
arranged to ensure efficient flow of boiling water. The natural circulation of water is
subject to units operating at low pressures of work, for values close to the critical
pressure make poor natural circulation.
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Boiler is the common name for the equipment that generate vapor, whose use in
the industrial field is wide, as well as for power generation in thermoelectric facilities. So,
the activities requiring vapor, especially water vapor due to its abundance, has the boiler
as an essential component. This equipment, as it operates with high pressures (which
vary from 20 times higher than the atmospheric pressure in industry and 60 to 100
times in power generation) is an imminent risk.
• Components - Found these boilers generally the following components:

 combustion chamber
 Tubes
 Collectors
 Caisson
 Super heater
 Soot blowers
 Preheater air
 Saver
 Masonry (refractory)
 burners
 Fans
 Chimney
 Safety valves
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• Gas collectors - Collectors are cylindrical parts, which arrive and leave sets of
tubes, whose purpose, as its name indicates, is to collect water or steam.
• Saver - the feed water passes through a coil or tube bundle in order to also
take heat from the waste gases of combustion, then go to the caisson already pre-
heated, which represents a saving of energy.
 Application
 Heating processes in general, in industries, hotels, hospitals, etc.;
 Conversion of thermal energy into vapor to activate turbines for
electrical power generation, vapor pumps, etc.
 Fire in Boilers
Fire, which may be produced by the vapor contacting the steelwork, is possible in
these boilers due to:
 Insufficient water in the boiler resulting in the tubes overheating above the
water level due to shutdown delay;
 Uncontrollable fire on the soot and smoke production even after being
shutdown, associated to the previous item, insufficient water.
If fire occurs before the tubes reach 700°C, it should be extinguished as follows:
 Direct as much water as possible to the burner nozzle as a solid continuous
jet, as well as to the fire origin spot, by using pumps. Consider the boiler
tubes are broken or melted;
 Keep air openings, shutters, discharges, etc. cooled by hoses with solid
water jets.
Note: Avoid using water spray, foam or carbon dioxide straight on the fire.
Fires in boilers, economizers, air heaters for vapor systems, exhausters, etc. are to be
dealt with similar procedures.
The most common cause of these types of fire is carbon accumulation, with or without
oil, which overheats and produces combustion.
Using boilers offers health and safety risks to the workers operating them, and
they are also a potential source of air pollution. Of course the level of risks depends on
many aspects, such as: equipment proper project and location, operation characteristics,
fuel used, proper operation and maintenance, air and water control methods, etc.
However, it is an important issue for Public Health due to its wide using
throughout the whole community.
The main dangers and difficulties of these fires are:
 Difficult access to all sections, especially the ones at high;
 Potential explosion if the economizer accesses are opened.
The saver network may reach 700°C when:

 The iron starts melting and combusts;
 The reaction becomes self-sustained and produces heat;
 The combustion product is dark iron oxide and free hydrogen;
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 The iron burn in the vapor is independent of the supply;

 The hydrogen produced will also combust if air is introduced. Explosion may
occur.
The correct procedures to control and extinguish this type of fires are:
 Immediately shutdown the boiler or the engine;
 Spray water on the external surface (low mist), to cool down the
temperature;
 Activate shuttles and valves to prevent air introduction;
 Protect the essential electrical systems and other equipment (which are
near the fire zone) from the water used to fight the fire;
 Provide continuous cooling down until the system is considered safe to be
opened for assessment, inspection and cleaning.
 Explosion in Boilers
Explosion in boilers are almost always major accidents, which usually results from
accidental overpressure or an element rupture: gaseous explosions are less frequent and
result from accidental ignition of explosive mixtures when liquid fuels or powdered coal is
used.
This is different from solid fuels, which often produce small located explosions,
such as in the furnace that results in flame return.
The most frequent causes of explosions in boilers are:
 Lack of water;
 Water tubes corrosion.
If the first cause is usually due to lack of control, these accidents may be
considered a result of improper inspection. Mud or lime scale may visibly obstruct the
equipment tubes giving a false indication; buoy indication may produce the same
inconvenient situation, and both may result in explosions in the boiler. So, inspection is
required even when the boiler is provided with a safety device or automatic supply.
Since the boiler has scale, its explosion is also often caused by the following
mechanism: the furnace surfaces (tubes or plates), somewhat totally isolated from water
by an adherent film of insoluble salts, blush up due to the heat action.
The metal deforms under pressure and the boiler content is suddenly released to
the atmosphere, also releasing a significant amount of energy. Finally, the feed water
composition may lead to the premature corrosion of the metal surfaces because of its
excessive acidity or alkalinity, consequently reducing the resistance degree. The water
hydrometric range, in other words, how calcareous it is (mainly as calcium bicarbonate
and calcium sulfate) is extremely important. Under the influence of heat, carbon dioxide
precipitates insoluble calcium carbonate as mud, which is mostly eliminated by regular
removal.
On the other hand, calcium sulfate precipitates as a hard layer and sticks to hotter
surfaces, resulting in slightly severe damage. It is common to notice that poorly
calcareous water may be imminently corrosive and the use of water with an
exceptionally low hydrometric range might cause extreme damages to the boiler, mainly
because it contains dissolved oxygen.
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 Overheating as Explosions Cause

When the steel composing the boiler is submitted to temperatures above the
acceptable limits, its resistance is reduced and the explosion risk increase. However,
before an explosion occurs, damage may be identified, such as: warping; bending or
bulging.
The occurrence of bulging is very frequent in water tube boilers. The convex
surface is turned to the side containing gases, resulting from the steel plastic distortion
when reaching 400°C to 550ºC of temperature and under the continuous action of the
vapor internal pressure.
Another consequence of overheating is the oxidation of the exposed surfaces in
oxidizing environments, or carburizing (formation of iron carbide) in reducing
environments.
 The main causes of overheating

The inadequate selection of the boiler steel, because in water tube boilers, for
example, part of the furnace tubes may be exposed to a more intense radiation than the
ones in other areas, so they must be made of steel provided with relevant characteristics
for this situation. If the boilers projects do not consider the heating surfaces are not
homogeneous concerning the working temperatures, the parts under pressure may
collapse due to the steel weakness.
The use of imperfect steel, because the lamination process used to obtain the
plates and tubes is the one more likely to result in imperfections. When producing plates,
it' common to have double lamination layer, which may result in void spaces inside the
steel. After passing several times through the laminator, these void spaces become
longitudinal, as if many plates were together. These imperfections make the plate not
resistant enough to support thermal or mechanical loads foreseen by the project.
Excessive extension of tubes, which frequently occurs in fire tube boilers, where
the tubes beyond the mirror get excessively into the reversal chamber. These excessive
extensions impair the hot gases flow reversion, causing overheating spots which will
certainly lead to ruptures.
Incorrectly placed burners, because as previously mentioned the tubes and plates
steel bear heating until certain degrees without completely losing their mechanical
properties. The burners' flames may reach temperatures up to 1.000ºC, so if they are
incorrectly placed, direct contact between the flames and the steel may occur
somewhere, causing the material overheating.
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This may lead to the boiler slow and gradual distortion or to imminent explosion,
depending on other factors. The burners positioning is very complicated when they are
the tangential type, which produce the gases intense turbulence in the combustion
chamber center.
Scales are a classic issue related to the boilers safety. Scales are solid deposits
over the heating surfaces on the water side due to the presence of impurities: sulfates,
magnesium or calcium carbonates, complex silicates (containing Fe, Al, Ca and Na) and
suspended solids.
They are also formed due to the presence of precipitates resulting from the boiler
water improper treatment (magnesium or calcium phosphate residue) and non-
protective iron oxide. The scale acts as a thermal insulator (its thermal conductivity is
around 45 times lower than the steel), thus preventing the water from cooling the
heating surfaces. This reduces the heat transference from the steel to the water,
therefore allowing the steel to absorb more sensible heat and increasing its temperature
in proportion to the heat absorbed.
In some cases of generalized scale the situation is worsened to keep the water
boiling, because it is necessary to increase the heat supply on the gases side.
This increase in temperature may lead to the following undesirable consequences:
 The steel provided for operations less than 300ºC is exposed to
temperatures around 500ºC, which is out of its resistance limits. So, the
explosion risk is increased;
 The scale may unclasp, making the water directly contact the tube walls
under high temperature, resulting in the water sudden expansion and,
consequently, an explosion;
 The formation of areas likely to suffer corrosion due to the scale porosity
and the possibility of corrosive agent’s migration for the steel surface.
Operation in forced rate, because in this situation the boiler is not capable of
providing the required vapor production, so the energy supply to the furnace is
intensified. However, instead of increasing the production, this situation may lead to the
boiler overheating because the limits are exceeded, resulting in distortion or even
rupture. Therefore, this is an imminent explosion risk. The intensification of energy to
the furnace of flame tube boilers may also cause damage to the rear door, between the
tubes holes, as occur in the situation of tubes excessive extension mentioned above.
Lack of water in heat exchange areas, because the contact between water and the
steel is essential to keep the last cooled. So it is extremely important the heat received
through the heating surfaces is transferred to the water, thus keeping the steel cooled,
because on the water side the vaporization process occurs under constant pressure. If
lack of water is experienced somewhere in the boiler, the temperature will not be kept in
this area, which will start sensible heat transference (and also temperature increase). It
will lead to the steel overheating and consequently heat transference.
The main reasons for the lack of water are improper water circulation and
operational fault, which will be discussed below.
Improper water circulation. The water circulation is natural in water tube boilers,
the density difference between the parts with hotter and cooler water is the force
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required to move the water inside the equipment. This force is inversely proportional to
the water pressure as it reaches the critical point (220, 9 bar).
In practical applications, for working pressures above 150 bars, both may be used
to provide water circulation. Each tube must be provided with enough water flow to cool
it down, because water flow balance must be found. The tube roughness, corrosion and
internal deposits are aspects that reduce the water flow, thus impairing the cooling
process.
Flame tubes boilers have a regular method of water circulation. If on the points A
and B (the furnace lowest and highest point) the water speed is not efficient,
temperature increase may occur. This is likely to worsen if vapor bubbles are formed on
point A, thermally insulating the furnace wall from the boiler water.
 Operational failure.
Recent industrial boilers operating with liquid or gaseous fuel are completely
automated. Their operational parameters are controlled via instruments. This requires
few interventions from operators, but higher qualification and more precise decisions.
The logic behind boilers automatism is given through the pressure gauges and water
level regulation system, which respectively command the burners and water feeding
pumps.
The operation of these devices is essential for the boilers safety, and may
suddenly interrupt the boiler operation via the solenoid valves that block the fuel supply,
which completely shut down the burners.
Despite the automatism of modern boilers, their star and shutdown procedures
are usually manual. If the start were automatic, the controls would admit the maximum
energy supply because they are guided by the vapor pressure, and this could be tragic.
As the operation is manual, the lack of water possibility is related to the inadequate
procedure by the operator, who for example does not increase the water flow when the
level tends to be reduced. This kind of failure usually occurs due to level false indications
or lack of knowledge concerning the boiler operation.
The occurrence of obstruction or mud accumulation is possible on the level column
when preventive maintenance or cleaning or the water treatment are not efficient. This
may result in false level indications for the operator or for the instrumentation
responsible for the water supply. Similarly, obstructions in the boiler feed water pipework
may cause accidents, because the water intake will be lower than the vapor outtake.
If consumption variations cause sudden increase of the vapor flow, the
instrumentation may be responsible by the lack of water because due to the sudden
pressure drop vapor bubbles formed on the water surface expand, resulting in a false
high level indication, this in turn reduces the water intake. Besides this, as the pressure
gauge has low readings, the signal sent to the combustion device aims to increase the
fuel supply, which worsen the risky situation.
1.5. FIRE CONTROL PROCEDURES
These are methods or measures taken by the

fire team when carrying out its duties during an
emergency. When fire is detected in an operating or
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moored vessel, via sensors or by a crew member, the emergency alarm is sounded so
the fire team starts its duties according to the contingency plan. Fire team measures
during an emergency:
 The Fire Team must move together with the Safety Officer and Team Leader
(Coordinators) provided with the adequate safety equipment. They must
check the wind direction and the proper resources to be used to control the
fire;
 Ask for the Coordinators the gas meters (Multigas) and transceivers to
contact the control room operator in order to obtain the accident
information;
 Plan the strategy to fight the fire in the safest way;
 Follow the leader's instructions without interference;
 Communicate with the emergency general coordinator informing the
accident status and requesting external resources if applicable;
 If abandoning the vessel is necessary, check if all the required measures in
the Contingency Plan have been taken to minimize the impact resulting
from the fire.
If fire occurs when the vessel is moored or at the dock, the port Contingency Plan
is to be used. We should take into account that many onshore personnel are not aware
of the unit firefighting procedures.
Fire Fighting
Firefighting activities start through the initial fight.
 Initial Fight
The person finding the fire must immediately communicate it via the available
means; as soon as someone is aware of the alarm, the person must proceed to the
muster point according to the emergency plan.
Information about the fire must reach the areas provided with the public address
system, where it will be disclosed. Required information: the fire class, location, the
compartment name and number, if applicable.
Fires or major oil leakages in the engine room must be immediately controlled.
The delay to detect a fire is characterized by the presence of smoke or its smell
already spread throughout the vessel via ventilation and refrigeration ducts and
passageways, which makes things harder because it is more difficult to find its origin.
In case of fire (or flooding) onboard, it is important to remember that the initial
fight readiness is essential, and that the threat for the vessel at this moment is the fire
(flooding).
It does not mean everyone onboard should go to this area, but some people are
required to fight the fire according to the Station Bill.
The fire team member participating in the initial fight must be properly donned in
order to be protected and for an efficient operation. It is common to have people
proceeding to the accident area donning their operational overall to reduce the response
time, which instead will actually endanger the person and delay the firefighting operation
P a g e | 26
start. The team members, when out of duty, must worry about the PPE to be used.
Statistics show that around 90% of fires are extinguished within the first two minutes,
5% within the first ten minutes, and the other 5% exceed 5 to 10 hours, in which half of
these last occurred in the Engine Room.
Everyone onboard, from the workers to the Master, GEPLAT/OIM, must be familiar
with the basic firefighting procedures and the main firefighting equipment and its use.
When someone identifies smoke or another indication of a major fire through a
hatch or a door, this person should sound the alarm and immediately start the smoke
isolation in the area, the firefighting equipment preparation and the containment will be
carried out by the fire team members, who will be properly donned to start fighting the
fire. If the signs indicate small or major fire, the finder must be cautions and proceed to
the muster point so the relevant measures can be taken.
The initial fighting speed is essential, but if it fails, a careful assessment of the
situation is as important as how quickly it is.
During a fire Class “A” or “B”, if it is difficult to start the operation with portable
extinguishers due to the amount of smoke or fire, the fire team member must try using
the nearest fire hose as a mist. In all situations the minimum distance of 2 meters from
the fire shall be kept, which prevents from electrical shock if there is any 440VAC circuit
supplied nearby.
During a fire Class “C”, this measure shouldn't be taken to avoid using water in
compartments comprised with Radio Station, Computers, Converters, Switchboards,
Generators, etc., which may render the vessel inoperative. If the initial fighting is not
possible, the fire members must evaluate the situation and if the fire can be spread,
isolate the compartment. However, this should be avoided, because after closing the
doors the situation status inside the compartment will not be known anymore, and
fighting the fire again will be possible only with the whole fire team properly equipped
(entry and fight again).
The fire team member carrying out the initial fighting only leaves the area after
being rendered by the back (who is also a fire team member), providing him with as
much information as possible concerning the fire origin, location, dangers and measures
taken, etc.
The back carries out the required measures, as mentioned before.
 Continuous Fight
The following measures must be taken by the vessel within the first one or two
minutes of the firefighting operation.
Immediate Measures
 The Motormen (Mechanics) must align the fire pump, if it is in the manual
position. Then stop feeding the equipment in the area of the incident, if applicable,
providing the compartment mechanical isolation;
 The electricians carry out the ventilation, exhaustion and refrigeration system
“CRASH STOP”, except if the fire is in the engine room (Fire in the Engine Room:
according to Fire Fighting Procedures in the Engine Room, the exhaustion keeps
operational during the initial fight) from another generator or using onboard
energy (if the vessel is moored), if possible by the operation of two generators.
Divide the power plant by having each generator supplying one fire pump;
P a g e | 27
electrically isolate the affected compartment and the ones next, where
containments may be installed if applicable. Special attention must be given to
lighting which must be kept on; the ventilation and extraction ducts flaps in the
affected area must be closed.
Subsequent Measures - Subsequent measures include:

 After being rendered by the back, the fire team member must report the
measures taken to the leader in the firefighting control room;
 Unnecessary equipment should not be brought to the accident area;
 The Fire Team Head guides the activities in the area, with the Fire Team
Leader Assistance concerning the containments, and keeps into contact with
the Master, GEPLAT/OIM, using the portable VHF transceiver;
 The Fire Team Leader should continuously report the fire status.
The Information exchange between the Fire Team Leader and Head includes (but
not limited to):
 The fire location;
 The fire class;
 The fire team arrival at the area;
 The smoke location;
 The material required to fight the fire;
 Mechanical Isolation;
 Electrical Isolation;
 The location and established boundaries of the fire and the smoke;
 Support people and material required;
 The presence of backs, rotation, support material, etc.;
 Personnel masks duration;
 Need to ventilate areas containing smoke to concentrate the personnel;
 Fire status: out of control, under control, extinguished;
 Use of fixed systems: foam, sprinkler, CO2 / Halogenated Gas, etc.;
 Watch team established;
 Request to remove smoke, method and route to be used;
 Cooled compartment;
 Atmosphere tests results; damage in the area.
The Fire Team Head establishes the containments in the fire primary limits, cool
down the bulkheads, drain the compartments and reduce free surfaces, whenever
required. The fire team member implementing the containments must require assistance
to remove fake bulkheads or low ceilings, which provides a better containment.
For example, the fire may spread via the wiring insulating rubber hidden under the
decorative finishing plates.
The fire team leader determines the check of all compartments for fire or smoke.
A fire team member is assigned to continuously walk around the fire perimeter to check
the fire status and request assistance as required so these limits can be kept.
The Fire Team Head and the Master, GEPLAT/OIM, must identify the smoke limits,
make announcements in the PA system and assign watchmen.
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At the Fire Team Head discretion, ventilation and extraction ducts may be used to:
remove smoke and allow the fire team members presence between the primary and
secondary smoke boundaries; reestablish the habitability conditions outside the fire
secondary boundaries; reestablish maneuvering conditions, for example, renewing the
air and cooling down the compartments; as well as to ventilate the areas where some
people is stuck.
Support material and people needs must be identified by the Fire Team Leader
together with the Fire Team Head.
At this stage, if the fire is in a compartment provided with CO2 or halogenated
fixed System, the Fire Team Leader must assess the situation and, if applicable, request
the activation of this system to the Master, GEPLAT/OIM, who may approve it or not.
The following aspects must be analyzed to consider a fire that is out of control and
the possibility to continue fighting it:
 Is the fire in a large area in the compartment?
 Is the internal temperature too high?
 Is the fire endangering the fire team members' lives?
 Is the compartment full of smoke and is it spreading quickly?
 Is it possible that explosions or the fire spread occur?
 Is it possible to control the fire?
 Is there any doubt concerning the situations above?
Affirmative answers to the questions above characterize an out of control fire,

which determines the compartment evacuation.
New tries to extinguish the fire can be taken under better conditions, or after
using a fixed system, when applicable.
The selection of the best protective clothe, the best access, the opening of
accessories to release pressure (reduce the temperature and the pressure inside the
compartment) etc. may be necessary.
Every effort must be made to reduce the damage, even the removal of all fuel
from the compartment or the vessel abandonment.
The Master, GEPLAT/OIM, must make PA announcements whenever deciding the
measures to be taken so everyone is informed. Whenever an order is given by the PA
system, acknowledgement by the ones responsible by the task must be provided.
Controlling the Situation

Controlling the accident is in general an activity requiring a large number of
people and material, complex actions, good communication and coordination. Complex
activities, such as fighting a fire in the Engine Room, must be analyzed from some
perspectives that may identify the situation progress. These items, together with
continuous reassessment, allow the Situation Control, checking if the orders given are
being followed and the targets accomplished. The following aspects should be
considered:
 Fire / Flooding status: Fire team arrival at the area; fire boundaries;
containments; mechanical and electrical isolation;
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 Smoke status: smoke boundaries, watchmen; ventilation and refrigeration

systems; valves closure, flaps and dumpers to isolate the areas;
 Fire system status: Fire main pressure; electrical energy availability;
compressed air availability for masks (air compressors, recharging
stations); availability of duct for sewage;
 Logistic support control for the affected area: People and material; routes to
be used; external support groups;
 Communication: Proper communication among the people involved;
alternative means of communication; control via the PA system; actions
progress report to the Master and Chief Engineer;
 Coordination: The correct coordination of the ordered actions among the
people involved; command priorities.
These aspects can be used for any task. It is recommended to have attached near
the Emergency Plan a checklist including these items. Asking these questions frequently
will help correcting misunderstood orders and incorrect procedures.
Other issues related to the personnel and material efficient controls are:
 During long firefighting operations, it's essential that the people take turns.
The personnel rotation depends not only on the masks air duration, but also
on the fatigue of the fire team members, who are exposed to intense heat.
People should be read to render each other as soon as possible, being
provided with fresh water and food;
 Enough water and ice must be available near the personnel concentration
(muster point);
 The use of portable VHF/UHF transceivers is the best option for the
operation control and coordination.
Checklist For Firefighting Operations
Some immediate considerations must be taken, as follows:

 What is the fire class?
 Where is the fire exact location?
 What is the fire main condition (pumps in line, pressure)?
 How is the access to the affected area?
 Which firefighting fittings are required? Are they available?
 What is under immediate threat?
Some considerations concerning the fire boundaries establishment:

 Where the containments should be implemented?
 Is there any special compartment (warehouse, paint locker, etc.)?
Considerations concerning the smoke boundaries establishment:

 Are there restrictions for the boundaries establishment in the affected area?
 Were the ventilation and extraction ducts “CRASH STOP” carried out?
 Were the ventilation and extraction ducts valves closed?
 Electrical isolation: are the electrical circuits isolated?
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 Was the compartment mechanically isolated?
 Simultaneous considerations
 Is the amount of people and masks enough in the muster point?
 Is it recommended to preventively flood the paint locker and flammable
storage in the affected area?
 Is the smoke affecting the exact identification of the fire origin?
 Is the Master, GEPLAT/OIM, informed about the situation?
 Considerations when the fire is extinguished

 Was the prevention team established?
 Is the fire really extinguished?
 Did the residue removal team check possible fire spots?
 Was the burn material separated and wetted?
 Can the smoke removal be initiated?
 What is the best method and rout to remove the smoke?
 Is it safe to start the affected area ventilation or refrigeration?
 Who will help with the task?
 Were atmosphere tests carried out?
 What are the restrictions imposed to the vessel by the accident?
1.6. FIRE CONTROL STRATEGY AND PROCEDURES
Strategy
It is the group of standards and procedures used to carry out certain operation in
order to accomplish the desired targets. The strategy is the operation preparation in
order to reach the best results as fast as possible.
When the fire alarm is sounded, firefighting procedures are immediately
implemented, for example:
 The crew musters according to the established lists;
 The fire team musters and starts the fighting activities as trained;
 The pumps are activated in order to ensure continuous water supply;
 The operation commander decides on the best method to fight the fire and
this decision is immediately disclosed by the person in charge.
When the fires occur in the Engine Room, the lifeboats are immediately prepared.
 Strategies related to Fire Fighting - Small fires found at their initial

stage are relatively easy to control by a crew member using a portable fire
extinguisher. Speed, calm approach and ability are
required to prevent the fire from spreading and
increasing.
As previously mentioned, crew members should
always sound the fire alarm first, so the fire team get
together and ready, and then try to extinguish the
P a g e | 31
fire without endangering their own lives.

During major fires, the fire team must gather the required information,
equipment and support to control the fire. It may not be easy to directly
extinguish the fire. Therefore priorities must be taken.
 Actions and Strategies - The initial measure consists of identifying the
fuel and defining the fire class, which is essential for the appropriate
selection of the extinguishing agent. When the agent is selected, the
equipment must be supplied and the fighting operation can be started. It is
maybe more important to avoid the fire spread than extinguishing it at first.
A properly isolated fire incapable of spreading is a controlled fire, which will
cease, under the worse perspective, when the fuel supplying it extinguishes.
In order to accomplish the fire isolation onboard it is required to close the
ventilation ducts towards the affected area and inspect the next
compartments, including the one under and above it.
Procedure
Procedure is the method used by the fire team to control and extinguish the fire.
 Strategic Procedure - The strategic procedure aims to arrange the use of the
available material to fight the fire, immediately preventing it from spreading
through vertical and internal openings (elevator shafts, ladders, ventilation ducts,
etc.), heat transmission and strong wind. Onboard vessels, fires usually occur on
equipment installed in the production plant, oil transference pumps, fuel or
chemical tanks flanges pipework, which are generally connected to pressurized
equipment. This requires technical knowledge and ability to control and fight the
fire.
 Direct attack
This technique is used when the fire team enters the affected
compartment and directly fights the fire. Some procedures
for the direct attack:
When entering the compartment direct the nozzles
straight to the fire spot;
Keep lowered and, if possible, dry;
Cool down the combustion hot gases by fighting the base of the fire;
Establish the containments and cool them down, when required;
Do not unnecessarily apply water to the bulkheads and ceiling.
 Indirect Attack
This technique is used when the fire team is near the
compartment, but is not capable of entering it due to dangerous
conditions. A water fog is directed towards the compartment interior
through any opening available so better conditions are established
for the team entry. Some procedures for the indirect attack:
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 Force the attack through an opening (improvise or make one);

 Indirectly apply water to reduce the temperature;
 Adjust the nozzle to apply a water fog;
 Establish the containments;
 After improving the conditions, start a direct attack.
 Recommended techniques.
The attack is to be carried out preferably in a single direction and always in a
coordinated way.
The ventilation must be immediately shutdown. Delay to do so may allow the fire
and smoke spread, the heat transmission via convection will increase the amount of
affected areas, and the local fire will turn into a major event.
The joint attack (two fire hoses or two extinguishers) is always more efficient, but
if it is not possible, use only one and let the second hose ready for use, supplied and
pressurized.
The joint attack should not be made from opposite directions, which may
endanger the teams' safety because one may seriously hit the other.
When fighting the fire with water or foam, the jet must be directed to the fire
base, making movements bottom up in order to direct the hot gases and reduced vapor
upwards, away from the team members.
When the fire is attacked with water or foam a violent reaction is expected, hot
gases are displaced and a rollover is produced, which may go towards the fire team.
That's why everyone must keep lowered.
The team must stay behind obstacles to protect against the irradiated heat.
The water should not be continuously applied, because its intermittent use
reduces the vapor formation, the amount of water onboard and allows regular
reassessment concerning the fire status.
The water is to be directed towards the combustion area, instead of towards
anywhere in the smoke.
Continuously applying water without an established standard is to be avoided,
because it results in the compartment thermal unbalance, thus producing a great
amount of vapor before the fighters have the chance to reach the fire source, reducing
visibility, besides creating flooding issues and affecting the vessel stability;
Hot gases and smoke concentrate on compartments and passageways upper side.
The rotation duration is usually determined by the team members' resistance to
stay in the area.
Metallic bulkheads are great heat conductors and easily spread a fire, which is the
reason they should be cooled down by the water fog. Any existing fuel must be put
away.
The temperature elevation during a fire causes the pressure increase in confined
spaces. When the water turns into vapor it expands approximately 1700 times, which
further increases the pressure and violently forces the hot gases and smoke into the
ventilation ducts, doors, hatches, etc.
When fighting from the deck above, consider the following information:
 This deck floor is too hot, increasing the personnel fatigue;
 People rotation time should be shorter;
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 Care when using the handrails;

 The attack must be carried out through a hatch, instead of through a
scuttle, because evacuation people through a scuttle is extremely difficult.
 Preparing to enter a compartment

After trying the initial attack, it may be required to adopt the following procedures
depending on the fire proportions: isolate the compartment, improve containments,
carry out mechanical and electrical isolation, use a fixed system, if available, and restart
fighting the fire with better equipped and protected personnel.
Preparing people and material for this net attempt must be as fast as possible.
The fire hoses are to be prepared upon the guidance from the leader, who will
check if the lines are properly arranged.
The ideal arrange is when the lines are stretched forming an “S” throughout the
access area.
Depending on the vessel, it may be necessary to prepare three fire hose lines, one
as a protection line, which must be placed at the compartment entrance to prevent the
fire, hot gases and smoke exit. This line can be suspended by “S” hooks to avoid
interference on the other main hoses.
The hoses must be pressurized only after as close as possible from the affected
area, because they are easier to handle when not under pressure. After the preparation
the equipment is tested.
In several situations, such as firefighting operations in the Engine Room or other
critical areas, it is recommended the vessel prepares a scheme for the fire hydrants and
hoses to be used, establishing their function, including the containments. Probably there
will be a lot of smoke near the affected area, so an alternative scheme is required, using
2.1/2 in hoses or hoses passing through bulkheads.
The affected compartment conditions must be previously checked for the
temperature of the bulkheads near the access to be use. Besides this, it is necessary to
check if this is the safest access. The conditions may be checked via the door glass, if
applicable.
Note: If after abandoning the compartment, halogenated gas or CO2 fixed systems are
used, at least 15 min or three temperature drops (the last temperature lower than
100°C) are required before entering the area again, while the chemical reaction takes
place and extinguishes the fire.
 Process for compartment access opening and entry

The access opening process depends on the type of access available, which might
be: vertical doors and hatches.
 Doors
If the access is through a vertical door, the procedure is as follows:
 If it opens outwards, one man must ensure the door gradual opening by
using his hands (with gloves) or feet (with boots), and must be protected
by the a high speed water fog hose or similar;
 If it opens inwards, the use of a safety cable is recommended to ensure its
gradual opening. A high speed water fog hose or similar must be used.
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If there is a line for protection, this one must be already placed when the opening
the access.
The fire team members (the nozzles) positioning depends on the fire class and the
type of nozzle being used. In a Class “B” fire, when using FB5(X) type nozzles or foam
monitors, this hose line requires a protection line because the jet type does not protect
the fighters. The protection line is placed slightly ahead, and the foam jet is used
through it.
A reasonable distance must be kept between the hose lines to allow their
handling.
When only one line with variable nozzle is used due to access issues, before the
attack hose enters the compartment, a second hose must be ready and equipped as a
backup.
 Hatches
The vertical access to a compartment is the most difficult one. When it is opened a
great amount of hot gases and smoke (and flames) will spread to the access area,
therefore the fire team must be protected and a protection line or one of the fire hose
lines must be immediately positioned to reduce this effect.
The process to go down this access presented herein considers the existence of a
vertical access, such as a hatch, provided with a vertical or almost vertical ladder.
For almost vertical attacks, if it is possible to go down facing the fire the ideal
position is keeping the nozzle over your shoulder.
P a g e | 35
Class “A” Fire
A protection line (water fog) must be established at the access to be opened. This
line is kept in this position throughout the whole operation, preventing or reducing the
transference of heat and smoke to the access area. This line is to be suspended by “S”
hooks if possible in order to facilitate the fire team movement.
When everything is ready, the equipment is tested and the fire team is positioned,
the hatch is cooled down. The Fire Team Leader determines the hatch opening and
locking, while the number 1 on the protection line and the man on the sealing line cools
down the access.
The attack hose is lowered while opened through the fog produced by the
protection and sealing lines until approximately half of the compartment high and a
circular movement is carried out so the water from the nozzle covers a large area near
the access, thus cooling down the compartment.
The attack hose is then lifted, and the number 1 on this line renders the number 1
on the protection line.
The number 1 on the protection line gives the hose to the number 2 (or to the
team leader, if there is not a number 2), and places himself on the top of the ladder
(protected by the sealing and protection line, if applicable). When his shoulders are at
the hatch, the number 1 takes the open nozzle and holds it with his arms so the water
fog is directed towards his back, protecting him. He goes down. When reaching the
ladder base, he kicks the ladder three times or uses the radio to inform he is in the
position, and then directs the nozzle towards the fire spot. He walks away from the
ladder, lowers and waits for the arrival of the other members.
The number 1 on the attack line gives the hose to the number 2 (or to the team
leader, if there is not a number 2), and places himself on the top of the ladder. When his
shoulders are at the hatch, the number 1 takes the open nozzle and holds it with his
arms so the water fog is directed towards his back, protecting him. He goes down. When
reaching the ladder base, he kicks the ladder three times or uses the radio to inform he
is in the position, and then directs the nozzle towards the fire spot. He walks away from
the ladder, stays by the side of the number 1 on the protection line, lowers and waits for
the team leader arrival.
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The Fire Team Leader is the third man to go down. Only after he arrives, stays
behind the numbers 1 on the protection and attack line, identifies the fire spot and
confirms everyone is safe, the attack operation starts.
The other fire team members coordinate the hoses use, loosening them when
required, stay by the fire hose length and go down if necessary.
The Fire Team Leader must the first to render the attacking group.
Class “B” Fire
A sealing line (water fog) must be established at the access to be opened.

This line is kept throughout the whole operation, which prevents or reduces the
transference of heat or smoke to the access area. This line is to be suspended by “S”
hooks if possible.
When everything is ready, the equipment is tested and the team is positioned, the
access hatch is cooled down. The Fire Team Leader determines the hatch opening and
locking, while the number 1 on the protection line and the man on the sealing line keeps
applying water to cool down the temperature in the access area.
The man on the attack line applies foam on the ladder and on the access area;
The number 1 on the protection line gives the hose to the number 2 and stays at
the top of the ladder, protected by both lines. The number 1 takes the open nozzle and
holds it with his arms so the water fog is directed towards his back, protecting him. He
goes down.
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When reaching the ladder base, he kicks the ladder three times or uses the radio
to inform he is in the position, and then directs the nozzle towards the fire spot, if it is
visible, while waiting for the attack line.
The number 1 on the attack line gives the hose to the number 2 and stays at the
top of the ladder, protected by the sealing line. The number 1 takes the open nozzle and
holds it with his arms so the water fog is directed towards his back, protecting him. He
goes down. When reaching the ladder base, he kicks the ladder three times or uses the
radio to inform he is in the position, and then places himself next to the protection line;
The Fire Team Leader is the third man to go down. Only after he arrives, stays
behind the numbers 1 on the protection and attack line, identifies the fire spot and
confirms everyone is safe, the attack operation starts.
The other fire team members coordinate the hoses use, loosening them when
required, stay by the fire hose length and go down if necessary.
Observations and Recommendations
The attack is to be always coordinately implemented only in one direction, if

possible, whether using portable fire extinguishers or fire hoses.
The joint attack using two extinguishers or hoses is always more efficient than
using a single device, although sometimes it is impossible the entrance of two men in
the confined space.
If it is not possible to use two fire hoses, only one can be used, but the second is
to be ready for use if required, completely equipped and pressurized before the first line
is put into the space.
The extinguisher jet is to be directed to the base of the flame if it is CO2, and over
the flam if it is DCP (Dry Chemical).
The joint attack should be implemented by opposite directions, which could
endanger the less aggressive group or, for example, the group experiencing a problem
with the hose lines, such as bents. If indirect attack from different directions is required,
an efficient communication system must be effective.
When attacking the fire spot with nozzles, the water or foam must be directed
over the fire from the bottom up, making movements in order to put the flames away
from the fire team and leading the hot gases and vapor up. This procedure is also valid
for containments (cooling down).
At the moment the water or foam contacts the fire, a violent reaction is expected
from the combustion, displacing hot gases and producing a rollover that can go towards
the fire team. The fire team leader must check if everybody is protected before starting
the attack. At the initial stage of the operation the personnel must keep lowered until
this reaction is reduced.
The fire team members must stay behind obstacles to be protected against the
irradiated heat.
It should be taken into consideration that at the initial stage the burning material
is probably concentrated at the bottom of the compartment, but during the growth stage
the material above starts burning (wiring, thermal insulation, lamps etc.). After some
time all the material on the bottom has already burnt, and the concentration of burning
material and hot gases is on the upper part of the compartment. This information aims
P a g e | 38
to guide the fire team to use their other senses (heat sensation and hearing) if the
visibility is low, directing the extinguishing agent over the probable location of the fire
spots.
If possible, water should not be continuously applied. Its intermittent use reduces
vapor formation, the amount of water onboard and allows regular reassessment of the
fire conditions. The water application duration may increase as the vapor formation
reduces, taking into consideration the amount of water onboard.
The water must be directed to the combustion area, instead of randomly into the
smoke. Continuously applying water without coordination is not recommended, because
it causes the compartment thermal unbalance, thus producing a lot of vapor before the
fire team has the chance to reach the fire spot due to the lack of visibility, and it also
creates flooding issues and affects the stability.
The foam is the best extinguishing agent for Class “A” and “B” fires. Class “A” fires
that are difficult to control may require the use of foam with 2% of LGE concentration,
until the compartment can be entered.
When the personnel fighting a fire are rendered they must be taken to a well-
ventilated cool area; their heads, faces, arms etc. must be moistened. They are
supposed to drink a great amount of cold water (0,5 to 1 liter) to replace the liquid lost
during the operation.
During situation with a great amount of smoke, Cyalume may be used to mark the
fire team members, ladders, doors, exits etc.
When the operation is carried out from the deck above; the following
considerations are important:
 This deck floor will be very hot, which is another aspect to increase the fire
team members fatigue, especially the ones donning protective clothes, so:
 The members rotation must be faster;
 Wearing safety boots is essential, and wearing two pairs of cotton socks is
recommended;
 The fire team members must avoid holding the handrails so their hands do
not get burnt. Wearing extra gloves inside the firefighting gloves is required
to prevent from hands burn if it is necessary to hold the handrails;
 The fire attack operation is to be carried out through a door instead of
through a hatch/scuttle, because an urgent evacuation wearing masks
would be more difficult through a scuttle;
 The balusters on the compartments access at lower decks must be
removed, because they make the personnel entry and the hoses handling
more difficult;
 The fire team leader will decide when using the fire blanket when opening
the access route. He should take into consideration: the smoke and hot
gases will immediately enter the deck above, even before they are able to
install the fire blanket, which may turn the communication more difficult
between the man going down and the team; so the fire team entry in the
compartment will also be more difficult, which may cause accidents.
However, as a positive aspect, it will reduce the amount of fresh air
entering the compartment after the fire is extinguished.
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Hot gases and smoke onboard vessels concentrate at the compartments and
passageways upper side. This is to be considered when fighting a fire, so
containments/cooling down may be properly implemented.
During major fires, the time spent on the operation will be determined by the
personnel's resistance and will be lower than the mask use duration, so their rendering
must be previously arranged.
The temperature elevation during fires causes the pressure increase in confined
spaces. As previously mentioned, the water becoming vapor expands approximately
1700 times, increasing this pressure even more and violently forcing the hot gases and
smoke into ventilation ducts, doors and hatches, etc. Another example of pressure
increase: 2 diesel fuel gallons burning in a confined space increases the internal pressure
in approximately 2 Atm. within around 1 minute.
1.7. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS
The extinguishing agent is any material used to cool down, suppress the flames or
break the chain reaction resulting from combustion, causing its extinction.
The most used agents are Water, Foam, Vapor, Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
Halogenated Mixtures, Dry Chemical, “D” Powder, ABC Powder and fire blanket.
Water
It is the most used extinguishing agent, whose main function is to cool down the
area absorbing a great amount of heat. Another positive effect is the vapor formation
during the process, which suppress the fire. The water is an excellent extinguishing
agent for solid fires (Class A). The cooling down process limits or ceases fuel gases
discharge, thus ceasing the combustion.
The water is quite easy to use. The required
proportion to extinguish a fire is about 4 l/min./m².
The use of water depends on how it is applied. It can
be as a solid jet, high or low speed fog. The different
ways of applying water aims to cool down the
structures around the fire. If these structures are
cooled down, heat radiation is reduced, which
prevents the structure weakening. This also prevents
other objects from burning and/or exploding.
The solid jet is accomplished by using high
pressure water applied by a nozzle or monitor. This way the water violently reaches the
burning material and deeply penetrates it. This is the best way to fight Class “A” fires, in
which the material must be soaked to ensure the fire complete extinction and prevent
re-ignition.
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In some situations, such as when fires occur in mattresses or pillows, it is

recommended to immerse the objects into the water, thus ensuring there are no embers
left inside.
The water fog, both high and low speed, is the water spray by special sprayers.
When applied as a spray, the contact surface with the burning material is
considerably increased, which provided quickly temperature reduction on the affected
area (extinction by cooling down). They can be used for Class “A” fires, reducing
superficial flames and allowing the teams to reach the fire spot, which will be attacked
with a solid jet. When foam is not available, the water fog is extremely efficient for Class
“B” fires, where solid jets are useless, because instead of extinguishing the fire they
increase it by spreading the burning liquid. The water extinguished the fire by cooling it
down, in other words, it reduces the substances' temperature below their ignition point.
However, when water is applied on a substance under combustion, part of it becomes
vapor. The vapor acts damping the fire.
Therefore the water extinguishes the fire first by cooling it down, and secondarily
by damping it.
 Water chemical and physical Properties - Water appears in nature in all

three states of matter: solid, liquid and gas. Whatever the state, the
chemical constitution is the same: H2O.
Under normal temperature and pressure conditions, the water is liquid. It is
solid below 0ºC and gaseous above 100ºC.
The temperatures mentioned vary according to the pressure, as the pressure

varies according to the altitude. Whatever the state, it is always colorless, tasteless and
odorless.
As a gas, it remains colorless and transparent until the condensation process
starts, when it becomes a visible white cloud due to the heat loss.
The water is one of the main solvents in nature, it is provided with an excellent
chemical stability, but can be decomposed by the action of electricity and by
temperatures above 1200ºC, producing the dangerous hydrogen gas (fuel) and the
oxygen.
P a g e | 41
Foam
The foam is formed by small bubbles stuck together as if they were a real blanket,
which lies on the burning material and ceases the oxygen supply required for
combustion. The foam liquid generator is, according to NBR 13.860:1997, “Concentrated
as an organic or synthetic liquid that when combined with water forms a solution that
after being mixed and aerated produces foam”.
It is used in special devices, such
as nozzles, portable extinguishers or fixed
systems. The concentration varies from
1% to 6%. It requires a dosage
(combination with water) and aeration
(combination with air) immediately before
being applied. For example, for a 3%
concentrate, the proportioner will
combine 3 parts of concentrate with 97
parts of water.
If it is a 6% concentrate, the
proportioner will combine 6 parts of
concentrate with 94 parts of water. Foam
is the best extinguishing agent for Class B fires and flammable liquid vapor releases
originated from hydrocarbons. Its main extinguishing characteristic is damping.
However, the foam also acts by cooling down the material, because its composition
comprises 94% to 99% of water.
Foam is also considered the best extinguishing agent for major fires, especially
the ones in the engine room, because it is liquid enough to be spread throughout the
whole compartment forming a blanket isolating the fuel spilled in the hold. It may also
be used to protect structures and equipment against the thermal radiation.
When the foam is applied to solid surfaces it reflects the heat because of its
opacity, and the slow evaporation of its water content has a cooling effect. The foam is
further used to reduce or cease the generation of toxic gases from liquids and solid. It
can be used to fill in holes and closed spaces where toxic gases or flammable vapors
may be accumulated.
The foam characteristics are:
 It prevents heat radiation, because the flames are apart from the fuel;
 The foam mass viscosity prevents vapor formation right above the liquid;
 It easily adheres to the surface forming a cover;
 It does not change the vessel stability;
 It is resistant to heat;
 It is intolerant to combustible liquids.
There are some types of foam available, namely:

 Protean Foam;
 Fluoroprotean Foam (FFFP – Film Forming Foam Protein);
 Synthetic Foam;
 AFFF (Aqueous Film Firming Foam);
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 ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate, Alcohol Type Concentrate).
 Protean Foam
It results from the proteins hydrolysis. This was the first type of foam, cheap and
good quality. It is also stable and heat resistant, but it acts slowly. (e.g. Extracted from
the bull blood).
 Fluoroprotean Foam (FFP)

It is provided with a Fluor chemical substance that makes it flows easily, thus
creating a faster extinguishing reaction.
 Synthetic Foam
It is used for small fires. This type of foam is provided with low heat resistance
and fuel intolerance. It is usually applied via fixed facilities to fill in confined spaces.
 AFFF (Aqueous Film Forming Foam)

It is synthetic foam specially produced to reduce the surface tension. The AFFF can
be applied via sprinklers. AFFF addition forms a rigid layer over the liquid. It can be
easily applied, which provides a fast response concerning the firefighting operation. The
foam can be also used combined with powder. Observe that the foam itself is not heat
resistant.
 ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate)

It is alcohol resistant foam designed for products soluble in water. The products
that are soluble in water will break the other types of foam by absorbing the water in it.
This foam is alcohol resistant, it is provided with several chemical stabilizers that
create a thick polymer layer between the product and the foam when it is applied. It is
easy to identify this foam because it is more viscous when compared to the other types.
A specially designed nozzle is required for the fire main and hoses.
A proportioner is used to add the appropriate amount of the foam generator
product to the water. The proportioner may be adjusted to provide different percentages
of LGE.Te light foam is generated using a foam generator.
After being used, the nozzles must be cleaned and washed with water, because
the foam products cause corrosion.
 Foam general use
Every foam is basically water air and LGE
stabilized mixture, as a low density mass that
reflects heat, which is capable of flowing and
leveling on liquid and solid horizontal surfaces, as
well as sticking to vertical surfaces. They are useful
whenever it is necessary to cool down the area and
provide a cover to isolate the vapors. The foams
must be provided with the specific physical and
chemical characteristics to protect against certain
risk. A foam cover on a liquid can prevent the
vapors release for many hours. However, when its
P a g e | 43
water content is drained, it becomes more vulnerable to the mechanical decomposition.

The cover may be removed after some time and it does not usually affect the
product under it. The foam may be also used to protect structures and equipment
against thermal radiation.
The foam opacity provides the heat reflection on solid surfaces, and its content
slow evaporation provides cooling effect. The foam also provides the reduction or cease
of toxic gases generation from liquids or solids.
 Expansion rate
The quantity of air added to the foam solution determines its expansion rate. This
is the relation between the expanded foam volume and the foam solution volume. For
example, 100 milliliters of solution are used to produce 2000 milliliters of foam, the
enlarged foam is provided with an expansion of 20 2000 ÷ 100 = 20. According to the
expansion rate, the foam is classified under three categories: low, medium and high. The
low one has an expansion lower than 20. The medium one has an expansion between 20
and 200. The high one has an expansion between 200 and 1000. In general, the higher
the expansion, the bigger amount of foam is required to extinguish the fire.
Low expansion foams add less air and have more solution. That is why they are
heavier and more compact, thus reaching the fire faster without waste. This way, they
provide the fire team members a greater safety, because it can be applied from a
greater distance.
Low expansion foams may better penetrate ascendant fires than high expansion
foams.
 Fluidity and Drainage Time
The expansion is essential for the foam efficiency, because the amount of air to be
added to the foam solution determines its fluidity and drainage characteristics.
Considerable amount of air creates a rigid foam type that does not flow easily. The
drainage time is also increased if the expansion is high.
 Use of Petroleum Derivatives

The most important use of foam is on petroleum derivative fires, such as gasoline,
provided with high vapor pressures and low flashpoint.
The foam is the only extinguishing agent that is always used for this type of fire,
because the smooth application over the burning surfaces allows the flames progressive
extinction.
The foam may also be used to cover exposed areas with combustible material,
thus preventing flammable vapors release. Spill risks are quickly controlled by applying
foam.
Large exposed areas with burning gasoline, such as in plane crashes during
landing or depart, require the application of a great amount of foam in order to
extinguish the fire or enable rescue activities. The foam is also occasionally used on
airport runaways to reduce the risk of sparks produced by friction, when an aircraft has
to land using its lower metallic parts.
P a g e | 44
 Foam restrictions
Foam is not considered the proper extinguishing agent for fires involving liquefied
petroleum gases (GPL), such as butane, propane, butadiene, etc. Common sense must
be used when applying foam over recipients containing hot products, whose temperature
is over the water boiling point, whether under normal circumstances or due to the fire
exposition. Using foam on tanks containing highly viscous oils that have been under
combustion for a long time may not be recommended, such as Bunker Oil. In such
situations, the foam water may violently agitate the oil and result in overflow. The foam
conducts electricity; so solid jets should not be used against fires on energized electrical
equipment.
Caution:
 As it conducts electricity, it may cause accidents if used on energized
electrical equipment;
 It reduces the resistance of electrical and electronic equipment and circuits;
 Some types of foam are provided with corrosive properties on several
material;
 It causes eyes and skin irritation.
Vapor
The water vapor may be used as an extinguishing agent damping the fire.
It obviously does not provide cooling due to its high temperatures.
It extinguishes the fire by excluding the air or removing the oxygen, which is
called damping process, similarly to carbon dioxide (CO2) or other inert gases.
It is difficult to extinguish fires in fuels whose combustion produces embers,
because it is harder to cool down their temperature. In some types of fires, such as in
ammonium nitrate and similar oxidizing agents, the vapor is completely useless. The
vapor is used as an extinguishing agent in industrial facilities comprising continuous
operations, such as vessels and several industries using boilers. Where it is possible
using vapor, a distribution system must be studied in order to identify the most
dangerous areas, especially in confined spaces, because measures must be taken to
prevent the contact between the vapor and the personnel. There are also certain
industrial processes comprising hot work where vapor is the only safe extinguishing
agent.
Vapor may be used to extinguish Class “B” fires, especially in boiler room holds
and in steamships engine rooms, when these fires do not respond to other extinguishing
methods. Using vapor requires the compartment isolations, which is then kept
inoperative.
Caution:
 It requires the removal of all personnel from the compartment;
 All equipment in the compartment is exposed to high temperatures.
P a g e | 45
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is called a clean agent, because it does not leave residues
after its use. It is an excellent agent for Class “C” fires (energized electrical material). It
is provided with a limited cooling effect. CO2 does not conduct electricity nor sustains
the combustion in common material. However, it reacts with magnesium and other
metals.
Watch out when using it either indoors or outdoors. Its excessive use in confined
spaces may replace the existing oxygen and suffocate people inside the compartment.
The fire team member must continuously move the diffuser from side to side when
applying this agent, directing it to the fire base. Its use outdoors is impaired because it
dissipates quickly in the atmosphere.
As CO2 is an inert gas, it damps the fire
surrounding the burning body with a CO2 atmosphere,
thus reducing the oxygen content. CO2 is an excellent
option for portable extinguishers that can be used for
Class “B” and “C” fires.
CO2 Characteristics
Carbon dioxide is colorless, odorless and does not

conduct electricity under normal conditions. It is
approximately 1,5 times heavier than the air, it can easily
penetrate the fire spot, and will not be a problem for
energized electrical components. It is not corrosive and does not leave residues. CO2 is
ready for use and provides minimum environmental impact when compared to other
gaseous extinguishing agents, such as Halon 1301.
It acts removing the oxygen or reducing the vapor stage, thus ceasing the
combustion. The system comprises a liquefied gas under high (850 psi) or low (300psi)
pressure, which is distributed by a pipework, nozzles and an activation system designed
to provide 30 to 60 per cent of concentration to the protected area.
Such concentration also suppresses the oxidation reaction on the human body,
leaving the people unconscious in a few seconds. A CO2 system will also produce low
temperatures (almost – 43° C) on the release nozzles, thus forming extremely fine dry
ice particles that will completely impair vision.
That is why it is particularly important the personnel on is considered during this
system design and operation.
Caution:
 It may cause suffocation when used in confined
spaces without ventilation;
 It may cause burns (frostbite) on skin and eyes,
if applied from small distances;
 The discharge of CO2 cylinders may result in
static electricity formation. So their use is not
recommended for environments containing flammable mixtures.
P a g e | 46
Halogenated Compounds
The halogenated compounds present low toxicity when stored under the normal
conditions recommended by the manufacturers. They are also called clean agents
because they act breaking the chain reaction. When released, these compounds vaporize
and become an odorless colorless gas reaching the fire due to the storage pressure.
The Halon used as an extinguishing agent is restricted and is to be completely
replaced according to the Montreal Protocol (1987), because it impairs the Ozone Layer.
FM-200 is described by the Environmental Protection Department as “the most efficient
alternative for Halon 1301”. It suppresses the fire within 10 seconds, by preventing the
chemical reaction occurring in it. It can be used in manned areas under the
concentration approved by NFPA-2001. FM-200 is also ecofriendly. It does not affect the
Ozone Layer and has low life average duration in the atmosphere. FM-200 was
developed to protect facilities containing high valued corporative properties and people.
It is used in more than 70% of suppression applications with clean agents
replacing Halon 1301. It is considered the best alternative because it does not result in
respiratory or toxicological problems nor affects vision during an emergency.
It is a propane heptafluoride, whose chemical formula is CF3CHFCF3. Its ozone
depletion factor is zero, which is another advantage over the HCFC’s.
When FM 200 is exposed to fire, it decomposes originating hydrofluoric acid
amounts considerably greater than those from halon due to the amount of fluorite in its
composition.
The fluorite in this composition combines with the hydrogen from the water vapor
originating the hydrofluoric acid (HF), which is provided with a strong bad smell even in
low concentrations.
So the product decomposition will create an irritant atmosphere, harmful for those
inside the area.
The duration of the product presence in the atmosphere is high (31 to 42 years)
and it also contributes for the global warming.
The ECARO-25 (SF-25 ™) is characterized as a unique fire extinguishing agent. The FE-
25 ™ absorbs the heat generated by the fire at the fastest molecular level than the heat
that can be generated, so the fire cannot sustain itself on its own. The FE-25 ™ also
forms free radicals to chemically interfere with the chain reaction of the combustion
process. This highly effective clean agent is safe for people, equipment and environment.
The ECARO-25 protects inhabited areas and equipment. It does not attack the ozone
layer nor to the environment. Electrically nonconductive. Colorless and odorless. Leaves
no residue. For the use of spaces occupied and unoccupied.
Inergen
An inert non-corrosive non-

combustible gas, which does not react with
most of the substances. It comprises only
naturally occurring gases: nitrogen (52%),
argon (40%) and carbon dioxide (8%). It
extinguishes the fire by reducing the level
P a g e | 47
of oxygen in the environment until the combustion cannot be sustained. When it is

released in a room it introduces a proper mixture of gases to enable breathing even with
a low level of oxygen, stimulating the body to absorb oxygen. Under normal condition
the oxygen content is 21% and the carbon dioxide content is less than 1% in a room. If
the oxygen amount is reduced below 15%, most combustibles will not burn anymore.
INERGEN will reduce the level of oxygen in the environment for 12,5% while increasing
the carbon dioxide content for 4%.
Increasing the carbon dioxide content increases the organism respiratory rate and
the oxygen absorption capacity. To sum up, the human body is stimulated by the carbon
dioxide to breathe faster and deeper so the oxygen reduction is compensated.
INERGEN benefits are:
 It does not destroy the ozone layer;
 It is ecofriendly;
 It does not produce dangerous sub products as hydrofluoric acid;
 It is not corrosive.
Caution:
 The halogenated agents present low toxicity when stored under the normal
conditions recommended by the manufacturer;
 When a fire is extinguished by any agent coming from halogenated
hydrocarbon, some measures must be taken to protect against some
common sub products. The halogenated substance is decomposed at 500° C
(900° F), resulting in several toxic elements, such as hydrochloric acid,
hydrofluoric acid and hydrobromic acid;
 These sub products as extremely harmful to humans and may lead to death
almost instantaneously. So, when they are used in a compartment, only
enter it wearing a self-contained breathing apparatus after fifteen minute
after the fire extinction confirmation (while the temperature is reduced).
Argonite
The ARGONITE is an inert gas that provides effective protection against fires with
zero environmental impact. This is a simple mixture of 50% argon gas and 50% nitrogen
gas with density similar to that of air. Both argon and nitrogen are clean, natural gases
that are readily available worldwide.
ARGONITE is safe and effective for use in many applications; It is well suited for
venues such as flight simulators, substations and control rooms and to the application
with various risks. Argonite is an inert gas that extinguishes the fire based on the
principle of oxygen depletion. Argonite is environmentally acceptable clean agent that
offers potential zero ozone (odp) and zero global warming potential (p). It is safe for use
in a wide range of sensitive applications where people are present and are electronically
NO - conductive. Argonite produces no waste: thus, there is no damage to equipment
protected and nothing to clean.
Argonite extinguishes fire by physically removing oxygen from the atmosphere. In
occupied areas, people can breathe Argonite in extinguishing concentrations without
P a g e | 48
fear. No toxicological factors associated with the use and Argonite aragonite, do not
decompose or produces any other products when exposed to fire from a fire situation
Dry Chemical Powder (DCP)
Dry chemicals are formed by very fine particles treated to resist the package and
moist absorption and keep good flow conditions.
There are several theories proposed to explain how the dry chemicals extinguish
the fire. The one accepted nowadays, which explains this substance efficiency, indicates
the chain reaction cease as the main extinguishing method. When a fuel burns, essential
components for the continuous chemical reaction (called free radicals) are released.
Besides this, the reactive elements present in some dry chemicals also increase
the element capacity to get free radicals (thereafter, the most efficient agents combine
“reactive” elements and are as fine as possible).
Because of their knock down characteristics, they are generally used in portable
extinguishers that can be fast and efficiently used to respond to an emergency.
The Dry Chemicals are substances comprised of Sodium Bicarbonate, Potassium
Bicarbonate or Potassium Chloride that when sprayed form a powder cloud over the fire
and ceases its chain reaction. They are used on flammable liquids fires (Class “B”) and
also in fires in energized equipment (Class “C”). hey must an anti-hygroscopic treatment
to prevent them to become rigid inside the extinguisher. There are several types of dry
chemicals being used nowadays via portable extinguishers or fixed systems. They damp
the fire and break the chain reaction, depending on the extinguishing agent. (PKP) – It is
Potassium Bicarbonate based extinguishing agent used on flammable liquids fires as a
spray and on flammable gases, which ceases the chain reaction required for the
combustion sustainment. It can be used for “C” fires, leaving residues that are difficult to
remove. PKP may be used in galleys, ducts, fryers and hot plates.
 General Properties
All dry chemicals share similar

characteristics. They are all capable of damping
the fire. Regular dry chemicals may be used on
Class “B” and “C” fires. Multipurpose dry
chemicals suppress Class “A”, “B” and “C” fires.
Usually, the smaller the particle is, the
more efficient the agent is. However, if every
particle is tiny, the release reach is reduced.
Therefore, when the dry chemical is produced, a
granulometric distribution is kept to ensure the
best reach and extinction efficiency.
The package to be used is regular for this type of material, which comprises
several particle sizes. Some agents are better compacted than others.
P a g e | 49
All dry chemicals and all extinguishers are designed to fluidify the compacted
material and discharge at least 85% of the content (according to Underight Laboratory -
UL).
The active ingredients of all dry chemicals are water soluble, which is why the
exposure to moisture must be minimized. The manufacturers use water repellent agents
to prevent moisture absorption under regular situations, such as charging and
maintenance. The dry chemical prolonged exposure to water will stiffen the agent. This
would obviously turn the extinguisher useless. Fall tests foreseen by the UL may be used
to determine if the agent is still usable. All rigid chemicals must be properly discharged.
The steel recipients must be checked for rust. Replace damaged dry chemicals for good
ones. Their validity is undetermined since they are kept dry and stored within the
recommended temperature.
Flow additives are included on the Dry Chemicals production. They enable the
agents to resist the package and turn the flow through the hoses easier.
Some manufacturers voluntarily use a color code to help identifying the Dry
Chemicals. All multipurpose dry chemicals are coded yellow, regardless the
manufacturer. No dry chemical can be interchanged, regardless its composition,
manufacturer or color code.
The materials used for the dry chemicals elaboration are not toxic, but they are
considered “irritant dust”. They are labeled as “slightly dangerous”. Every manufacturer
provide the agents' relevant technical sheets. The dry chemicals residues cleaning can be
accomplished with a broom and spade or vacuum cleaner. The agents residues may be
removed with hot water and soap, then rising with clean water.
As previously explained, the extinguishing agents based on dry chemicals
extinguish the fire by separating the four elements of the “fire tetrahedron” (which is the
update of the well-known “fire triangle”, now including the combustion chemical
reaction).
They prevent the chemical reaction between the heat, fuel and oxygen and avoid
the production of “free radicals” that support the flame, thus extinguishing the fire.
Chain Reaction – The combustion is an oxidation chemistry, self-supported,
releasing light and heat, smoke and gases.
The chain reaction is formed during the combustion by the unstable intermediate
products, called free radicals, which are ready to combine with other elements,
generating new stable radicals.
The free radicals transmit the chemical energy generated by the reaction, which in
turn is transformed into thermal energy that decomposes the molecules, which are still
intact, thus sustaining and spreading the fire.
 Monoammonium Phosphate [NH4H2PO4]

It is also known as “tri-class”, “polyvalent” and “ABC” dry chemical, which can be
used for Class A, B and C fires. It can melt and flow at 177°C to damp the fire. It is more
corrosive than the other Dry Chemicals.
 Sodium Bicarbonate [NaHCO3]

It is the “regular” or “common” dry chemical used for Class B and C fires. This was
the first dry chemical developed. It interrupts the fire chemical reaction.
P a g e | 50
It used to be more common in commercial kitchens before the development of

wet chemical agents, but it is less efficient than Purple-K for Class B fires, and is
inefficient for Class A fires. It is White.
 Potassium Bicarbonate [KHCO3]

It is also known as Purple-K, which is used for Class B and C fires. It is around two
times more efficient for Class B fires than sodium bicarbonate, and is the preferred dry
chemical in the oil and gas industry. It is the only dry chemical certified by NFPA for
rescue and fire fighting in aircrafts. It is Violet.
 Potassium Bicarbonate and Urea Complex [KC2N2H3O3]

It is also known as Monnex, which is used for Class B and C fires. It is more
efficient than all other powders due to its break up capability (the powder breaks up into
smaller particles) on the flames zone, which creates a bigger surface of free radical
inhibition.
 Potassium Chloride [KCl]

It is also called Super-K dry chemical powder. It was developed in the 60s to
create a high efficient dry chemical compatible with protein foam, before the Purple-K. It
was never as popular as the other agents because as it is a salt it is corrosive. It is for
Class B and C fires, white colored.
 MET-L-KYL
It is a special variation of sodium bicarbonate to fight fires in pyrophoric liquids
(they burn when contacting the air). Besides the sodium bicarbonate, it also contains
silica gel particles. The sodium bicarbonate interrupts the fuel chain reaction and the
silica absorbs unburnt fuels, preventing their contact with the air. It is also efficient for
other Class B fuels. It is blue and red.
Caution:
 The products used in its composition are not toxic. However, the discharge
of a great amount may result if breathing difficulties during and
immediately after the discharge, it may also severely affect the visibility.
 It may affect the electric and electronic equipment function and their
insulation.
Compatible
Foam Compatible is the dry chemical acting together with foams. Modern Dry
Chemicals are considered compatible with synthetic foams, such as the AFFF type.
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Special Dry Chemical (“D” Powder)
This is the powder used in Class D fires according to the manufacturers' essential
techniques and recommendations. The agent and the applying method depend on the
metal type, quantity and shape.
The most common powder used is MET-L-X (Sodium Chloride with Tri Calcium
Phosphate and metal stearate). It is a thermoplastic additive that gathers the sodium
chloride particles forming a solid mass under the fire action. The powder is not toxic,
combustible abrasive nor conducts electricity. The propellant is generally the Carbon
Dioxide.
The powder forms a solid layer that prevents the contact between the oxygen and
the flames, extinguishing the fire by damping it. It is important that the solid layer is not
broken, which would enable oxygen entry and the flames intensification. The powder
sticks to the hot surfaces, surrounding irregular melted shapes. The extinguishers
containing MET-L-X are indicated for fires involving sodium, potassium, magnesium and
sodium-potassium alloys.
Caution:
 The compounds are not toxic. However, if discharged in great amounts, it
may result in temporary breathing difficulty during and immediately after
the discharge. It may also affect the visibility. It may affect the electric and
electronic equipment function and their insulation.
ABC Powder
It is an extinguisher based on Monoammonium phosphate + Ammonium Sulfate,

the dry chemical is yellow color coded for identification purposes, and may be used in
some Class “A” and “B” fires and mandatory for Class “C”. Monoammonium phosphate is
slightly acid when moist is present, which results in slightly corrosive properties.
It melts when heated at 300°F (140° C), forming a layers that sticks to a surface.
The layer stays even after the surface cools down, and it is also acid when exposed to
moist.
Fire Blanket
This is used to extinguish fires in fryers. The fire blanket is made of fire resistant
material, which is usually Kevlar or Nomex that receive a special treatment against fire.
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1.8. WATER AS AGENT EXTINGUISHER ON BOARD , ITS EFFECT ON

STABILITY, PRECAUTIONS AND CORRECTIVE MEASURES
Water Extinguishing Property
The fire-extinguishing properties of the water are: cooling, baffling,

emulsification and dilution. These properties are directly or indirectly related to the form
of use of water. The extinction is only obtained when the agent reaches the end point
where combustion occurs. For hundreds of years the main method of extinguishing
limited to the use of solid jets directed at the base of the fire and applied from a safe
distance. This same method, using jets through nozzles remains today as the most
conventional fire extinguishing, however, moderately we found that the best efficiency of
water as mist and adopted nozzles combined to compact mist jets . Other devices have
been discovered for the application of water in various forms of mist, shower and
"spray", which have been increasingly used in appliances and fire-fighting facilities.
 Extinction by cooling down

The fire is usually extinguished when the burning material surface is cooled down
until the temperature is below the combustion point. Superficial cooling down is usually
inefficient to extinguish fires in flammable liquids or gases whose flashpoint is below the
water temperature, so it is not recommended for flammable liquids whose flashpoint is
under 38°C.
The amount of water required to extinguish a fire depends on the heat to be
absorbed.
The operation duration depends on the water application in relation to the heat
produced, the possible coverage degree and how the water is applied. The water must
be applied in a way to reach the maximum heat absorption. To do so, it is required the
water is heated until its boiling temperature (100°C) and is transformed into vapor. This
is better accomplished when the water is applied as a fog or spray, instead of a solid jet.
The main cooling down effects when the water is applied as fog or spray are:
 The heat transfer amount is proportional to the water surface. For certain
amount of water, the surface will be increased according to its conversion
into droplets;
 The amount of heat transferred depends on the temperature difference
between the water and the air surrounding the fire, as well as on the
material in combustion;
 The amount of heat transferred depends on the amount of vapor in the air
(hygrometric conditions), especially in relation to the fire spread;
 Heat absorption capacity depends on the distance and speed of the water
application on the combustion area. It requires a great amount of water
being applied on the substances suffering combustion;
 The droplet size must be large enough to reach the required energy for
combustion, overcoming gravity resistance and the air inverse movement
caused by the rising thermal air currents or others.
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Certain material is chemically decomposed under high temperatures, in these

situations the water is used to cool them down below the decomposition temperature,
unless the burning material chemically reacts with water. In a few situations the water
accelerates the combustion process, which is sometimes desired to reduce the time the
material keeps burning.
A widely used method to prevent combustion is wetting combustible material in
areas not affected by the fire yet.
The water absorption by the combustible material delays their ignition, because
the water must evaporate before this material ignition point is reached.
 Damping the fire down

Damping the fire down with water occurs when it is a vapor. When the vapor is
generated in a large quantity, the air may be displaced or even removed from the
combustion area. Class B fire may be extinguished this way, which is easier when the
generated vapor is confined in the combustion area. The heat absorption process will
cease when the vapor condensates. This situation is observed by the formation of water
vapor clouds (white smoke).
The condensation occurring above the combustion area does not cool the burning
material down, but instead removes the heat from this area.
Fires in common material, Class A, are usually extinguished because they are
cooled down by the water, not because of the damping process created by the water
vapor, however it helps suppressing the flames.
The water may be used to damp down the fires in flammable liquids provided with
flashpoint above 38°C (100°F), specific gravity equal or higher than 1,1 and not soluble
in water.
 Extinction by Emulsification
The emulsification occurs whenever immiscible liquids are stirred together, and
one of the liquids is dissipated through the other as droplets. Extinguishing a fire in
flammable viscous liquids may be accomplished by applying water, because the cooling
down effect will be reached on their surface thus preventing the release of flammable
vapors.
What usually occurs during emulsification is that flammable drops are surrounded
by water drops, evidencing, such as with oils, a milky appearance. In some viscous
liquids the emulsification occurs as foam, which delays the release of flammable vapors.
Special care is required when using this method in very deep liquids, because the
foam formation may be so violent that the recipient overflows.
The emulsification effect is accomplished by a high speed water fog of heavy
particles. Solid jets should be avoided when dealing with flammable viscous liquids,
because they may result in a severe effervescence with huge foam formation.
 Extinction by Dilution
The dilution may be used to extinguish fires in water soluble substances in some
situations. The required dilution percentage varies according to the volume of water and
the time required for the extinction. For example, the technical dilution may be
successfully used in fires involving ethyl or methyl alcohol, spilled and spread on the
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floor, where it is possible to establish an adequate mixture of water and alcohol, which is
not flammable.
Dilution by water addition should not be considered a technique to be used in fires
involving tanks, because overflow and spills of burning material are likely to occur due to
the great amount of water required. Foam formation is also a possibility if the mixture is
above the water boiling point, which may also result in overflow and spills. Because of
these factors, this is considered a pretty dangerous technique, which is indicated only
after referring specialized technicians.
Using Water as an Extinguishing Agent

As previously mentioned, water is the most common extinguishing agent because
it is found in abundance. Its use, nevertheless, requires some special equipment and
care on its application.
It is important to remember that using water onboard, vessels requires special
care during the application because of the fire hoses high pressure, which may cause
accidents if used from short distances. Another concern is that besides being an
electricity conductor, the water is capable of diluting combustible gases of a fire and
change the stability.
The water has a huge cooling effect because of its thermal conductivity. Another
positive effect is the vapor formation, which damps the fire down. The cooling effect
limits or ceases the emission of gases, thus ceasing the combustion process at the same
time.
Applying water as a fog is an excellent method for the cooling effect. However, for
Class “A” fires its better use is as a solid jet in order to deeply penetrate the burning
fuel.
When attacking a fire the difference between soluble and non-soluble liquids must
be taken into consideration. The cooling effect is possible with soluble liquids because
they will mix with the water. No-soluble liquids will float over the water, which will
possibly give raise to a bigger fire as the liquid is undesirably dispersed.
In case of products being stored under temperatures below 100°C, care is
required when using water, because it will immediately vaporize. When the firefighting
activity occurs in operation facilities, the priority is to cool down the structures around
the fire. By cooling these structures down we can prevent the heat radiation from
weakening the facility integrity. This also prevents other objects from getting on fire
and/or exploding.
 Water to fight fires in flammable liquids and fuels obtained from oil
Oil liquid derivatives (heavy fuels and others) provided with high flashpoint do not
produce flammable vapors, unless they are previously heated. Once heated and burnt,
the fire heat provides sufficient vaporization to continue the combustion. By applying
water fog on these liquids surface, the cooling will result in the vaporization reduction,
and if the application continues the fire will be extinguished.
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The water extinguishing characteristics

are limited concerning flammable liquids
obtained from oil provided with low flashpoint.
The water applied on the surface of these
liquids stored in a tank may cause a slip-over
(foam formation and vaporization of the water
contacting the burning liquid upper layers), or
even a boil-over (overflow, control loss), due to
the accumulation of water on the liquid deepest
layers, when it is heated above 100°C, causing
the water instant vaporization, a severe expansion of the vapors formed (1700 times
increase) and an eruption carrying the burning liquid.
A solid jet of water should never be used in these situations because of the boil-
over effect, and the water fog may only be used on the burning liquid surface during the
initial stage, when the deepest layers are not hot yet. The water spray may extinguish
fires in flammable liquids by cooling down the flames of the combustion minimum
temperature.
 Water in combustible metals (Sodium, Potassium, Lithium, Calcium,

Strontium and Titanium)
When fighting fires in combustible metals, using water avoided, because the
reaction may provide severe risks to the fire team members.
However, as the water is the extinguishing agent provided with the highest cooling
characteristic and easy to be found in great quantities, we will see some types of
combustible metals, the possibility of using water and how to use it to cool down the
metal temperature below its flashpoint.
Water should not be used over these metals, because a chemical reaction will
produce re-ignition and/or explosion.
Zirconium
Small quantities or solid jets of water should not be applied over burning
Zirconium, because violent reactions are likely to occur, Zirconium is
sprayed or moistened it burns more violently. The immersion of the burning
area into water is the best option.
Magnesium
The magnesium's characteristics are the same as those from zirconium.
However, small quantities of magnesium may also be extinguished with
water fog or spray. Applying water over magnesium fires where molten
metal is present must be avoided, because water vapor formation and the
possible reaction between the metal and water may be explosive.
Radioactive Metals (Plutonium, Uranium and Thorium)

Fighting fires in radioactive metals found under natural conditions (without
enrichment) is identical to zirconium, because they also react with small
quantities of water. However, there is also the risk of contamination. When
P a g e | 56
fighting fires in these materials, both the operators contamination must be

prevented by the use of PPE (waterproof clothing, gloves, face shields, etc.)
and the environment contamination by storing the burning material into
drums with water using long handled shovels.
Water effects in firefighting operations
The stability of a vessel is its capacity to resist forces against its balance and keep
the original condition. However, some things compromise the vessels stability, such as
indiscretion when adding, removing or displacing loads, flooding, free surface and open
water effects, as well as any combination of them.
The removal of the water used in firefighting operation must start as soon as
possible. The personnel assigned for this function must be provided with specific
knowledge, especially concerning the effects this water has on the vessel stability.
Concomitantly to firefighting activities, the affected area drainage must be implemented
to remove the spilled liquid fuel, but the foam layer should not be removed.
The flooding may be caused by damage due to the firefighting activities, damage
on the liquid transfer and storage systems, hull openings by collision, grounding or any
other incident allowing water inside the watertight hull. The flooding of large spaces,
such as the engine room, cargo hold, roll-on roll-off type vessels tank-deck and car-
deck, potentialize the vessel loss because of two reasons:
 to freeboard reduction and consequent sinking;
 Transversal stability reduction, which may lead to capsizing.
When a flooding occurs due to the situations mentioned above, every effort should
be employed to stop the water from entering aboard in order to keep the buoyancy. The
water from firefighting operations must be observed by the ballast operator. Knowing
exactly the amount of water used and its destination are essential for the paradox
stability x reserve of buoyancy. According to shipbuilding standards and characteristics,
large spaces are usually provided with gravity drains, which direct the water to the holds
and double bottoms.
Although sometimes the water entry eventually improves the stability general
conditions, under critical situation it may result in insufficient freeboard to resist the roll,
leading to the main deck flooding and the vessel is sinking. The appearance and crescent
use of water mist systems significantly contribute to reduce the danger imposed by the
use of a great amount of water during firefighting activities.
Corrective Precautions And Procedures When Using Water

As we know, water is a great extinguishing agent for fires in solid material, but
care is to be taken when applying it. The water vaporizes when reaching high
temperatures. This generates a water vapor bubble that displaces the air and reduces
the amount of oxygen, cooling the material down, which is its main extinguishing
characteristic – cooling. The water reduces the temperature below the flashpoint,
preventing the fire re-ignition. But it must be considered that the vessel stability and
buoyancy is affected when the water is applied. As we also know, water has a high
electrical conductivity, which may cause electrical shocks on the people handling the fire
P a g e | 57
hoses. Besides this, it is capable of diluting the gases released by the combustion
process.
To attack a fire using water the following items must be observed:
 Do not direct solid jets of water to burning liquids to avoid spreading it;
 Careful with electrical equipment;
 Avoid accidents when applying water from short distances towards the fire
team direction;
 Change the stability, etc.
Some safety items are already known, but it is important to remember:

 Drainage is important;
 knowing the vessel safety systems is essential;
 Observing and controlling containments is required to prevent flooding, etc.
 Water Electrical Conductivity

Water is considered an inadequate extinguishing agent for Class C fires due to its
electrical conductivity, which endangers the operator.
The most common firefighting technique for this class is the elimination of the
electrical source. Only after this the water is used to extinguish the fire. Or another
agent is used without electrical conductivity is used.
 Wet Water
The water superficial tension is quite high, which results in the reduction of its
penetration capability in burning fuels, preventing it from spreading inside packages,
bundles or piled up material. Submerging the burning material into water would be a
solution, but in practice it is rarely accomplished. When a fire originates in a combustible
mass, either this mass must be dismantled so the fire can be extinguished by reaching
the internal spots, or a moist additive (wet water) must be used to reduce the superficial
tension and allow the water penetration into the mass.
The use of wet water is very important for operations in Class A fires, because it
penetrates the porous surface and reach hidden areas inside the material that are
strongly pressed, such as cotton packs, paper, wood, grass piles, etc., thus preventing
the fire re-ignition.
When it is used it helps saving a great amount of water. It is indicated for
wildfires. It also provides penetration into materials that repel water, such as raw wool
or other water repellent material.
 Viscous Water
The water has low viscosity, which limits its penetration capability into the burning
material because it quickly drains.
So it is not possible to use it over the combustible material surface as a cover. So
an additive called viscous water was developed to make water more viscous, thus more
efficient when fighting certain fire types. Preliminary studies in fixed systems revealed
that when viscous water is used the fire control is faster and less water is used.
It was also identified that the affected area is lower than when pure water is used.
The fixed systems passed through several modifications so the additive could be used.
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Nowadays viscous water is mostly used to fight wildfires and fires in huge
structures where a lot of thermal energy and irradiation heat are produced.
 Fast Water
Fast Water is the name given to additives changing the water flow characteristics.
Losing water by friction is a constant issue concerning firefighting equipment. The loss is
affected by the pipework and hoses length and the amount of pumped water. Firefighting
requires high speed jets that result in turbulence and, consequently, in friction among
the water particles. This friction contributes with around 90% of the pressure loss in the
fire hoses and pipework. The pressure loss represents only 5 to 10% of the loss.
Researches carried out from 1948 on showed that linear polymers (polymers
forming a straight chain, without branches) are the most efficient additives to reduce
friction loss in these situations.
 Cares when using water

Every extinguishing agent presents secondary effects on the material or
personnel, which requires additional care during the selection to prevent accidents or
greater damage to the burnt material.
The water, especially seawater, has high electrical conductivity, so it cannot be
used on Class “C” fires. However, if other agents are not available at all, it can be used
as a high speed water fog.
At least two meters of distance must be kept from the electrical equipment.
Electrical shock risks involving the personnel are smaller this way.
Effective measures concerning the sewage must be taken. Long firefighting
operations may reduce the buoyancy due to the amount of water onboard, as well as
result in free surface, permanent heel or stability reduction because of the high weight
increase.
When the solid jet of water is used fragile equipment may be damaged, such as
electronic equipment. It reduces the equipment and circuit isolation resistance, especially
if it is seawater.
Solid jets of water may also injure people if applied from short distances, in
particular if reaching the face, and if directed over electrical equipment it may cause
electrical shock.
1.9. COMMUNICATION AND COORDINATION DURING FIRE FIGHTING
OPERATIONS
Since 1948, according to the scheme proposed by the American functionalism

(Harold Lasswel and others), the communication was divided into five essential
elements, which will be described below.
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Communication Process
As time passed by, other communication studiers introduced some changes to this
scheme, such as the coder, decoder, etc., concepts.
However, this does not invalidate what was previously found.
 Who (Sender);
 What is said? (Message);
 What channel? (Means);
 Who for? (Receiver);
 What is the effect? (Feedback).
 Sender
It is the person expressing something to someone. The sender can transmit the
message in a better or worse way depending on several factors. Shyness, for example, is
a huge obstacle. He is the subject of the message; even if he is under the receiver
condition, if somehow the message received made him react.
 Message
It is the transmitted content. Nowadays the message may be confused with the
means, which happens when the means announces itself. Everyone is so amazed with
the internet that having it is more important than knowing how to use it.
 Means
It is the channel through which the message is sent. The means itself can be the
message when it is more important than what is transmitted. For many people, the
means became the end. The speed, for example, is a standard to check if something is
modern or not. It is so estimate concerning the means of communication as if it was
their purpose. The important is not where you are going, unless it is fast. Fast cars are
created to go nowhere.
 Receiver
It is the person receiving the message from a sender. In order to achieve a good
communication, it is required to have a connection between the sender and the receiver.
It is acknowledged nowadays that the receiver is not passive. The “interactivity” is
essential.
 Feedback
It is the receiver response or reaction concerning the message, which provided the
sender with information concerning the receiver reaction, thus enabling the transmission
results evaluation.
One point of view regarding this communication process implies the message
evaluation in order to take decisions.
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The Communication During Fire Fighting Activities
The efficient supervision must be able to evaluate the situation and determine its
correct progress. Many times the operation success is based on how quickly the
commands are established and the effective communication during the incident.
Misunderstandings at this stage may be devastating.
The Emergency Command System defines the authority chain to act throughout
the whole operation. This system is geographically defined via the Command Station,
where all information regarding the incident is gathered.
Providing instructions is extremely important for the firefighting operation
progress. This information must reach everyone everywhere in the vessel.
The most used communication means are:
 The intercommunication system;
 Portable radios, transmitters / receivers;
 Telephones;
 Intercom;
 Public Address System.
Some vessels are provided with an emergency dedicated channel. The most
important thing is how clear the transmitted messages are. The difference between
success and failure may be on the information quality. The information communicated
must be clear and objective. If the message was not understood, it must be repeated.
The communication and the coordination during firefighting operations are
accomplished in two ways: internal, within the vessel, and external, with the owner, the
Classification Society and the state authorities if external assistance is required.
The GEPLAT/OIM must be continuously alert throughout the whole firefighting
operation.
The internal communication between the control stations, affected area and bridge
must follow the Contingency Plan.
Walkie-Talkies, the internal telephone system and the public address system are
essential for the internal communication, besides the eventual use of messengers.
The external communication must be registered according to the Contingency

Plan, including links with the Owner, the Classification Society and State Authorities.
The respiratory protection equipment must be provided with devices that enable
communication.
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Hand gestures are also required to facilitate communication due to the presence of
noise during the operation.
Radio Communication
Exchanging information enable the personnel to monitor the operation status. This
information may refer to the task or to an order transmission. The individuals operating
the radios must be aware that the transmissions are monitored. The communication
transmitted via radio may be repeated at any time. The operators must be careful
concerning the language used and the information transmitted. The People in Charge
and the Supervisors are responsible by their operators' behavior.
 Basic Radio Communication

Everyone responding to emergencies must be trained on how to use the radio
equipment. Regardless the type of radio, the
personnel responding to emergencies must be
familiar with their use. The operation
supervisors are responsible by ensuring their
team is trained as follows:
 Radio basic operation and
maintenance;
 Radio frequency tuning and use;
 Radio departmental procedures.
It is obviously important that the personnel responding to emergencies are able to

use the equipment provide. They must be familiar with their operation and all controls,
besides being able to select different channels.
The ones using different frequencies must know what each frequency is related to.
The operation supervisors must ensure the whole team is aware of the correct frequency
for each function. Not selecting the correct frequency may result in the absence of
communication or the assistance delay. Some situations have been experienced when
the assistance to fire team members in dangerous situations and casualties was delayed
because the message was sent through the wrong frequency.
The command must know and use the procedure. If the personnel follow the
procedure during routine activities, it will be easier to use them during emergencies.
 Clear text x radio codes

A clear text involves the use of easy terms and the standard language. Experience
shows that codes are required due to the transmissions low quality A series of simple
codes was developed in order to transmit messages that otherwise would require many
words. However, a big problem concerning codes is that different jurisdictions may use
different codes, thus resulting in obvious problems.
The modern radio equipment eliminated the need to use codes, which is
considered obsolete in many areas. Many companies choose to use a clear text to
eliminate problems related to codes.
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 Transmitting Essential Information

The Fire Team Head together with the Leaders must monitor the teams so they
use the radios according to the procedure, using short and direct messages. Only
essential information must be transmitted via the proper format.
 Direct Orders
A direct order may be clearly made comprising additional information, such as who
will carry out the task and why, how, when and where.
The commander giving the order must decide how specific it is considering the
urgency and the individuals or the unit abilities.
 Demand
A demand is similar to a request, but is like an order. For example, if the Fire
Team Head asks one member to help another with certain task, it is a demand. Requests
are used in non-emergency situations.
The Five “C’s” In Communication
They are:
 Concision;
 Clarity;
 Confidence;
 Control;
 Capability.
 Concision
The target is to transmit as much information as possible using the minimum
words required. The communication must be concise or the frequencies will be
congested and useless. To ensure the concision, the operational supervision must learn
how to plan the transmissions, as follows:
 Messages leasing to tasks;
 Directs messages for the company;
 Combine message and receiver;
 Transmit specific messages.
 Clarity
Transparence. The commanders must use standard terms and simple language
whenever possible. The orders should communicate one task at a time. Orders for
different units must have a period of time between them to avoid confusion. Emergency
orders must be synchronized because many operations may be anticipated by the
Master, GEPLAT/OIM.
 Confidence
Especially during emergency operations, the Master, GEPLAT/OIM and the People
in charge must be confident. The more the commanders are confident,
The more the units are confident. The people in charge and the supervisors may
transmit confidence by being calm, using a natural tone and speaking slowly.
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 Control
The communication may be lost if it is not controlled. The sender and the person
in charge must be an example and follow the procedure: before transmitting, the units
must identify who they are calling and the receiver must repeat or paraphrase the
message essence, which reduces the possibility of misunderstandings.
 Capability
An efficient communication depends on the sender's and receiver's capability.
However, it is not limited to the technical proficiency, but also includes the ability to
communicate. It means the professional must be able to listen and give a message. To
do so, it is required to keep the emotional control, keeping calm during the tension of an
emergency situation is important. Being mature and an example are essential for good
operational communication.
1.10. VENTILATION CONTROL PROCEDURES INCLUDING THE SMOKE

EXTRACTOR, FUEL AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
The ventilation is the systematical removal and dispersion of smoke, hot gases
and vapors from a confined space, providing the exchanging of the combustion products
by fresh air, thus enabling the fire team operation in the area. In this Manual, the
combustion products are the smoke, the hot gases and vapors. There are two types of
ventilation: natural ventilation, forced ventilation, horizontal ventilation, vertical
ventilation and ventilation advantages.
Natural Ventilation
It is the use of the regular air flow to ventilate an environment. The convection
principle is also used for this purpose. For example, the opening of doors, windows,
walls, as well as skylights and roofs.
For the natural ventilation only the obstructions preventing the combustion
products natural flow are removed.
Forced Ventilation
It is used to remove the combustion products from the environments that are not
provided with natural air flow. In this situation, the air renewal is forced by the use of
equipment and other means.
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The ventilation may be also divided into horizontal and vertical concerning the fire
team operation.
Horizontal Ventilation
It is the ventilation in which the combustion products horizontally flow through the
environment. This ventilation is accomplished by displacing the combustion products
through passageways, windows, doors and bulkhead openings on the same level.
Vertical Ventilation
It is the ventilation in which the combustion products vertically flow through the
environment via existing vertical openings (elevator shafts, stairs compartments), or
improvised openings (scuttle openings). The fire team must take advantage of existing
openings, such as doors, hatches, scuttles, etc. Improvising openings on bulkheads and
roofs if the existing ones are useless for natural or forced ventilation impairs the vessel
and results in time loss.
Ventilation Advantages
The main targets of a fire team are: reaching the affected area as fast as possible;
rescuing victims; locating fire spots; applying proper extinguishing agents, minimizing
the damage caused by the fire, water and combustion products. During the firefighting
operation, the ventilation is a fundamental aid to accomplish these targets. It helps
visualizing the fire spot, removing the heat and the combustion toxic products.
 Fire Spot Visualization

The proper ventilation removes from the environment the combustion products that
impair the fire spot visualization.
The advantages of a clear visualization:
 Safely entering the area;
 Locating the victims;
 Extinguishing the fire faster, preventing damages due to the water excess
applied in the area.
Procedures for the Ventilation Systems
Ventilation system is the vessel's devices to provide ventilation and extraction.

There are two basic procedures:
 Immediately shutting down all ventilation and air conditioning systems in
the vessel through the CRASH STOP;
 Shutting down these systems at the affected area controls and at the whole
vessel. It is at the leader's determining when to shut down these systems.
Regardless the vessel criteria and possibilities, as the activity develops all
ventilation systems within the primary boundaries must be shut down, as well as all
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valves from the ventilation and extraction ducts that may supply fresh air to the affected
area or take smoke to other areas must be closed.
The ideal is that all ventilation systems are shut down when smoke is detected
onboard. If the air movement is reduced throughout the vessel, it is easier to determine
the fire exact or probable origin. Besides this, the fresh air flow towards the affected
area is reduced while the respective flaps are not closed yet.
The smoke drills show how difficult it is to detect the fire spot when the smoke is
spread. The experience shows that it is also more difficult to identify the situation status
and take efficient firefighting measures concerning the personnel and equipment use.
Drills comprising smoke generators provide the Masters, GEPLAT/OIM and the personnel
involved with information regarding the smoke spread in the vessel, thus enabling a
better planning of control measures and smoke limitation for each area.
If the vessel is provided with ventilation and air conditioners CRASH STOP systems
they must be used.
In vessels that do not have "CRASH STOP", the obligatory stop these systems may
not be immediate, so the decision to perform the stop ventilations and extractions in the
claim area can be made the leader's discretion.
If the vessel is not provided with these systems, their mandatory shutdown cannot
be immediate, so this decision is at the leader's discretion.
In this situation, the ventilation system may be left operating during the first
attack.
Such decision is based on the fact that the operation of these systems may enable
the fire team stay in the affected area for a longer period during the first attack, while
the fire is under control. The main reason is that the air exchange provides better
survival conditions, which is important for the first group fighting the fire that is not
equipped with self-contained apparatus.
The ventilation systems must be shut down whenever the team wearing masks
arrive at the affected area or when the compartment is abandoned. It must be also
considered that simple ventilation systems serving de several compartments will help
spreading the fire and smoke beyond the boundaries.
If the fire is in the Engine Room, an extraction duct is kept operational during the
first minutes, while the fire team members wearing the self-contained apparatus have
not arrived yet. In this situation (and whenever the ventilation system is left operational
so the area can be manned), the extraction discharges must be checked. They may be
situated in difficult access places which must be known by the fire team. These places
are likely to have fire spots if it is a major fire within the first moments, before the
motors are shut down and the flaps are closed. If the Engine Room discharges are into
discharge ducts, they have to be checked for secondary fire spots.
 Restoring the Ventilation Systems

After shutting down the ventilation, extraction and air conditioning systems, the
Master, GEPLAT/OIM, must fast and wisely restore the ones serving the areas beyond
the smoke boundaries together with the electricians or electric coordinator/supervisor,
taking into consideration the command priorities. The maintenance of the area between
primary and secondary smoke boundaries also require priority, as previously mentioned.
The ideal sequence is:
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 Restore the ventilation for the essential systems for the command priorities
and vessel operation;
 Restore the ventilation for the areas not affected by the fire or smoke;
 Limit the smoke within the established boundaries;
 Remove the smoke from the area between the primary and secondary
boundaries;
 Remove the smoke after extinguishing the fire.
 Inadequate ventilation problems

The inadequate ventilation causes problems such as:
 A great volume of smoke at high temperatures, providing the fire fast
spread;
 Problems to control the situation;
 Problems to carry out rescue and firefighting operations;
 Explosion risks increase due to the larger volume of smoke and high
temperatures;
 Damage caused by the heat, smoke and water use.
 Ventilation techniques
The decision to ventilate and the selection of the technique to be used on the
affected area are the Operation Leader's responsibility. The personnel are responsible by
the correct accomplishment of these tasks. The natural air flow is to be used whenever
possible, in other words, the convection principle and the wind direction must be
observed.
 Forced Ventilation
In some areas it is not possible to use the natural ventilation (because there is no
air flow, or this is not enough to ventilate the environment, or there are obstructions
that cannot be removed, such as roofs, etc.). The forced ventilation is required in these
spaces, which is accomplished via exhaust fans or water streams.
Electric Exhaust Fans
The exhaust fans are adequate for places where there is only one opening. They
must be used as follows:
 Place it as high as possible at an
opening outside the fire;
 If is electric, connect it far away
from flammable or explosives
atmospheres;
 Caution to avoid hurting people
with the equipment, for example,
having the clothes captured by the
fan spades or tripping on the wire;
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 Do not carry the exhaust fan while it is working.
As the target is to provide an artificial air flow and remove the smoke from the
environment, the exhaust fan must be place towards the natural wind direction, so the
smoke is "dragged" outward the area.
During the fire initial stage, the combustion
products accumulate on the roof. That is why the
exhaust fans should be placed as high as possible
in order to eliminate these products.
To prevent the creation of a smoke vicious
circle on the exhaust fan, in other words, the
smoke leaves and enters the environment; the
opening around the fan must be covered. The
obstacles on the air flow that are blocking the
smoke removal must be removed.
Caution:
The ventilation has many advantages, but if it is not carefully carried out it may
bring some problems. When ventilating the affected areas the following measures must
be taken:
 Use natural ventilation whenever possible (doors, windows, port holes,
scuttles, etc.);
 The personnel must be equipped with self-contained apparatus, coat, hard
hat and gloves;
 Improvise a big opening instead of small ones;
 Check if the building supports the equipment and personnel weight;
 Analyze where the openings will be made, stopping the combustion
products from reaching other compartments;
 Coordinate the ventilation team and the firefighting team together.
Heat Removal
The adequate ventilation removes the combustion products, which are responsible
by the heat propagation (through convection), thus eliminating a great amount of heat
from the environment.
By removing the heat, the fire team members:
 May enter the area;
 Reduce the fire spread;
 Prevent backdraft and flashover;
 Avoid greater damage to the vessel;
 Avoid greater risks and possible victims.
Removing the Combustion Toxic Products
The adequate ventilation removes the combustion products from the environment,
which are responsible by most of the death on fire emergencies.
By removing the toxic products, the fire team members:
 are more likely to find the victims alive;
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 eliminate the damage caused by soot;

 reduce the risk of new fires;
 Increase the visibility and enable the fire team entry.
Smoke Control
Controlling the smoke comprises both the establishment of the vessel ventilation
systems procedures and the establishment of the smoke boundaries (primary and
secondary).
It is recommended the vessels are provided with Smoke Control Plans for the
affected area, indicating the smoke limits, smoke removal routes as well as the systems
and equipment to be used.
The experience shows that smoke causes more deaths than the fire itself. Besides
this, it makes it impossible to fight the fire or even enter the access area and to move
firefighting material onboard. So it is extremely important the personnel is familiar with
the establishment and maintenance of smoke boundaries.
Smoke Boundaries
The smoke boundaries and the fire boundaries are established at the same time.
It means closing the close fittings and isolating the ventilation system ducts on the
affected area by closing their valves, covers, dampers and flaps.
The ideal primary smoke boundaries are the gas tight bulkheads surrounding the
access areas to the affected compartment.
Common doors, smoke curtains or any other obstruction that effectively prevents
the smoke spread may be defined as the boundaries, but they must be monitored
throughout the whole operation.
The establishment of the smoke boundaries for the affected area aims to reduce
the fresh air flow towards the fire spot, reduce the smoke spread and immediately
confine it to define the accident area, enable the personnel to reach the fire and
establish the fire teams' organization area.
These boundaries are also important to implement containments in areas free of
smoke, where wearing masks is not required.
Quickly and effectively using fire curtains/blankets as containment limit the smoke
in the affected area.
The secondary smoke boundaries must be established around the primary
boundaries to monitor the smoke spread and enable a clean area for the personnel
without masks. Within these secondary boundaries the smoke may be continuously
removed, or a slightly positive pressure may be kept in order to prevent the smoke
entry.
These boundaries must be established within the first minute.
For Class “B” fires in the Engine Room, the zone comprising the primary and
secondary boundaries is called the damping zone. This damping zone must have an
atmosphere without air flow to avoid the entrance of fresh air, because the hot gases
resulting from the fuels incomplete burning may form an explosive mixture with the
fresh air (when they are combined the fire triangle is formed). Maintaining these
boundaries is essential because of the risks involved. It is recommended to have a
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watchman in each opening to the primary boundary so it can be kept. Placing watchmen
is usually required depending on the personnel level of training, because failure to keep
these boundaries may even result in the vessel loss. Only personnel wearing firefighting
masks may enter the primary boundaries. The masks are to be used when smoke is
present or when the Fire Team Leader decides so.
The Master, GEPLAT/OIM, will decide together with the Fire Team Head where the
boundaries are to be established based on the information concerning the smoke
presence.
The Master, GEPLAT/OIM, must analyze the Fire Team Head decision and change
the boundaries establishment if required, informing him about it. The target is always to
reduce these boundaries, because the air compressors for the cylinders recharging, for
example, cannot aspire from an area containing smoke. After that, the boundaries
establishment must be announced via the public address system or transceivers.
The Master, GEPLAT/OIM, and the Fire Team Head controls the boundaries on the
Emergency Plan and determine the establishment of secondary boundaries by contacting
other members, if required.
Smoke Curtains
The fire curtains or blankets are made of two pieces of reinforced canvas or
plastic, for example, which are overlapped and fastened with Velcro to ensure better
sealing. They are attached to the hatch or doorframe by clamps when required, or they
are installed on the vessel main passageways, long corridors, etc.
Fire blankets or curtains may be used on the entrance, which must be frequently
opened to enable the personnel and firefighting equipment and material transport, as
well as on damaged openings to limit the smoke, where they should be monitored by a
watchman.
When adequate curtains are not available, a similar material may be used, such as
canvas, fire resistant blankets, etc. This material is to be kept wet if required. Using type
“C” clamps enable attaching them to the doorframes. It must be observed that curtains
are less efficient as smoke boundaries.
Smoke Removal
After extinguishing the fire, combustible gases may be present. For all fire classes,
Carbon Monoxide (CO) will be the predominant gas. Although it is flammable, large
quantities of CO must be produced to reach an explosive concentration (between 12,5%
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and 74%). Great concentrations of unburnt CO are related to fires occurring in confined
spaces for long periods.
On Class “A” or “C” fires, the smoke may be removed as soon as the fire is
extinguished, otherwise stated, as soon as naked flames are no longer observed, which
enables the debris removal.
In this situation, the vessel ventilation system may be used after checking its
electrical integrity. There aren't records concerning incidents during smoke removal for
these fire classes due to the use of these ventilation systems.
In Class “A” fires, the glowing material may re-ignite when ventilated, so it is
essential to have the prevention team ready and familiar with their function, as well as
to ensure the area is cooled down so this activity may be started.
In Class “B” fires, removing the smoke must be started as soon as the gases and
the compartment has cooled down so re-ignition and fire risk are not a concern.
The safest recommended method to remove the smoke, regardless the class fire
and vessel type, is using powerful ventilation systems. The smoke may be removed from
the Engine Room using positive ventilation from the nearby areas, thus creating an
overpressure in the affected area and the access area; this wind stream takes the smoke
through the extraction and ventilation ducts (covers and flaps must be open).
Removing the smoke may usually be accomplished by having overpressure on a
deck arising from the engine room ventilation, expelling the smoke through an opening
to the atmosphere.
For Class “A” or “C” fires, the method may be inverted by using the Engine Room
extraction to create an under pressure on certain deck, using an opening to the
atmosphere, operational ventilation, dragging the gases to this room. This should not be
done after Class “B” fires, because explosive gases may be dragged to an operational
manned room comprising hot spots.
For vessels provided with manned Engine Rooms using this last method to remove
the smoke may endanger the personnel's lives or even cease the equipment operation
due to the lack of visibility.
The target is to exchange at least 95% of the contaminated air. This will be
accomplished by exchanging contaminated air for fresh air at least four times, which
usually occurs after around 15 minutes of forced ventilation using positive ventilation.
The vessel ventilation systems plans must be referred to plan these operations
and calculate the required period of time.
 Removing smoke activities must consider:
 The main target is to extinguish the fire;
 When it is a Class “B” fire, combustible gases may be present. Sparkles
produced by switches, breakers and controls may easily ignite these gases;
 Disconnected circuit breakers must be kept in this position until their
system is checked;
 The ventilation systems must be completely inspected so their mechanical
and electrical integrity is checked, as well as to ensure they are free of fire
or melted material before being restored;
 The smoke removal may be carefully accomplished due to the possible
presence of explosive gases;
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 If the vessel has already been damaged by impact over the waterline, such
openings may be used to remove the smoke;
 The smoke removal methods must be selected taking into consideration the
smoke and its path are to be kept under control to prevent some dangerous
situations;
 If applicable, the ship/unit heading may be altered to take advantage of the
wind direction during the operations;
 No one may enter the smoke boundaries without wearing respiratory
protection until the atmosphere is tested.
When the smoke is removed it may be directed to an area containing personnel

without respiratory protection, where the toxic gases may endanger them, or even
where hot spots that may ignite the explosive gases are present.
For example, removing smoke after a fire in the Engine Room must always be by
positive pressure arising from ventilation in other compartments, forcing the hot gases
and the smoke to the atmosphere through the ventilation and extraction ducts. If the
smoke and gases have to pass through manned areas, announcements must be made
via the public address system and internal communication system.
The observations above take into consideration a situation without external threat
that forces strict maintenance of the material confined. In any firefighting situation the
removal tasks must be rather made through the engine rooms, by using ventilation
motors.
Smoke Active Removal
Active removal is the one carried out during the fire outside the primary smoke
boundaries. It requires extreme caution because a wrong route may direct fresh air to
the fire zone, thus intensifying it.
The following items are relevant:
 It may be carried out for Class “A” or “C” fires without many problems;
 For Class “B” fires, the active removal on the damping zone (between the
primary and secondary boundaries) can be carried out only if the
temperature is low, because the presence of combustible gases is possible,
and if they are combined with fresh air they may explode or ignite;
 This task aims to free the containment, personnel concentration and other
vital areas;
 It may be accomplished by carefully using the vessel ventilation systems;
 Natural or forced ventilation may be used after establishing the routes to be
used.
Combustible and Electrical System Control
 Fire in the Engine Room

Fixed fuel supply interruption devices are essential to the efficiency of firefighting
equipment in the plazas.
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The instantaneous interruption of fuel for main engine and auxiliary drive should
be possible by the existence of remote triggering devices outside the Engine Room.
The fuel transfer pumps and separators need to have immediate suspension
devices for fires in the Engine Room.
Electrical systems also need to be remote and instant shutdown, both for Engine
Room and for accommodation, pump house and spaces for loading.
Flashover e Backdraft: Basic Concepts
People have confused the Flashover and Backdraft concepts for many years. This
confusion is probably because they produce a similar result (“a major fire”) that involves
the whole compartment or area. However, they are quite different regarding how and
why they occur.
The wrong concepts have also developed concerning these phenomena. Some of
these wrong opinions state that a flashover occurs within four minutes from the first
flame and that a backdraft occurs only in air tight buildings. Both are dangerous wrong
concepts.
There is no period of time for a flashover, and a backdraft may occur in almost all
confined spaces depending on the adequate conditions.
 Flashover
Flashover is defined as the "the sudden participation of all the compartment or
area, flaming from the floor to the roof, caused by the thermal radiation feedback”.
The thermal radiation feedback is the fire energy that irradiates around the whole
compartment (volume and content), walls, floor and roof. This energy irradiation
increases the temperature until the self-ignition level.
Flashover is when the compartment volume suddenly and simultaneously burns.
This simply means that a flashover is an event conducted by the temperature. It requires
the energy fire irradiated around the space (volume and content) causes the sudden
increase of temperature and simultaneous ignition.
The flashover indicates the fire increased for its completely developed stage
(Observe the picture below).
Another important concept to be understood is the flashover physics. Several

factors affect the flashover occurrence. The compartment size, the content (the material
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combustibility), the air supply, the compartment isolation, everything is combined to

determine the compartment flashover potential.
A flashover occurs faster in smaller compartments. A small compartment increases
the thermal radiation feedback due to its volume. In big compartments provided with
high roofs the combustible material takes longer to heat. When the irradiated heat runs
long distances it loses energy. The objects proximity in a small compartment increases
the radiated thermal energy absorption.
The compartment content affects the flashover potential. If it is full of combustible
furniture it will produce more fire, thus more heat, more irradiated energy, and finally a
greater flashover potential.
The air supply is also critical for the flashover occurrence. Most of the fires have
the air controlled, but not the fuel. A cabin or a room usually has enough content to
produce a major fire (fuel content). So it is required air to "ventilate" the flames.
The fire with controlled air is comprised by the backdraft discussion. Finally, the
compartment isolation affects the thermal radiation feedback efficiency. The walls and
roof isolation prevents the heat from reaching other areas, thus increasing the flashover
potential.
These factors are not known by the fire team members attacking a fire. Therefore
alert signs must be observed so their safety is assured.
Flashover alert signs include high heat; which is combination of the fire and the
irradiated heat. This heat is intense. The flashover occurs when the whole compartment
heat increases to reach the self-ignition temperature, including the fire team members
inside the area.
Any sudden temperature increase that may be felt through the clothes may be an
indication of an imminent flashover.
The rollover (hot gases) is the fire moving among the black smoke. It may be
considered a "fire dance" out of the smoke. The rollover is a previous sign that the
flashover conditions are developing. The black smoke is also a flashover indication. This
may seem irrelevant, but the smoke mentioned here is as black as coal, in a way that no
other color may be seen, as if tires were burning. This kind of smoke has so much
unburnt fuel that can be called "black fire." This "black fire" requires only the correct
mixture of air to ignite. This black smoke also has a huge amount of energy; it violently
moves outwards the fire zone and transmits heat to void and hidden spaces. The "black
fire" increases the likelihood of fire spread and explosions at the attic or basement.
Flashovers may be prevented in two ways: Proper ventilation and cooling down
the fire zone.
 The proper ventilation may prevent a flashover, because it removes the
overheated air and the combustion gases from the compartment or area. It
may be accomplished by horizontal or vertical ventilation. By removing the
heated layer on the roof the thermal radiation feedback is reduced, and so
is the flashover possibility. It is important to observe that expelling hot
gases does not mean exposing the fire team members to incidents nor
spreading the heat and smoke for not affected areas, which would instead
worsen the situation if such gases ignited;
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 The second way of reducing the flashover possibility is cooling down the fire
zone by using a water fog directed to the roof, thus preventing the hot
gases from reaching the self-ignition point.
Escaping from a flashover is almost

impossible. Recognizing the alert signs and
being familiar with the ways to prevent it, your
safety will be better assured. However, upon
observing the alert signs you must be able to
react.
A flashover may occur in 10 seconds and
this allows the fire team member to search an
exit within an average distance of almost 1,5
m. If operating a fire hose line is not an option,
then go to another area and close the door if
possible, this will provide some protection. A
completely protected person has better chances to survive a flashover, although it is still
risky.
Human skin burns at 50o C. Without a breathing apparatus, the person would
breathe hot air at 150o C, thus burning the throat. It would lead to death due to
suffocation. During a flashover, extremely high temperature is experienced, completely
beyond the protective clothes limits.
 Backdraft
Backdraft is a smoke explosion that may occur when additional air is introduced to
a fire comprising incomplete combustion and hot gases.
A backdraft is an event caused by the air introduction, the opposite of a flashover,
which is caused by the temperature. Knowing that most of the fires are regulated by the
air instead of fuel makes the backdraft understanding so important.
A fire started and developed, it may have or not thermal radiation feedback to
cause a flashover, but it consumed the compartment content and is now "burning itself"
by using all the oxygen available. The oxygen regular level in the air is approximately
21%. Below 16%, the visible flame is reduced.
The compartment content is at the ignition temperature and will start burning
when oxygen is introduced, the hot gases will explosively ignite. This is a backdraft.
The explosive force of a backdraft is a result of the amount of hot gases in the
area and the quantity of oxygen introduced. This explosion may break windows, blow
walls down, and result in deaths among the fire team members.
The backdraft may occur at any time during the fire declining stage before the
gases cool down below their ignition temperature. If the gases cool down before oxygen
is introduced, backdraft will not occur, but the compartment will be consumed by the
fire.
The fire team members must be familiar with the backdraft alert signs. The
members first attacking the fire usually do not recognize the smoke that is like a
"sudden flow" or is removed from the compartment; someone far from the scene usually
better recognize this indication.
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We often observe a small fire and open a way to reach it, thus creating a
dangerous situation. If backdraft conditions are suspected, proper ventilation will prevent
the explosion. Opening must be made above the fire to allow hot gases to escape before
the oxygen is introduced.
Backdraft and flashover are equally dynamic and mortal. Recognizing their signs
and keeping calm are required for survival, besides, of course, being totally equipped
with the proper PPE.
Backdraft does not always happen. Remember the backdraft was also known as
"smoke explosion." This term was originated from small events occurred when
firefighters opened doors to check the fire extension.
A fire on the lower floor of a residential building may spread heat and smoke
throughout the whole building.
This smoke would be first confined at the attic. The firefighters would check the
fire extension by opening part of the roof, which would allow the combination with the
hot gases and fresh air resulting in a backdraft. How did it occur? Nowadays we know
the carbon monoxide (CO) behavior; the space was probably filled in with it.
Remember, besides its dangerous properties, carbon monoxide is flammable.
What does it mean to the fire team? Carbon monoxide ignites in a slightly low
temperature (for any class fire) in almost all mixtures.
The flashovers and the backdrafts require understanding because several aspects
contribute for their occurrence. The fire load is nowadays the only major aspect acting
against the fire team. Nowadays fires are much hotter.
This is a combination of two elements, more plastic and more material.
The materials' heat of combustion has increased. Some materials, such as wood,
cotton and paper, used to present around 4.400 Kcal/kg in the fifties. Nowadays,
polyurethane and light plastics present around 7.000 Kcal/kg.
These light plastics are foam cushions, rugs, etc. The polystyrene hard plastic
used on TVs, videos, toys and other plastic material reach almost 10.000 Kcal/kg. Each
generation improves when compared to the previous one. How is this improvement
measured? With the amount of material.
The electronic detection equipment became a common device found in situation. It
provides the fire team with a previous confirmation of a possible fire. The only way to
protect the fire team members is training them concerning the fire behavior. The
indications provided by the fire must be recognized. The global scenery must be
observed to avoid being caught by traps. Learning and understanding is the best way to
survive.
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1.11. PRECAUTIONS AGAINST FIRE AND THE DANGERS ASSOCIATED

WITH CERTAIN MATERIAL STOWAGE AND HANDLING
The activities at the vessels' holds are called stowage, which means storing or
removing material from the hold. Rigging the cargo is part of this process. Fixing the
cargo if the package is damaged is also possible, together with the cargo check.
Cargo Stowage Process
A hold cargo plan must be carefully

studied so the area is completely exploited. It
is usually the ballast operator's responsibility
to prepare the cargo plan. The safety
procedures to be used during the task must
also be planned.
The cargo is separated by lots, so they
can be easily disembarked at the relevant
port following a plan prepared by the vessel
first mate.
However, if the plan is not according to the safety requirements, the port
operators must discuss it with the vessel Master/GEPLAT/OIM so the task can be safely
accomplished. These plans usually depend not only on the hold size and shape, but also
on the onshore cargo flow planning, which can be done in steps so the layers may be put
one over the other, but without forming big piles that can collapse.
The cargoes to be stored in a way the follow the hold shape as much as possible.
They should be carefully put one over the other to avoid damage. The piles' high is to be
limited according to what is established in the cargo plan and the stowage task term.
Another important issue is to check if the cargoes on the same area are compatible, in
other words, if there are concerns regarding the cargo chemical characteristics or weight
that may result in damage or risky situations.
So, the following requirements are to be met:
 Easy access to the hold and cargo;
 Easily arranged for the disembark;
 Ensure the stowage personnel safety;
 Separate cargos to avoid incompatibility;
 Follow the stowage basic technical recommendations;
 Carry out the cargo proper rigging.
Storage
Some material such as chemicals must be

stored apart and provided with fire protection.
Many flammable or dangerous liquids may be
stored in metallic recipients that will not rupture in
a fire situation (refer to ABNT or NFPA).
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Whenever possible, the flammable material is to be placed outside improper

areas, and only the minimum amount required for the task is to be kept. Chemicals must
be stored in a way they do not block the ventilation or impair firefighting fixed systems.
Types of Breakdown
A bad stowage results in breakdown. However, the breakdown may be caused by

something other than the stowage, such as bad weather. Therefore, it may be defined as
every extraordinary expense or damage to the vessel, cargo or both, caused by factors
associated or not with the stowage.
 Breakdown origin
The breakdown may be classified according to its cause, if it is related to the cargo
and its stowage or if it is external.
 Endogenous Breakdown;
 Exogenous Breakdown.
 Endogenous Breakdown
It happens when the breakdown cause is on the cargo itself or on its stowage. As
a classical example we may mention certain load bad stowage, which may result in
damage to the load itself or to the vessel.
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 Exogenous Breakdown
It happens when the breakdown is caused by external factors. A typical example is
when breakdown is caused by bad weather. Observe the picture above. The breakdown
may have been caused by inadequate rigging (endogenous) or bad weather
(exogenous). Have you seen the difference?
 Breakdown Classification
Some authors classify the breakdown as expense or damage. When an
extraordinary expense that was not foreseen on the operational cost but cannot be
identified by inspecting the cargo happens, it is called expense-breakdown. Example:
cargo operation delay (vessel demurrage).
Damage - it occurs when there is a physical damage to the cargo or vessel, which
can be easily identified during inspections and surveys.
It can be:
 to the vessel;
 to the cargo;
 to both;
 to the vessel by the cargo;
 to the personnel.
Handling paints, solvents, varnishes
Paints, varnishes and solvents are chemicals that if handled without proper
precautions, can pose risks to health or safety.
 Storage - In general, paints and solvents should be stored in the shade, in

closed environments where the temperature does not exceed 30ºC. Prevent
the occurrence of open flames or sparks, and observe strict ban on smoking
in storage sites.
 Handling - Some paints, for example, epoxy resins, are known for may
cause skin problems as a consequence of prolonged contact with the skin.
All inks, however, should be considered potentially dangerous, and handling
should always be under protective gloves. Professionals who have prolonged
contact with paint should wear appropriate clothing, safety glasses and
eventually masks. In case of skin contact, avoid washing with solvent,
because with this creep contaminants deep into the epidermis. Wash only
with soap and water. In case of contact with eyes, rinse with plenty of
water and seek medical care.
 Application - The application of paint solvents that comprise evaporate,
causing danger. Organic solvents are products which, in most cases, are
toxic and flammable. In certain concentrations, solvent vapors can become
explosive. There are tables that provide data on the maximum
concentration of solvents to which an operator may be exposed during days
of 8 working hours. These concentrations are known as TLV (Threshold
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Limit Value), and are expressed as ppm by volume. With respect to

flammability and explosion possibility, there are values of minimum
concentrations (below which there is no risk of explosion, although there is
risk of fire), which are known as LEL (Lower Explosive Limit), and
concentration values maximum UEL (Upper Explosive Limit), above which
there is no explosion or combustion, for lack of oxygen.
 Accidents - We have spoken of the measures in case of skin contact. In
case of spillages liquids should be collected using cloths or rags, and placed
in metal containers. In case of fire, use dry chemical extinguishers, foam or
CO2. Never use water on this fire class. Use breathing equipment because
the combustion gases are extremely toxic.
 Inhalation - Not only must be avoided inhaling paint fumes, and gases
resulting from the mechanical removal of old paint or surface cleaning.
Excessive inhalation of solvent vapors may result in dizziness, nausea,
headache, and feeling drunk. In the simplest cases these symptoms
disappear quickly eliminating the cause. In the most difficult cases should
be sought medical care. In applying the spray, the use of filter masks is
indispensable (the filter should be checked periodically) or, in more difficult
cases, masks with external air supply.
1 - Extended contacts inks with skin can cause skin diseases.
2 - In case of skin contact, avoid washing with solvents: use preferably soap
and water.
3 - Ink vapors and solvents are not flammable only: can become explosive
under some conditions. Avoid the possibility of high concentrations and sparks,
sparks or flames exposed in the workplace.
4 - Vapor always paints and solvents are toxic. Preventing inhalation.
5 - Never apply indoors (tanks), without a convenient forced exhaust system,
and possibly with outside air masks.
6 - The solvent vapors are often heavier than air and tends to accumulate in
the lower regions, this fact must be taken into account when designing the
exhaust system of a site.
7 - The air used in outdoor air masks should always be filtered for oil retention.
The filters should be checked periodically. Compressor air The outlet should be
away from possible leaks of toxic gases.
1.12. PROCEDURES OF COORDINATING AND CONTROLLING REMOVAL OF

INJURED PERSONNEL
This chapter aims to establish the procedures and standards to deal with first aid
situations during firefighting operations.
The measures to be carried out at this first moment aim to provide the victim with
immediate and indispensable care to save his/her life by maintaining the vital functions
and preventing the condition from worsening until the specialized care arrival. It is
important to remember that even if the victim seems to be ok, he/she should be taken
to a health professional. Each situation requires specific measures. Doing something
wrong or doing excessive things may worsen the victim's condition.
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Something important is to observe the scenery looking for the environment

details, including the victims. These details correspond to the area identification, what is
going on at this place, the number of victims and their current situation.
First Aid Basic Rules
Everyone onboard must be qualified to provide first aid assistance during an

emergency. On a fire fighting operation there is a team trained and qualified to provide
advanced first aid.
The fire team members are also aiders. During an emergency they will treat the
injuries on their own body and will evaluate someone else until specialized care arrives.
This team requires some basic rules, such as keeping calm and follow the safety
order when providing assistance: my safety comes first (aider), then my team (including
passerby) and then the victim. This may sound awkward at first, but its basic aim is to
avoid increasing the number of victims.
Be an aider, not a hero! Always check for risks before acting. It is essential to
immediately request professional assistance, indicating the victim exact location, the
number of victims and their conditions (injuries severity). Avoid impulsive measures
(fast and imprudent).
If there are several victims, assist the ones under the worst condition first, for
example, unconscious victims or abundantly bleeding. You must also take into
consideration infectious diseases. Take some measures, such as: avoid direct contact
with the victims' blood or organic fluids; prevent injuries when assisting people, do not
put your hands in the mouth, eyes or skin before washing them with plenty of water and
soap. Isolate your injuries before providing assistance by using rubber gloves (latex) and
a biosafety concept.
Avoid transporting the victims, unless it is for immediate protection, such as: fire,
fall, gases inhalation, etc. Even in these situations some techniques are required.
Victims Transport and Rescue
There are several types of transport that can be used in a call to victims of
trauma or sudden illness. At first, the teaching will be adopted the statement and then
the execution of the main types, leaving the practical part of the course familiarization
and training of such techniques.
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It is only justified transport or movement of the victims, whose real condition is

unknown, when it is clear that the stay of the victims for a longer time, in the place
where it is, will cause his death. Thus, the decision to carry a victim should always be
taken with the calculated risk. There are situations that arguably the immediate victim
removal is a priority, such as burning compartments. Most often, however, these
measures can and should be taken prior to removal, observing and assessing the
resources needed to make this removal with greater security.
Although emotional stress is done naturally present in every emergency situation,
especially when it involves victims, it is important that all personnel involved in service
to the victim know to stay calm and make the appropriate precautionary measures in
order not to worsen the facts.
It can happen in some situations, the rescuer to be alone in providing aid to the
victim, and need to remove it, especially in cases of imminent danger. For this transport
possible, the knowledge of some techniques will be important.
 Rescue with the Fire Hose

This technique used the fire hose to remove the victim to a safer place.
It is used when the aiders cannot stay around the victim and properly handle
him/her. An aider stabilizes the victim's head while the other place the depressurized fire
hose over the victim's chest and
under the armpits, thus forming
a dragging aid.
 One Person Pack-Strap Carry

This technique is used to move the victim to another
compartment supported on the aider's body.
It is adequate if the victim is conscious or slightly dizzy and
will be removed for short distances.
The aider places himself in front of the victim and hold
his/her arms, bend the knees and lower the body.
The victim is then supported on the aider's back, with his/her
armpits over his shoulder. The hip is used as a lever, the victim is
lifted, supported on the back and transported for a safe place.
 Fire Fighter's Carry
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It is difficult to be implemented especially if the aider is alone, because it requires

strength and coordination.
It may be used for conscious or unconscious victims, or if they cannot stand due
to the smoke, toxic gases, fire, etc.
If the victim is conscious, the aider passes the victim's arms around his nape, gets
his/her legs and supports his/her hip on his shoulder. The victim is carried over the
aider's shoulders, and his/her hands are free to help opening doors, for example.
When a person is conscious, the rescuer is positioned in front and puts one of the
victim's arms on the nape of the rescuer, while the rescuer's arm goes underneath the
victim's legs resting on the shoulder the hip of the victim, will hold a lever positioning
the victim on his shoulders leaving one of his hands free to assist in door openings
during transport.
 Human Crutch
It is carried out if the victim cannot walk alone, but does not
require a stretcher. Caution is required because it may worsen
injuries.
It is used for conscious victims with minor injuries. The aider
stays by the victim's side, passing his/her arm over his shoulder.
Use your body to support the victim and keep the balance.
 Dragging
It is used for short distances. There are several ways to
adapt this technique, the victim may be dragged with a blanket, a rope, a sling or by
his/her arms; this last option is the most common.
The aider approaches the victim crawling, walking, etc., and stays over him/her,
who is with the belly up. The victim's hands are tied around the neck of the aider, who
moves dragging the him/her.
 Four hands seat

Two aiders make a chair with their arms to support the victim.
The aiders are face to face and stretch their arms, placing one hand on the
opposite elbow. They approach placing the free hand on the other's free elbow, forming
a chair to support the victim. This technique is indicated for conscious victims because
they have to hold the aiders' necks.
If the victim is unconscious there is a second technique in which he/she is
horizontally transported. The aiders stay one at each side at his knees. One aider crosses
his arms along the victim's back, while the other supports the knees. They count until
three and lift the victim keeping the balance.
The rescuer's arm that is facing the side of the victim's legs will be supporting the knee
joint to the thigh of the victim.
The other rescuer's arm will back the victim, whose hand the rescuer will be holding the
side of the victim's hip opposite to yours. The arms of rescuers must be crossed on the
back of the victim.
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When performing the count 1,2,3 raise the victim keeping the balance and start
the transport.
 One Person Arm Carry

It is a traditional method similar to the way babies are carried. It is comfortable
for the victim but painful for the aider depending on the weight and distance.
The aider hold the victim around his/her back and under the knees.
 Two Person Carry

Two aiders are required. One aider holds the victim by his/her armpits while the
other by his/her opened legs. The transport is simultaneous, counting until three.
 Three Person Carry

It is used to carry the victim through narrow places. The aiders stay side by side.
The first holds the victim's head and chest with the arms, while the others hold the hip
and legs. The victim's body must be leveled.
The second aider crosses the arms under the hip and over the thighs. The third
holds the legs. They must move simultaneously to avoid head, thighs or legs sprains.
 Four Person Carry

It is similar to the technique above, but one aider is exclusively responsible by the
victim's head immobilization, thus preventing sprains..
It is important to mention again the aiders movements must be simultaneous.
 Six Person Carry
If fractures are suspected, especially on the spine, removing the victim must be as
careful as possible in order to avoid the fracture worsening or injury possibility.
Three aiders stay side by side on tow lines, one in front of the other, which lower
at the same time and lift the victim.
 Stretcher Carry
Transporting victims with multiple traumas is to be carried out on immobilizers in
order to stabilize the spine. The victim is preferable placed with the belly up. He/she is
manually immobilized until attached to the immobilizer.
The equipment to be used is the long board, cervical collar and side immobilizer.
The 90° rolling technique is not indicated for victims with multiple traumas or fractures
on opposite limbs, for example, right arm and left leg.
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1.13. PROCEDURES COORDINATED BETWEEN SUPPLY BOAT'S DAMAGE

CONTROL TEAMS AND NEARBY UNITS
In order to reach the maximum efficiency, the units must be provided with a clear
Command and Control structure that enables them to optimize the material resources
and qualified personnel onboard.
So, systems logically grouped under the Command Control must be established.
The Command is controlled by the Master or GEPLAT/OIM, which is responsible by
planning, supervising, guiding and coordinating the systems action.
The command is controlled by a physical area called Command Station. The vessel
must always have the Command Station broadcasted so the systems coordination may
be effectively kept.
The Command Station must be provided with
the required resources to enable the GEPLAT/OIM
or Master to continuously evaluate the tactical
board, the material condition of the vessel systems
regarding navigation and buoyancy. If it is
required, the vessel command will request the
Supply Boat assistance.
The Supply Boat will act together with the
vessel as required, transporting material and
providing assistance with the water or foam
monitors to eventually fight a fire.
2. FIRE FIGHTING TEAMS ORGANIZATION AND TRAINING
2.1. FIREFIGHTING CONTIGENCY PLAN
It is one of the systems used by the company to establish standard procedures

followed by the whole organizational structure to control the accidents and their causes
and impacts.
It is a personalized plan to create all likely accident scenarios based on the
existing risks.
This plan aims to establish the responsibilities for decision-making during an
emergency situation, as well as the procedures to speed up effective actions anywhere in
the vessel, reducing to a minimum the potential injury, death, damage to the vessel and
environmental risks.
It aims to establish actions together with the bodies responsible for security by
adopting appropriate emergency control measures.
Contingency Plan Preparation
The Contingency Plan preparation is mainly executed by the Classification

Societies, but when preparing the Fire Contingency Plan, it is advisable that the Master,
GEPLAT/OIM and the Department Heads participate so as to become fully informed and
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familiarize with their functions. Thus, you must check these plans for the following
information:
 The central control station is on the bridge;
 The master, GEPLAT/OIM will be the firefighting operations general
coordinator;
 The Fire Team Head must always report to command to receive his
instructions.
The essential fire information required by the central control station are:
 The moment the alarm was activated;
 The fire location and nature;
 The confirmation that the fire team is mustered at their stations and that
the firefighting material is ready to be used;
 The confirmation that the fire main is pressurized;
 The initial brief oral report of the initial firefighting attempt using portable
extinguishers;
 The brief oral report of the fire effects on the services and lighting;
 The brief and objective initial report of the people involved, missing and
affected, listing the compartments and exact locations where the accident
took place.
The information that must be available on the bridge includes:

 The vessel drawings, including the engine room and Accommodations;
 The details on the different vessel areas entrances and exits;
 The details on all firefighting equipment, both fixed and portable, including
their locations and their parts positions;
 The stability information;
 The survival equipment details and locations;
 Stowage plans;
 Information on dangerous cargo.
The available communication and coordination methods must include:

 Phones;
 Public address systems;
 Portable radios;
 Messengers.
The damage control and fire containment methods must include:
 The fire resistant doors closing;
 Stopping all ventilation and closing the damper devices and vent pipes;
 Closing all portholes, windows, doors and accommodation accesses, kitchen
and other spaces;
 Cooling partitions, bulkheads and decks;
 Using fire dampeners, as necessary;
 The maintenance monitoring on the location, after the fire has been
extinguished.
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The stability conditions must be controlled and monitored, using water as the
extinguishing agent, so that:
 The Metacentric Height (GM) and the free surface effect caused by water on
firefighting are calculated;
 The available means to drain the water used in firefighting are used;
 When the cargo in on fire, the effects of possibly removing the cargo to
attack the fire is calculated;
 Evaluating the damage effects caused in flooded spaces;
 Considering the possibility to move the vessel, to cause a calculated and
providential stranding.
Emergency Plan
The installation operator shall establish and implement a response plan that
includes specific emergency actions to be taken in the event of leaks or flammable spills,
fire or explosion or event that set public health emergency.
The emergency plan should be developed considering the characteristics and complexity
of the platform and contain at least:
I. Platform identification and legal guardian;
II. Description of access to the platform;
III. Accident scenarios;
IV. Warning systems;
V. Accident communication;
VI. Organizational structure response;
VII. Procedures for response;
VIII. Equipment and response materials; and
IX. Procedures for driving features complementary response structures where
applicable.
• Emergency plan Assessment - The emergency plan should be evaluated after

conducting drills or in the event of real situations in order to test its effectiveness, detect
possible failures and make the necessary adjustments.
• Simulated Exercises - Simulated exercises should be performed during working
hours, at intervals, at least annually and may be reduced depending on the faults
detected or if they recommend a risk analysis.
• Occurrences of Communications - The installation operator must notify the
Regional Agency of the Ministry of Labor and Employment the occurrence of leakage, fire
or explosion involving a serious danger to the safety and health of workers.
The communication should be routed to the second business day following the
occurrence and must contain:
I. Platform Name and location, date and time of occurrence;
II. Occurrence description;
III. Name and function of the victims if any;
IV. The causes;
V. Consequences; and
VI. Emergency measures adopted.
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The installation operator must submit, within thirty days of the accident, the
Regional Agency of the Ministry of Labor and Employment, research report and accident
analysis with the description of the basic causes and preventive measures taken.
 The time limit may be extended for another 30 days by agreement with the
Regional Agency of the Ministry of Labor and Employment.
 The time allowed in the previous paragraph may be extended by tripartite
agreement.
The Operator of the Installation shall communicate to the competent sanitary

authority the events occurring on board that constitute public health emergency
according to specific regulations on the subject.
• Safety Reporting - The Operator of the Facility shall keep available to the
workers, their representatives and competent authorities a Safety Report
containing the brief description of the platform, possible accidental scenarios, the
platform contingency plan and, in addition, specific location indications For access
in their information management systems to:
I. Project;
II. Risk analysis;
III. Maintenance and inspection plan;
IV. Occupational safety and health procedures;
V. Plan for the prevention and control of fires and explosions; and
VI. Emergency plan.
2.2. FIRE TEAM AND CREW MEMBERS COMPOSITION AND ALLOCATION
The fire team must be functionally organized as follows:

 General coordinator – general employee responsible for all installation
comprising a plant. (Master, GEPLAT/OIM)
 Fire team head – employee responsible for a plant, area or sector with more
than one floor/compartment. (Deck Pusher or Supervisor)
 Fire team leader – employee responsible for coordinating and executing the
emergency actions in his operation area (paving/compartmentalization). He
is selected by the fire team.
 Fire team member – a fire team member who executes his specific
firefighting tasks.
Fire Team Organization Chart
The fire brigade organization chart varies according to each installation number
and the number of employees.
The companies which have a floor/compartment in their plan must have a leader
to coordinate the fire teams.
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The Fire Team Composition
Each company, according to the vessel type,

must organize the teams with their respective
firefighting equipment. The biggest challenge is to
scale the teams according to the vessel identified
risks, and with the crew members number
limitations. One possible arrangement for the fire
team could be:
 Fire team;
 Sewage Pump Operators;
 Electrician;
 Nurses and first aiders;
 Structural repairs;
 Damage Control.
 Fire team
Team of crew members who will equip the fire hoses and initiate the attack.
When a fire spot is not extinguished:
 They must go immediately to the fire scene and start the fire fighting,
taking additional actions using local resources, until other resources are
mobilized;
 Proceed with the firefighting, taking measures to avoid its re-ignition;
 Start the fire hoses installation;
 Perform the hydrants and other valves opening and closing operations;
 Wear mask and hardhat with a lamp, plus the extinguishing agent launcher
(hose in case of water or foam);
 Proceed with the final compartment test when there are toxic or flammable
gases and check the oxygen content.
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 Sewage pump operator

It is the fire team member who has the
responsibility to:
 Install the portable pumps and ductors
where necessary, to perform the
compartment sewage;
 Pressurize the fire main through the
portable pumps;
 Perform the liquid cargo transfer
maneuvers (oil, water, reserves);
 Operate the sewage and ballast, etc.
 Electrician
It is the fire team member who will perform the
leader determinations when requested:
 Perform general repair in electrical
installations;
 Power off the circuits in fire areas or
areas;
 with fire risk;
 Perform maneuvers with the vent and
extraction systems;
 Operate the portable ventilation and extraction equipment (sirocco).
 First aiders
It is composed of fire team members with specific
first aid knowledge with the responsibility to:
 Provide first aid care;
 Remove the injured.
 General repair
It is composed of fire team members with the purpose of:
 Removing the debris;
 Assist the fire team;
 Help removing the injured, when requested;
 Conduct other non-specific necessary work when requested by the Fire
Team Leader.
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 Damage control
It is composed of a fire team member with the responsibility to execute tasks such
as:
 Perform general structural repair;
 Provide support to the victim;
 Perform the plugging;
 Perform the belting, in case of
failures which compromise the
vessel structure;
 Assist the ballast operator in regulating the stability;
 Assist the fire brigade, when requested.
2.3. FIRE FIGHTING TRAINING
The training is defined as “an activity designed to exercise the individual, either
individually or in teams, so that he can develop the skills to efficiently perform tasks for
which they have received proper instructions”.
The firefighting training purpose is to test the organization efficiency.
To make things more interesting, the crew must be challenged, in order for them
to learn with their mistakes. But the training must not become a routine, which could
compromise the organization. A well-focused training is more beneficial than repeating a
training routine several times. Always make changes to stimulate and challenge thinking.
The training can also be used for testing and verifying the equipment in the
simulation environment, as required by the SOLAS, such as, for example, fire pumps,
breathing equipment, firefighting suit, and communication equipment. A significant and
successful training requires attention prior to the simulation start, initially by defining the
learning objectives, establishing the right moment of action, and reserving time for
further discussion.
The objectives must reflect the important tasks to be executed, and must be
measured alongside a pattern. For example, an objective could be to wear fire protection
suits and the breathing apparatuses within a given period of time, which offers total skin
protection and ensures the initial tests are performed on the breathing equipment.
The training starts with a fire warning, followed by the alarm activation, indicating
that it is an exercise. Occasionally, start the exercise once you hear the fire warning,
coming from other locations besides the bridge. The reaction, reunion, specific duties
performance, command, and communication assembly speeds must be analyzed.
The fire attack will depend on the situation, but the leadership, the situation and
the following decisions must be assessed. Produce a crisis to check whether the team
manages to control and react against ever changing situations created by the fire.
Evaluate the estimated training when the objectives are met, criticizing the actions
so that the lessons learned can be incorporated in the procedures.
The crew must be encouraged to participate without inhibition, without fear of
making mistakes. The simulation will fail, but the lessons are learned.
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The competency standards can be improved through training. The specific abilities
can be identified, taught, demonstrated and practiced. Reduce the task speed and repeat
it until the person or team demonstrates a certain competency level. Strive to share the
information and experience obtained by all crew members. Document the fire for future
reference to evaluate the organization development.
The training can be in two ways: Operative and Professional.
 Operative training - It is the training intended to improve the vessel

operational functions performance.
 Professional training - It is the training intended to the professional
development in specialized tasks.
Continuous Training - The continuous training is performed using all

opportunities – both in normal work and in-service – is of the utmost importance for an
efficient labor. The greatest difficulty is in obtaining a constant study mindset, especially
the older and more experienced ones, which mistakenly think they have nothing else to
learn. The continuous training is based on:
 Establishing a guideline to be followed;
 The constant motivation of the crew;
 The uninterrupted supervision, as a control method.
Guideline
It establishes a guideline to be followed. A continuous training guideline must
establish all the situations which the section, group or sector heads will cease to train the
crew in any activity. It must also establish the rules to cease the periods in which the
crew is performing turn-based services or participating in firefighting exercises, or even
in emergency stations.
Motivation
Constantly motivate the crew. Simply disseminating a training directive won’t be
necessary for the crew head to attain positive results. It is necessary to constantly
motivate the crew – especially those who are fit for this training type – either through
meetings or individually.
The importance of a certain task in the sector and the sector head’s efficiency
needs must always result from a constant indoctrination by the group head.
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Supervision
It is the ongoing supervision as a control method. Supervising is an important task
which represents the maintenance of difficult-to-implement mentality.
For supervision, it is essential for the group head to have some knowledge about
human relations, because satisfied men are more productive than those who work under
tension, resulting in a discontent in the private life as well as in the workplace.
Periodical Training
The periodical training is based on a schedule, both in the units and training
centers.
The group head, within his schedule, must give priority to the emergency
situations control training, without overlooking normal training situations.
The training program must be based on:
 Establishing what you want the crew member to know, related with his
capacity and available time;
 The equipment, manuals and plans;
 On the instructor knowledge level;
 On the crew’s technical and professional preparation instructions and in the
training manuals scripts.
Regular, Realistic and Detailed Practical Training

The on board prevention and firefighting exercises must take place in time
intervals in order to benefit especially the recently embarked crew as well as those not
yet familiarized with the training, so that they can learn more about the existing
equipment and practice with them, familiarize themselves with the fire stations locations,
acquire speed in responding to an emergency warning, and learn more about the muster
stations and the escape routes.
They must also provide the older crew members the opportunity to be resourceful
in fire fight actions, in detecting, reporting and propose solutions to fire fight schemes,
efficiency flaws in individual and collective actions, as well as in maintain the system
equipment proper functioning.
In order for the on board fire fight exercises to take place in a regular fashion,
they must be part of a program, whose preparation, from a competency to a command
level, must follow the following guidelines:
 They must always take place immediately after replacing 10% of the crew;
 They must never have more than three-week intervals;
 They must be scheduled and coordinated by the vessel Command, some
with an early warning to the crew, and others with a “sudden” warning, in
order to develop each crew member’s nervous state.
The prevention and fire fight exercises must also be as close to reality as possible,
without taking it to extreme levels. It is advisable to go as far as reason, safety
assurance and the crew’s capability allows you to go.
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A small detail can undermine a whole fire fight action. The fire does not wait, and
it spreads fast.
Thus every action and the ready-to-use equipment details are important. It is
advisable to relate each action stage to assess them, correcting their mistakes, and thus,
increase efficiency. Both the assessments of each exercise seen as a whole, as well as
each action as a part of an exercise are essential to correct possible human or material
flaws, and so they require the crew member’s broad participation, by creating
assessment committees and sub-committees.
2.4. FIRE CONTROL PLANS
In practice, when facing a on board fire that can’t be immediately extinguished,

you must adopt measures to mitigate it as quick as possible, otherwise there will be
serious consequences. Some control plans must be adopted, such as:
 Checking periodically to ensure that they remain readable and updated;
 The fire control plan copies or the blocks which contain them, supplied and
assisted by the shore-based personnel, must always be checked to confirm
they are in good order;
 Ensure these plans indexes and indicators are intact and distinct.
Fire Fighting Purposes
The firefighting purposes are:

 Protecting the crew against the fire and smoke effects;
 Limiting, controlling and reducing the material damage caused by on board
fire, using the vessel available resources.
To attain these purposes, each fire team member must have sufficient knowledge
about:
 A fire initial attack;
 Extinguishing agents to be used;
 General procedures for each fire class;
 Fire containment;
 Smoke limitation;
 The material closing condition;
 Distributing and locating the vessel compartments;
 The fire team members basic organization in firefighting activities;
 Transmitting information;
 Meaning of watertight accessories classification marks;
 Using personal protection equipment (PPE);
 First aid notions.
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2.5. ORGANIZING THE UNIT EVACUATION AND ABANDONMENT
The Station Bill and/or Contingency Plan are designed for emergencies such as:
fire, flooding, collision, stranding, man overboard, etc.. The crew members must know
their duties and responsibilities, knowing how to proceed so as to have no difficulties
during emergency situations. The individual tasks can be found in the Station Bill. The
Station Bill table includes the alarm signal details. The special tasks are assigned to each
crew member. Everyone on board must head to the muster stations, wear the PPE,
follow the supervisors instructions and take initiatives for which they were trained upon
hearing the emergency alarm signals.
Emergency organization
The organization basis is determined in the Station Bill, which identifies the
emergency team main functions, assigning duties that reduce response time and form an
efficient decision-making command structure, i.e., closing team, attack team, team
leader, etc. The organizations are established based on the vessel project and
management levels, where automated systems are used to cover the functions of those
on board small crew vessels. The fire stations command structures will also vary
according to the vessel size and complexity. The organization will help control the
incident, especially in its initial stages, when chaos and panic will increase the demand
over the crew and officials. However, the organization must be flexible enough to deal
with sudden changes.
Emergency signals
The emergency alarm signals are sounded on board to indicate some emergency
type. These signals can come from the bell or general alarm buzzer, which are heard
inside the vessel/unit or can be emitted by the vessel whistle, which can be heard inside
or outside the superstructure.
The following signals can be used in:
 Vessels
General emergency: seven or more short blasts followed by a long one in the
vessel alarm and speaker systems.
Abandon ship: the abandon ship instructions are verbally passed on by the
Commander/GEPLAT through the speaker system, followed by the continuous
siren alarm.
 Platform
Emergency: intermittent alarm and emergency type and location warning through
the priority communication system.
Evacuation/Abandon: continuous alarm. The unit evacuation/abandon instructions
are verbally passed on by the General Emergency Coordinator.
 Initial action upon hearing an emergency signal
Any accident or emergency can be quickly solved if the right attitude is taken
within the first minutes. However, if a small emergency is not immediately
treated, it can develop into an uncontrolled situation. Once the emergency is
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detected, the appropriate initial attitude can make a difference between life and
death.
Evacuation
It is the method to leave the unit in an

orderly fashion, after the General Emergency
Coordinator verifies that there is a possibility to
lose the emergency control. Thus, the external
means are preferably used, if allowed by the
conditions Otherwise, the rigid and/or inflatable
survival vessels must be used, according to the
emergency nature conditions.
Abandon
It is the method to leave the unit in an

orderly fashion when the emergency control
loss is declared, using your own resources,
preferably the lifeboats, and secondly life rafts,
if possible. When the alarm is activated
everyone must head immediately to the
abandon stations.
The way the abandon tasks are
performed depend on a few factors, mainly:
 Available time;
 Atmospheric conditions;
 Sea conditions;
 Crew member’s knowledge about the rescue means procedures;
 Training the crew to efficiently carry out the abandon tasks.
We will detail such factors so that you get to know them better, ok?
The available time is an invaluable partner, because it helps preparing the
abandon, allowing all personnel (crew and passengers) to wear their lifejackets and the
crew to start readying the equipment to be used in the task. Extra care must be taken,
such as increasing the solid and liquid rations, increasing the thermal protection
measures allocation, etc.. However, the most important thing is to review the procedures
and not allow fear to overcome you in a critical abandon situation.
The atmospheric and sea conditions provide a notion of what is to come. Knowing
how to interpret the atmospheric signs and sea conditions also allow you to anticipate
the vessel preparation actions for adversity.
The lack of knowledge about how the equipment and existing on board survival
resources work, along with the uncertainty of how to operate them, increase the fear
and reduce the rescue possibilities, resulting in serious consequences for all involved.
This is why we need constant training.
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The training for lowering or launching the rescue equipment into the water must
be carried out under favorable weather and sea circumstances. The launch devices are
designed to work in a safe and quick way, even in adverse circumstances. And it is in
these circumstances that crew is trained, in order to familiarize with such circumstances.
 Verification
Several identification systems are used in muster and abandon stations,
such as the T card or the checklist (POB).
 Evacuation/abandon means
Each evacuation/abandon situation presents a potential risk, and it is
important to use the most appropriate method.
Priority scale:
 Gangways;
 Helicopter;
 Stand-by vessel;
 Rigid survival vessels;
 Inflatable survival vessels;
 Ship side descent (rope ladder);
 Jumping into the water.
Mustering
In an emergency situation, it is important to

know which and how many people are in the lifeboat
stations. It is assigned for everyone on board a
lifeboat or life raft station. Everyone’s names must be
checked and the control room informed. The checking
must take place in the muster station, but near the
lifeboats or life rafts
With larger fires, the fire fight groups must
concentrate all the necessary information, equipment and support to control the fire. It
may not be easy to directly extinguish the fire. Consequently, a priorities sequence must
be adopted, such as rescuing, prevent the fire from spreading and extinguishing it.
2.6. FIRE CONTROL TACTICS THROUGHOUT THE UNIT
Small fires discovered in initial stages are relatively easy to deal with by a crew
member using a small portable extinguisher. Speed, quiet approach and skill are
required by the person to prevent the situation from getting worse. Any delay will allow
the initial fire to spread, going from a fire spot in a compartment to an all-out fire
throughout the whole Deck.
The crew member must trigger the alarm to initiate the fire fight groups formation
and start from the essential procedures to prevent the fire from spreading further. The
crew member must be aware of his own safety while he attempts to fight the fire.
With larger fires, firefighting groups should jointly focus all necessary
information, equipment and support to make the fire under control. It may not be easy
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to put out the fire directly. Consequently an order of priorities needs to be adopted, such
as: rescue, avoid fire expansion and extinction.
Fires may occur:
 In the Machine Shop;
 In the accommodation
 In the kitchen;
 In the parades; and
 In cargo spaces.
Fire Fighting Tactics and Strategies
The Contingency Plans are necessary for each on board emergency type,
especially in case of fire or abandon ship, considering:
 The fidelity to the integrated emergency plan;
 The tactics and strategies explanations to control the fire in the Engine
Room, accommodations and different cargo spaces;
 The evidence of the Engine Room tactics and strategies, involving
management and heated oil techniques, and waste gas;
 The fire control in the accommodations can be done by confining the fire in
zones protected by bulkheads, cutting off its ventilation;
 That the fire on cargo spaces are complex and involve special treatment
with solid bulks, oil and oil products, chemicals and gases, as well as any
hazardous cargo;
 That the on board fire teams composition and organization ensure a timely
and efficient emergency procedures and plans implementation.
• Details of the firefighting organization on board - When hearing an

emergency alarm, all should go to their muster stations, previously determined by the
action plans. Great emphasis should be given to this initial meeting of all in their posts.
This ensures the availability of a power of response and also provides the first signs of
missing persons. A state of maximum alert is readily established and a standardized
response is given to that emergency situation, which allows remedial actions to be more
easily coordinated and controlled.
 When an emergency is discovered, trigger the alarm.
 Host the Control Room with as much information as possible.
 Try to control the emergency by any means available at the time until
reinforcement arrives.
 If the emergency brings you individual danger, flee to your muster point or to the
nearest one, reporting back to the Control Room.
 When they hear the alarm, everyone should go immediately to their muster
stations and perform the initial tasks listed in the plan.
 The leader of each emergency team, or its replacement, must report the readiness
of the team to the bridge. This notice of "readiness" should be given with the
following information:
- the identity of the team;
- the names of person (or persons) missing;
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- human resources that are ready for immediate action by the team; and
- which equipment (of the team's responsibility) have been tested and are
available because they are in good order.
- Team Leader: The leader has to be sure that his team is sufficiently trained
and each member has mutual trust in his abilities, leader, and the other members.
 Be able to perform any task assigned to one of your team members.
 Never engage in an operation that causes you to lose control of the team's
actions, so as to endanger the lives of one or more members of your team.
Identification of emergency passages and emergency exits:

(A) identification of hazards caused by smoke and toxic fires; and
(B) Periodic inspections and regular maintenance of:
 Fire detection equipment;
 Mobile and portable fire extinguishers;
 Fixed firefighting equipment; and
 Accessories for firefighting equipment.
- Fire Alarm Response: The initial action, as a response to the fire alarm, as a
conditioned reflex, of the crew, should be:
 Wear a lifejacket.
 Wear PPE (which protects the whole body: overalls, safety boots, gloves,
helmet).
 Go immediately to the muster point.
 Stay in readiness until the beginning of the subsequent action to be
designated by the team leader.
- Emergency in the Engine Room: In an emergency, when the access to the
machinery space is prevented, the Chief Engineer must lead the group to meet the
SECOND MUSTER STATION, already foreseen, establish communication with the
walkway and direct the the necessary subsequent actions. The Chief shall make
efforts to establish or reestablish emergency services, report the development of
actions to the walkway, initiate action on the scene, and, in this particular type of
emergency, as he deems necessary, after receiving authorization from the Command,
the always aware of these actions.
- Muster Points: The locations of the Muster Stations will logically depend on
the design (of the plan) of each unit. In the meantime, the chiefs / coordinators /
leaders should carefully consider the most appropriate sites for this purpose, taking
into account the following criteria:
- Emergency Service Stations: Must be located where direct communication
with the footbridge is available. One should be located on the starboard side of the
unit and the other on the port side. Both Teams, also called "Stations", must have
similar equipment stored and available. If one becomes unavailable in one
emergency, the other will act as an alternate meeting station.
 Access to both shall be independent and facilitated from an open deck on
the back of the unit. Emergency equipment containers shall be kept as
close as possible to meeting room locations, protected from fire, smoke or
toxic vapors. Each location should be prominently identified by warnings or
signs.
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Class “A” Fire Fighting Techniques
The fire fight tasks on board vessels have as an essential factor the speed
in discovering and fighting the fire.
When there is a delay that allows the fire to spread, and if the ventilations are not
quickly stopped, the smoke may spread to the vicinity, changing the fire characteristics
from a compartment to an area.
The class A fire fight activities falls into two distinct, well defined situations, each
with different attack methods (all considering the use of proper fireproof protective
clothing).
The attack methods will be discussed ahead.
 Direct class A attack

The fire team members manage to enter the compartment and attack the fire. The
technique to be used is simply attack the fire base to extinguish it. The attitude in a class
“A” fire attack must be:
 Keep yourself lowered and dry, if possible;
 Use jet/fog intermittently, in order to minimize the steam production. Reach
the fire base;
 Do not apply water to the bulkheads and ceiling;
 Establish the containments – cool it when needed.
 Indirect class A attack

We will begin with a scenario in which the fire team members can have access to
the compartment, but cannot reach the fire base due to obstacles or the compartment
conditions (flashover phase) prevent the fire team from entering the premises, making
the direct fire attack impossible. Thus, the water fog technique or solid jet is applied into
the compartment by through any access or opening, or released over the fire base, to
control the fire.
After the conditions are improved, it is time for a direct attack. Attaining fire
control. It is an American method known as fog attack. It is not recommended to apply it
using a variable nozzle without a without a quick-locking mechanism.
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It is an indirect attack type used in the situation in which it is possible to access

the compartment, but it is still not possible to directly attack the fire due to the high
temperature, or the presence of an obstacle.
Actions during a class A fire indirect attack:
 Fog attack – Attaining fire control;
 Entering a compartment and indirectly applying water;
 Keep yourself lowered and dry, if possible;
 Use fog intermittently, directed to the hot gas layer over the fire in order to
control the fire in the compartment;
 Take breaks to minimize the steam production and to reassess the fire
situation;
 Advance to the fire base. Adjust the nozzle to solid jet/fog;
 Establish the containments – cool it when necessary.
When the attack aims to control the fire, it must be performed using the variable
nozzle in a 60° cone (high fog).
It consists in applying water to the hot gas and smoke layer located above the fire
in the upper compartment.
This method causes a temperature drop in the compartment and an irradiated
heat reduction, gradually decreasing the amount of flames, allowing for a direct fire
attack.
This application must be done in intermittent jets, spanning a few seconds each, in
order to avoid excessive steam production, which may lead the fire team to abandon the
location. The fog jet (60°) is oriented at 45° from the horizontal towards the hot gas
layer, applied for about 2 to 3 seconds and followed by a pause, in order to assess the
situation and allow the generated steam to dissipate.
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 High temperatures prevent the access to the compartment;

 Directly apply water over the fire base using solid jet from the compartment
access. If possible, apply solid jet to the fire base using the access and keep
yourself lowered and dry, if possible;
 Use high form intermittent jet/fog to minimize the steam production. Attack
the fire base;
 Use the fog attack method, if necessary;
 Advance to reach the fire base, when possible. Adjust the nozzle to solid/
high fog jet;
 Establish the containments (cool it when necessary).
Note: Apply a smokescreen to protect the fire team member from the generated heat
and steam.
 Decompression and forced or compulsory entry

High temperatures and large amount smoke in a fire, burning for a long period,
compromise the fire team access to perform the attack. The generated heat and smoke
increase will continue during the development stage until the intensity drop stage. In this
situation, it may be necessary to decompress a compartment to allow the high
temperatures to drop to lower levels and the amount of smoke to be reduced, allowing
the team to advance to directly or indirectly apply the extinguishing agent.
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The decompression involves an opening in a compartment or drilling a hole into

the upper compartment plate, allowing hot gas to be released to the atmosphere. Thus,
the compartment must be located immediately below an open deck, or a large
compartment beside an open deck (helideck).
If necessary, drill a hole by cutting the plate. The larger the hole, the faster the
temperature drop. The forced entry equipment must be used as necessary to enable
access to the compartments affected by fire. They include the bolt cutter, mallet and
handle, portable oxyacetylene or exothermic cut unit, and portable entry and rescue
hydraulic system;
The personnel must wear full PPE, because once the opening is made, fire, smoke
and steam will come out of it. In case it is impossible to directly or indirectly attack the
fire, any resource can and must be used, such as, for example, attaching a nozzle or a
piece of wood, using it as an extensor, allowing you to apply water inside the
compartment. Class A fire direct attack and decompressing to the atmosphere.
 High temperatures prevent access to the compartment;

 Decompress to the atmosphere to reduce temperature;
 Direct water appliance over the fire base after the temperature drop;
 Open an access or drill an opening on the upper compartment;
 Don’t direct water from the upper containment to the opening;
 After the temperature drop, use one of the above methods;
 Establish containments (cool it when necessary).
Indirect Attack Technique
 Continuously apply water for about 5 to 10 minutes;

 The access through which the water is being launched must be opened just
enough so that the nozzle or water jet can pass;
 If it is necessary to drill an opening (hole), you must cut just enough for the
nozzle or applicator to pass;
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 If necessary, the applicator can be left unprotected under surveillance, in

case the conditions, i.e., the steam and smoke, force the fire team retreat;
 If necessary, use a smokescreen or mantle to reduce the amount of steam
coming out of the compartment;
 The fire team members must take position so as to protect themselves from
the radiant heat and the steam exposure;
 When attacking through a scuttle, one method is to position the nozzle and
lower the scuttle over the hose, reducing the amount of heat and smoke
coming out of the compartment;
 The following indirect attack must be initiated as soon as possible;
 If it is not possible to maintain the attack, isolate the compartment,
maintain the containments and go back to performing the attack 2 to 3
minutes later, repeating this procedure as necessary;
 The low density fog applicator can be used, but use preferably a fog
variable nozzle, which will allow the attack with the same nozzle as soon as
possible.
Indirect class A fire attack

When high temperatures don’t allow access to the compartment:
 Force the attack by opening an access or drilling an opening in the ceiling
and bulkheads;
 Indirect water appliance to reduce temperature;
 To cool the compartment, apply water fog starting from an access to drill
openings in bulkheads or the ceiling;
 After the temperature drop, use one of the above methods;
Another approach when the temperatures prevent access to the compartment is

to:
 Decompress to the atmosphere to reduce temperature;
 Force the attack through the access opening or drill openings on the ceiling
and bulkheads;
 Apply water indirectly
to reduce temperature;
 Directly apply water
over the fire base, after
the temperature drop.
 Open a direct water
access on the upper
compartment;
 Don’t direct the upper
containment water to
the opening;
 To cool the
compartment, apply
water fog though an
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access or drill openings in bulkheads or the ceiling;

 After reducing the temperatures, use one of the above methods;
Class B Firefighting Techniques
Fighting a fire of such class involves a great

amount of smoke and high temperatures production,
especially in case of fire from sprayed oil or spread
over a large area. Fires in paint lockers produce large
amounts of highly toxic gas.
The extinguishing agents to be used are AFFF
foam, Chemical powder, and APC (Aqueous Potassium
Carbonate). In its absence, you can use water, but in
this case, expect a greater fire fight period, a greater personnel exhaustion, a greater
number of men and compressed air bottles, greater damage due to the excessive
amount of time to extinguish the fire, and a greater fire spread risk.
Due to its characteristics and great risk it presents in most vessels, the
compartments with a large amount of fuel, paints, greases, etc., are supplied with fixed
foam or water spray, or CO2/FM-200 flooding fire extinguishing systems.
 Galley fire
This type of fire usually results from galley fryer
oil overheating and the lack of attention from the men
who use it.
The galleys and pantries must have an area with
visible clear and objective instructions of how turn off
the equipment (electrical isolation) and stop the
ventilations/closing flaps (mechanical isolation).
The factors that contribute to the fire intensity
and propagation are: the delay in discovering the fire;
dirty and oil filled pipework and extraction screens; spreading the fire to the proximities
due to misuse of extinguishing agent (when directly applying foam over oil).
The overheating sign is white smoke production over oil. The fryer must then be
turned off a fire blanket must be placed over it, dampening it for at least 5 (five)
minutes, while waiting for the oil temperature to decrease.
If a fire occurs, the alarm must be immediately sounded, the equipment power
supply must be cut off and the attack must be initiated. The APC system must be used, if
present.
When an APC system is not present, AFFF or Dry Powder, foam extinguishers must
be used, applying them from a suitable distance so as to avoid burns from oil splashing.
The foam must be applied in a way so as to drip over the oil. Covering and
suppressing it.
Dry Powder must be used in short bursts, in order to control the fire.
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In case the fire is not extinguished, arrange a hose line with a variable nozzle and
other lines, portable monitor or NPU/FB(5)X with protection, and reinitiate the attack.
 Engine room fire

The engine rooms are high temperature environments, with a great amount of fuel
and lubricant, and a great amount of energized electrical equipment.
In the vessels, fuel oil or lubricant spills may occur due to material fatigue, lack of
maintenance or poor handling.
The fire-related engine room difficulties in an Engine Room are:
 A large amount of black smoke, causing visibility loss in around two
minutes, hindering the evacuation from the affected engine room, and
makes finding the fire an impossible task;
 Access difficulties, because the vertical descent presents a risk to the crew
members, and the fire and smoke are concentrated in the upper engine
room;
 High temperatures involved in a class B incident.
The vessels must have a fire fighting procedure for Engine Rooms, aimed at
spreading the procedures to be adopted in a fuel oil (or lubricant) spill or a class B fire in
Engine Rooms. Additionally, the proper use of each on board firefighting system and
equipment, employed in this situation, must be known to all.
This task involves complex actions, with a great amount of personnel and
material, and requires organization, knowledge about each scene and action, personnel
interaction and rigorous coordination, and it is essential the use of checklists by the
various stations involved.
Class C Fire Fighting Techniques
This class firefighting procedures

aim at the person security and to the
vessel firefighting capability preservation
or equipment operation. Fire in
energized equipment must be fought
with CO2, which is a clean extinguishing
agent, or with dry chemical powder.
The latter will leave residues that
can be difficult to remove, or even
damage the relays and delicate electrical
contacts. Class C firefighting tasks are kept in this class until it proves impossible to
control and extinguish it without using a great amount of water.
The action sequence is as follows:
 Cut off the equipment power supply;
 Start the fire fighting, checking the whether it is necessary to open the
cabinets or panels doors. If necessary, it is advisable to use insulating
gloves for this purpose;
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 Use preferably CO2. However, if it is necessary to use water, wait for the
Command authorization, because vital equipment or even systems may be
damaged and leave the vessel in a difficult situation. If authorized, use high
speed water fog at a 2 meters distance, at least. Use fresh water, if
available. Don’t use solid jet or fog applicator;
 Keep the diffuser outside the panel or cabinet, taking care not to make any
physical contact with possibly power supplied parts, in order to prevent
electrical shock.
Extinguishers to be applied in panels with local CO2 injection must be suitable for
such and present insulating protection.
3. FIRE DETECTION AND EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

INSPECTION
3.1. AUTOMATIC FIRE ALARMS
The fire alarms are equipment installed to alert the crew, triggering on board state
of emergency. The alarms can be audible or visual.
Audible
The audible alarms are equipment installed in several on board compartments to

inform using intercoms buzzers or messages (fire, collision, abandon, etc.).
Visual
Visual alarms are suitable for places where it is difficult to hear. Engine or
generator rooms – where hearing protection is advised – use this special lighting system
with intense oscillatory flashes in addition to audible alarms.
3.2. FIRE DETECTION EQUIPMEN
The general firefighting and fire detection equipment are based on the SOLAS 74
Convention, but must comply with the vessel record county rules.
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The fire detection equipment installation is clear: the sooner the fire is detected,
the faster it is extinguished. They are divided into two types: the human sensor type,
which may not be found in every compartment, and the automatic type, which is pre-
installed to provide a fast detection of fire spots, or any incident identified by the alarm
plan, thus triggering the emergency plan for the incident.
Detection and Alarms
The purpose of this rule is to detect a fire within the room and give an alarm to
allow an escape safe and the fulfillment of firefighting activities. For this purpose the
following requirements must be met:
 The facilities of the fixed system of detection and fire alarm should be
appropriate to the nature of the magazine, the potential for spread of fire
and the potential generation of smoke and gases;
 The alarm points manually operated must be located appropriately to
provide a means of rapidly accessible information; and
 The fire patrols shall provide an effective means of detecting and locating
fires and alerting the bridge and teams of firefighting.
Fire And Smoke Detection Systems
The detection systems allow fire principles to be promptly informed using an alarm
signal. The main fire detectors are gas or smoke, and flames or heat.
 Gas or smoke detectors

The combustion gas detectors are classified as follows:
 Ionic detectors;
 Optical detectors;
 Flame detectors;
 Temperature detectors.
We will detail each type of detector and its main features.
 Ionic detectors
They detect the combustion product through its influence over the electric current
in an ionization chamber. They are found in production locations with a fuel or flammable
product leaking potential or in kitchens.
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 Optical detectors
The detection in this type of detector occurs by measuring the effects (darkening
or dispersion) of the smoke particles interference over the light sensor (photoelectric
detector). They are found in almost every compartment (cabins, corridors, etc.), except
in kitchens and generator rooms, where smoke is occasionally found.
 Flame detectors
The flame detectors capture the infrared and ultraviolet radiation emitted by the
flame. They are found in places with a potential risk for a rapid intense fire growth,
determined by the liquid and flammable gas presence.
 Temperature detectors
The temperature detectors are used to identity an above-average heat source in
the area where it was installed. They can be:
 Thermostatic: they detect when the room temperature exceeds a certain
value during a certain period;
 Thermal speed detector: detects whether the speed with which the
temperature increases exceeds a certain value during a certain time period.
3.3. FIXED FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPMENT
Traditionally, the equipment or critical installations fire protection is based on fixed

suppression systems using gaseous extinguishing agents. The fixed fire protection
systems are those whose purpose is to suppress a fire spot in a given system or
equipment through a generally automatic fixed installation. These systems are intended
to provide an extinguishing gas discharge from a cylinder set or storage cylinders via
fixed tubing all the way to the risk site. Most fixed protection systems work
automatically, requiring a connection to an automatic fire detection system (using smoke
or heat detectors, for example). The following scheme represents the fundamental pieces
set for a fixed protection installation.
The fixed fire protection installation have a relatively simple operation mode, but
the automatic actuation systems require the installation of automatic fire detectors and
an information management mode relative to the detecting and extinguishing. The
system control panel allows you to manage false alarms and program a time lapse
between the signal reception from the fire detectors and the order for opening the gas
discharge valve in the protected space, so as to allow the people to evacuate in case of
danger, such as in Carbon Dioxide (CO2) installations. When no one is present or when it
is a harmless gas, the extinguishing system actuation is usually immediate.
The manual actuation systems have no such problem, thus not requiring fire
detectors, but they introduce a human decision element, which in some cases may result
in a considerable advantage.
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There are two main fixed fire suppression system types which use extinguishing
gaseous agents, with respect to their application mode: the total flooding systems and
the total application systems. The first is generally used to protect confined spaces, such
as technical rooms or computer rooms. In this case, a certain amount of the gaseous
extinguishing agent is discharged in the confined space, in order to obtain an uniform
extinguishing gas concentration in this space. The total application systems, on the other
hand, apply the extinguishing agent directly onto the burning object or equipment, in a
sufficiently high concentration to extinguish the fire in an open space.
The fixed fire extinguishing systems are designed to protect against risks such as:
 Computer rooms;
 Command rooms;
 Archives and museums;
 Telephone Exchanges;
 Electronic Equipment Rooms;
 Valuable Articles Depot;
 Critical Industrial Equipment;
 Aircrafts and Vessels;
 Mainframes;
 Power plants turbines and generators;
 Installations where water cannot be used as an extinguishing agent.
Fixed halogenated agents systems
The halogenated agents are an alternative

solution to the most effective halon. They belong to
the refrigerant group, and provide a cooling effect
against fire, partly by inhibiting the chain reaction.
These products contain fluorine, chlorine, bromine or
iodine elements or compounds, but unlike halon, they
are not ozone-depleting substances. Eventually, these products may contribute to the
greenhouse effect, but as of now they are considered a safe, clean and effective
alternative, with a minimum environmental impact, considering the effects of the fire
itself. The modern halogenated agents also present the great advantage of not being
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toxic in the concentrations in which they are used, according to their manufacturers, and
their total compatibility with the presence of people.
These agents are highly effective relative to the inert gases, and require, for
example, a much smaller gas volume for a fixed installation, smaller cylinder batteries,
and smaller spaces. On the other hand, their cost is much higher than inert gases.
Examples of halogenated agents are products generally designated by FM-200 and FE13.
Fixed CO2 systems
The fixed CO2 systems are installed on board in order to saturate with CO2 the
compartment inner atmosphere, where there is a greater fire risk. Except for the gas
release maneuvers and its dimensions, the CO2 bottles used in fixed systems are similar
to the portable extinguishers bottles. The fixed CO2 installations can be of two types:
hose in reel and remote direct discharge.
 Hose in reel
The hose in reel consists of two bottles connected to a special hose section for
CO2, collected in a reel with a diffuser at the end. Next to the diffuser is a valve for
controlling the gas discharge.
 Direct discharge
The direct discharge type consists of two or more bottles that discharge to a
pipework which leads the CO2 to the equipment protected compartments. A wire cable
goes from the bottles valve triggering mechanism all the way to a remote start box with
a glass lid, located outside the compartment near the bottles. To discharge the CO2 you
must break the glass and pull the lever. In some installations, there are CO2 discharge
valves in each bottle; in others, only two bottles are controlled by the wire cable, and the
rest are opened by automatic pressure valves. In general, the differences from one
manufacturer from another are small.
Before using the CO2 as a dampening agent, you must check whether all the
compartment openings are closed and if the vents are still (or if they will automatically
stop once the CO2 is released). Once the bottles discharge is initiated, it can no longer
be stopped. In the hose in reel type, the valve next to the diffuser, as with the other
portable extinguishers, allow a temporary interruption, but the seal is not perfect and is
only achieved by replacing the bottle seal.
 Fixed CO2 system
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The fixed CO2 cylinder set system consists of tubes, valves, diffusers, detection,
fire mains, signaling, alarm, command panel and accessories, designed to extinguish the
fire by dampening, using the extinguishing agent discharge.
Its use aims to protect places where it is not advisable to use water, or places with
a high objects and equipment added value, where using another extinguishing agent will
cause property impairment due to waste deposition.
It is usually recommended in places that seek economy and cleanliness, and those
which the agent-installation cost is much lower than using another extinguishing agent.
It is highly effective in extinguishing:
 Class B and C fires (flammable liquids and combustible gases);
 High voltage energized equipment in:
a) Enclosed spaces with the total flooding system, which extinguishes by
dampening the fire, lowering the location oxygen concentration
necessary for combustion and creating an inert atmosphere;
b) Open spaces, by locally applying it.
 Class A fires (solid fuels) resulting from its cooling effect in solid fires in
which the fire is shallow and the generated heat is low;
 In total flooding systems, combined with an early detection, so as to avoid
deep coal formation;
 In local applications, taking into account the fuel type and arrangement,
since the CO2 discharge prevents the extinction in regions where the
system cannot have direct access to.
The system cannot extinguish:

 Fuel fire (non-pyrophoric) that do not need oxygen for its combustion, since
they allow anaerobic combustion;
 Class D fuel fire (pyrophoric materials).
The system types are:

 Total flooding, where the CO2 discharge is released sufficient concentration
for the whole volume of the risk to be protected;
 Total application, where the CO2 is released over unconfined elements to be
protected;
 Modular, consisting of a small total flooding system installed inside the
compartments and equipment to be protected.
The system components are:

 Cylinders;
 Discharge head;
 Pipework’s and connections;
 Valves;
 Diffusers.
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 Cylinders
Diffuser cylinders which contain a pressurized extinguishing agent, in which the
cylinder pressure itself is used to pressurize the system, being responsible for the
diffusers discharge.
It must be located next to the area/equipment to be protected, so as to avoid
cargo loss; decrease the possibility of damaging the installation and lower the system
cost; however, it must not be installed within the risk area. It must be placed in a
protected location (except for the modular systems).
The cylinders must be protected against mechanical damage or damage caused by
the aggressive environment.
One of the cylinders in the cylinder set is designed to be the “cylinder-pilot”,
whose function, once activated by a command device, is to provide the agent with an
initial flux, so as to use pressure to open the other battery cylinders discharge heads.
The cylinders can be of two types:
 High pressure, in which the CO2 is contained at a 20°C temperature with a
60bar pressure;
 Low pressure, in which the CO2 is cooled at -20°C with a 20bar pressure.
 Discharge head
The discharge head, which consists of a fixed device adapted to the valve, to allow
its opening and subsequent continuous gas discharge.
 Pipework and its connections

The pipework and connections are responsible for conducting the extinguishing
agent, and must be resistant to pressure at low temperature and corrosion, both
internally and externally. They must resist a breakaway-pressure 5.5 times higher than
the rated pressure.
 Valves
The extinguishing agent directional valves or the gas manifold purging valves
(prevent system escapes from triggering closed diffusers). These valves must resist a
breakaway-pressure seven times greater than the cylinder rated pressure.
Diffusers, which are fixed automatic devices, are provided with calibrated orifices
designed to provide CO2 release without internal freezing and with uniform application.
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Firefighting systems using dry chemical as an extinguishing method
Not all fires are the same, and they do not burn with the same intensity. You will
need specific extinguishing means for each risk situation.
There are powerful dry chemical fire suppression systems, whose technology is
proven by the most challenging flammable liquid and gas firefighting. They usually
minimize the users’ risks through their excellent “knock down” features (almost
immediate action).
Two are the options that allow for a quick and effective firefighting, especially in
high risk areas with large fires possibilities. A place where it is vital to suppress the fire
before it spreads or increases in proportion:
 The manual systems;
 The fixed systems.
 Manual systems
These systems use the dry chemical in an efficient way, in conditions otherwise
hardly manageable using extinguishers, whether they are portable or on wheels (carts).
The manual systems must combine the manual extinguishers flexibility with the ability to
extinguish large Class B (flammable liquid and gas), and Class C fires (Energized
systems).
These systems must have a large extinguishing media capability, and allow a long
discharge time; normally it is possible to use only the amount extinguishing media
specific for each case. The great dry chemical flux provides a necessary security to fight
tridimensional fire, as well as pressurized gas and liquid fires. In summary these systems
are especially effective in areas where portable extinguishers and carts may be
insufficient to the related risk.
According to these manual systems design, they can fulfill the following situations:
 Large fires – Class B and C are extremely dangerous and require immediate
“knock down” capability;
 Class A and D fires;
 Reduced number of operators, since they can be operated by one person;
 Remote locations where self-contained units enable local fire fighting,
without the need for pumps or external power source; with the extra
advantage that they can be easily recharged in the field;
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 Multiple risk attendance: a system can be equipped with selector valves so

as to supply several remote hoses using a central unit.
 Fixed systems
They are installed with permanent pipework, which are an automatic solution with
high-tech features.
These systems have dry chemical nozzles, and include detection and alarm,
pneumatic or manual electric actuation, and allow associated equipment to be shut
down. A great flexibility is provided by the detector types: thermal, photoelectric,
temperature gradient, ionization or flames. A variety of dry chemical nozzles
complement these systems flexibility.
The dry chemical systems meet a wide range of industrial applications:
 Oil and petrochemical industry:
a) Fuel loading and unloading systems
b) Processing equipment in refineries
c) Products transfer and storage systems
d) Off-shore platforms
e) Processing areas
 Maritime applications:
a) Tanker decks
b) Engine rooms
c) Loading decks
 Manufacturing units:
a) Paint booths;
b) Heat treatment tanks;
c) Warehouses;
d) Steel Companies;
e) Paint and solvent mixture areas;
f) Machine lubrication systems;
g) Flammable liquids storage.
 Power generation and concessionaires:

a) Transformers;
b) Generators;
c) Turbines;
d) Control equipment.
 Natural gas:
a) GNG tanks;
b) Gas Plants;
c) Process Pipework;
d) Vaporizers;
e) Compressors;
f) Liquefaction plants;
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g) Effluent gathering areas;

h) Truck loading areas.
Water spray system
They are also called automatic fire sprinkler system. They are generally intended
to protect areas against fire, and when automatically operated, they have the advantage
of acting in the fire early stages, thereby preventing the fire from reaching higher
proportions.
 Automatic fire sprinkler system

The oldest spray system type on board is derived from the fire main, and is
intended to protect the ammunition dump, the ammunition room, etc. Between the fire
main and the protected compartments, there is a stop valve, normally open and locked
with a padlock. Below is a remotely controlled valve, used for the system operation.
Right next to this valve, there is a device that allows the fire main operation test. The
sprinkler system is made either by simple pipework perforated in regular spaces, or with
special nozzles.
The spray system can be automatically operated, with the control valve operated
by a server-command system, sensitive to temperature increases.
Similar manual operating systems, provided with local control and remote
command are installed in hangars or other places where the handling of gasoline or
other flammable makes it a potentially dangerous place. They can be equipped with
sprinklers designed to provide a low-speed fog formation, or shower-like sprinklers,
designed to form a water curtain. In hangars, the sprinkler systems are transversally
arranged so as to facilitate the burned area restriction.
A widely used system, both on board and offshore installations, is the one using
automatic fire sprinklers. The sprinkler network, in this case, is kept under pressure in
the compartment to be protected. The showers come into play independently, when
activated by heat. Thus, only the sprinklers next to the fire are activated. The instant
any sprinkler system is activated, the water flow on the network triggers the system
alarm. Such system has the advantage, besides the quick firefighting response, to use
only the necessary sprinklers, which prevents additional losses resulting from the
compartment widespread flooding.
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The alarm action, in most cases, is to inform the need for the water to be closed,
since the fire itself might have already been extinguished. The sprinkler system is kept
loaded with fresh water using a flexible hose, coming from the water network, in order to
reduce the corrosion problems.
The automatic
sprinkler systems consist basically on a valve which is kept on the closed position by a
heat sensitive element. By breaking this element, you are able to open the valve, whose
discharge is in a spray form. The most familiar type has a glass bottle as its sensitive
element. The bottle contains a liquid whose expansion causes the bottle to break when
hit, in a rated operation temperature.
Other sprinkler types can use low melting point alloys as their sensitive element
(fuse), such as: sprinkler with a solder element, and the conventional, lateral and special
type. The breaking of this piece by an increase in temperature triggers the system
operation.
3.4. FIRE PUMPS, HOSES, HYDRANTS AND NOZZLES
The fire pumps are designed according with their use:

 Fire pump;
 Fire and sewage pump;
 Fire and sanitary pump;
 Fire, sanitary and sewage pump.
Any pump installed to work as a fire pump must have sufficient capability and
pressure to supply the hydrants even in high decks. The pressure must be of 150
pounds./inch² for larger vessels and 100 pounds./inch² for smaller vessels.
Portable pumps
Portable pumps are several on board portable pump

types for sewage services, as well as other devices with the
same purpose.
Note: The portable pumps, when operating in internal compartments, must
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have their combustion gases conducted outside by an appropriate discharge

sleeve.
Fire hose
The pumps currently used in offshore installations

are Type III double jacket rubber at a 1.½ and 2.½ inch
diameter. The sections are 15,25m (50 feet) long, with
quick coupling connection (storz). Once the transference
to a hose section is done, it is established that the
standard length is 15,25m. The internal rubber diameter
is smooth, in order to minimize wear by friction.
The 1.½” hoses are of easier handling. The 2.½”
hoses, on the other hand, offer many use difficulties, even
when used in an open deck. They are used mostly to provide a greater hose line
extension, supplying the other 1.½” hoses using an “Y” reduction. In vessels with high
foam generating capacity, the 3.½” hoses are used as well.
The hoses must be kept clean, and it is not advisable to wash them, except in
case of grease or oil stains, which damage the rubber. In these cases, they must be
washed with fresh water, soft brush and soap or neutral detergent. Do not use wire
brush or any abrasive product.
After washing it, the hoses must be rinsed and hanged out to dry at room
temperature so as not to present mold. All the hoses must be weekly inspected, for
moisture-detection. They must be removed from their supports at least once a month
and stored again, such that the folds are not in the same spot as before. The hose lower
part, when hanged, must be at 15cm from the floor, at least.
 Storing
It is the way we find the hoses, depending on their storage location. We can find
them in the following ways:
 Spiral;
 Donut rolled;
 Zigzag.
We will detail each one below.

The spiral roll method is also known as the German method. It is only used for
storage purposes and presents a smooth fold which avoids material wear. It is not
recommended for firefighting operations due to the amount time it takes to unfold it.
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The donut roll method is the most suitable for firefighting operations due to its
handling and transport. It also presents a low material wear, because it uses only one
fold.
The Zigzag method is suitable for previously set up hose lines. It presents an
increased wear due to a larger number of folds. It can be laid on the ground or standing.
 Donut roll method: It is a task executed by the fire team member to store the
hoses after they are used:
Step 1: We prepare a hose, leaving it totally stretched on the floor, removing
every existing kink. You must take one of the ends and bring the hose over itself,
keeping a one meter distance between the two connections;
Step 2: Start rolling from the fold while trying to keep the highest possible
alignment. The second crew member must help preventing folds in the hose inner
part. Stop rolling when you reach the inner connection, bringing the other
connection over the donut rolled hose.
In order to unroll a hose, just place it on the floor, step on the external unrolled
part, hold onto the inner part connection with the hose still rolled, and pull it up. This
movement can be done while still or walking towards a nozzle or other hose section
The donut rolled hose can be transported in two ways. Under the arm, with the
connection facing down and pointed backwards, or over the shoulders, with the
connection facing down and pointed forward. This last method may present some
visibility limitations for the crew member carrying the hose.
Fire fighting piping
The Firefighting Piping consists of a plumbing system that feeds fire extinguishers
and other systems that use water. In a ship, it is also used to power the sanitary
network and the cooling of the auxiliary machinery.
In order to ensure the maximum protection of the Firefighting Piping against
damage, whenever possible its pipes and pumps are located in the most protected part
of the vessel. On the main deck, the aim is to minimize the number of horizontal pipes.
The Firefighting Piping pressure is around of 150 lb./pol.², and a minimum
pressure of 70 lb./pol.² is required at the hose terminal for satisfactory mist production,
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whose quality improves as the pressure increases. This minimum pressure is also
required to operate almost all foam-producing.
• Segregation of the fire system - The fire system must have the resources
to be segregated into several independent sections.
Each of these sections shall have its own water supply, operating without prejudice to
the efficiency of the vessel in combat.
In most vessels, the segregation of the fire network is done by the classification of its
valves and by the use of the pumps, according to the current situation. The procedure
and instruction to achieve these results can be found in the vessel's Damage Control
Book.
• Warehouse spray system - Each warehouse, isolated, or group of nearby
warehouses, is fed by a fire system bypass, having an intermediate valve and a control
valve. These valves have local and remote maneuvering.
In some vessels, the spray network is fed by sections of hoses that should be attached
to fire plugs located nearby.
Others have sprinkler-type automatic spraying, which consists of a series of sprayers
that are kept individually closed by a glass ampoule containing a special liquid. If the
ambient temperature rises above a certain limit, the liquid inside the ampoule expands,
breaking the ampoule and releasing the water.
• Sewer system - The sewage system of a vessel consists of several nets

served or not by pumps, which are intended to remove unnecessary water on board.
In addition, portable sewage resources can be used, which will serve not only to
reinforce the fixed networks, but also to allow the sewage of sites deprived of normal
resources for such work. Among these resources that
make up the portable equipment, we can mention:
 Submersible electric pumps;
 Gasoline or diesel powered portable pumps;
 Reducers.
VALVES
The valves normally installed in the fire network are intercepting, reducing and
safety valves.
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• Interception valves - Valves are found in the network itself and in its
vertical or horizontal derivations. Their purpose is to allow the segregation of the system
in independent parts and, the isolation of damaged sections, aiming the repair and the
contour.
Some of these valves can be maneuvered from a distance.
At any time, the network must be in the condition of established closure, and this should
be the perfect knowledge of the brigade. These personnel should also have exact
knowledge of the maneuvers to be performed to promptly isolate or restore power to any
part of the system. When necessary, portable pumps are used to feed segregated parts
of the fire network.
• Reducing valves - Valves are installed in the branches of the fire system that
feed the sanitary network. The normal pressure of the sanitary system is 35 lbs./pol.2
and the reducing valves are set to that value.
• Safety valves - They are installed in the sanitary network, in general, shoot
with a pressure 10% higher than expected. These valves are intended not to exceed the
normal working pressure.
Fire Hydrant
Fire hydrants are devices installed in the fire system pipelines to collect water for
firefighting and on board are installed in the horizontal pipes or at the ends of the
vertical branches. On larger vessels these outlets are 2.½ inches in diameter, reduced
when needed to 1.½ inches. In these vessels the outlets may be double. On smaller
vessels, with few exceptions, all outlets are 1.½ inches.
The location of fire hydrants meets the following criteria: on larger vessels they
are positioned so that any point on the ship can be reached with two 15.25m (50 ft)
hoses. Smaller vessels are arranged so that any point on the vessel can be reached with
a 15.25m (50 ft) long hose. The main deck outlets are raised 0.30 m from the floor and
arranged horizontally.
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Nozzles
Vents - these are made of anti-sparking metal (bronze or brass) of various models
designed to optimize the speed and way of launching the water jet into the fire. Its flow
is variable and can be used for the application of solid jet, more suitable for cooling
works (indirect attack), or for application of high speed fog at varied angles of 30º to
90º. They are found in diameters of 1½ and 2½ inches. They are also found in special
models used for foam production.
• Universal Jet and Nozzles - One of the types of squirts adopted in the Navy
is the Universal. The universal nozzle, supplied in the 1½ "and 2½" dimensions, has a
three-way valve, operated by a lever, and two discharge holes. By maneuvering the
lever, the nozzle may produce a solid jet through the top hole, or a mist curtain through
the bottom hole, where a spray nozzle fits.
The jets of water produced by the universal nozzle must
meet certain characteristics. These are standardized in
form, consistency, and scope. When this does not
happen, check if there is any folding or kneading in the
hose or obstruction in the discharge orifice. If none of
these irregularities are noted, the outlet pressure may be
low. This may be due to obstruction in the drain. If
cleaning the drain does not improve the situation, the hoses should be passed
immediately to another outlet. Another point to consider is the pressure drop caused by
the excessive extension of the hose line, or by the large number of hoses deriving from a
single outlet. Fire extinguishers are positioned on board so that such events do not
occur.
With the lever in the advanced position, the nozzle will be closed and, in the opposite
position, behind, will produce the solid jet. With the lever in the intermediate, vertical
position, the discharge will be through the lower orifice, in the form of high or low speed
fog, according to the adopted pulverizer. For the production of high speed mist a high
speed sprayer is used, which is normally attached to the nozzle by a small streamer. To
obtain low speed fog, the high speed sprayer is withdrawn by placing an applicator in
place, where a low speed sprayer is present.
Either of these accessories adapts quickly to the nozzle by bayonet-type coupling.
The fog, in any case, is produced by small orifices open in convergent direction
that, subdividing the jet, cause the particles of water to clash. The pressure required to
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produce mist on any of the spray types is the same, 70 lb / in2. For best results,
however, the water pressure at the nozzle should be close to 100 psi. The low-speed
mist is produced by smaller orifices so arranged that the water is divided into very small
particles with reduced range. The low speed sprayer is not connected directly to the
nozzle, but to the applicator tube.
There are three types of applicators:
The first two are used with a 1½ "nozzle, and the third with a 2½" nozzle.
Comparing the high speed and low fog, the low one has a smaller range and greater
diffusion of the particles of water. Thus, the low fog, due to the greater diffusion,
presents more easiness of absorption of heat. In both types of fog, however, their effects
are, to a greater or lesser degree, those of cooling and smothering. The quenching effect
is obtained when the water particles, by absorbing the heat, become steam. This, in
turn, acts as a damper agent. Both types of fog may be used in firefighting. The low
speed mist applicators are no longer used for the protection of the Fire Classes after the
variable nozzle has been put into service, which is also capable of producing mist for the
protection line. The applicators are still useful for applying mist over obstacles that
eventually prevent the passage of personnel to fight the flames at a shorter distance.
They may also be introduced into fired compartments through open holes in the floors
and bulkheads when there is no possibility of personnel entering the fire-fighting
compartment.
 Adapters - For greater effectiveness, flexibility in the use of hoses in fire-

fighting operations we must have some accessories that optimize your
reach.
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 Derivant or reduction in "Y" - The "Y" shunt or reduction is indicated for

maneuvers in which two or three lines of hoses will be required. Always
shrink from a diameter of 2.½ "to 1.½". It is also constructed of anti-glare
metal.
Reductions are applied to reduce the diameter of a hose from 2½ "to a 1½" hose,
never the other way around. Although the majority of hose connections today are quick
couplings, we still have the hose or "Storz" wrenches.
The real reason they still exist is because of the
sensitivity of brass or bronze to physical impacts. It is
an excellent material for firefighting because it does not
produce sparks when it suffers some type of friction,
however it is easy to knead. Therefore, it is important to
take the utmost care with all fire extinguishers
manufactured from these materials.
We must also preserve such equipment from
dirt, contamination and corrosion, even if made of
bronze, especially after use with foams. Therefore we
will not dispense a good cleaning with a little of some
suitable lubricant.
3.5. MOBILE AND PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHING EQUIPAMENTS AND

THEIR APPLICATIONS, OF PERSONAL PROTECTION, OF RESCUE, FOR
RESCUE AND COMMUNICATION.
Fire Extinguishers
Extinguishers are metallic containers provided with an extinguishing agent for fast
and immediate firefighting operations. They can be portable or wheeled, according to
their size and operation. Their protection degree is not the same from fixed automated
systems, but if properly used they are efficient during the first stages.
Portable extinguishers
The use of portable extinguishers to attack the beginning of the fire should never
delay the specialized operation, while using the portable equipment, there will be actions
underway for the specialized assistance arrival, preventing the fire from worsening.
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There are many kinds of portable extinguishers. The differences presented among
them are related to the use of different extinguishing agents and propellant. The
extinguishing agents are selected according to fire class.
The propellant is related to the practical aspect of the operation.
The successful use of extinguishers depends on:
 Maintenance according to the technical regulation;
 Their location;
 Periodic Inspection of the area to be protected;
 Qualified personnel in proper handling.

The extinguishers should contain the minimum amount of extinguishing agent
inside, called extinguishing unit, which is specified in the rule.
 Water extinguishers – pressurized type

The propellant (nitrogen) and the extinguishing agent are
stored in the cylinder and the discharge is controlled through the stop
valve (fast firing, trigger type). Their features are:
 Capacity: 10 liters;
 Extinguishing unit: 10 liters:
 Fire application: Class “A”;
 Jet
 average reach: 10 meters;
 Discharge time: 60 seconds.
The operation happens as follow: internal pressure expels the water when the
trigger is fired.
Operation: Remove the extinguisher bracket, lifting its lower handle. Remove the
safety pin and press the trigger, directing the jet towards the base of the flames and
after extinguishing the fire, direct the jet to the incandescent material to soak it up.
 Foam extinguishers
It consists of a cylinder with a mixture of 3% or 6% of liquid foam
generator AFFF and water; it uses nitrogen as a propellant. Its features
are:
 Capacity: 9 liters (mixture of water and Liquid Foam
Generator – AFFF);
 Extinguishing unit: 9 liters;
 Fire Application: Class “A” and “B”;
 Medium range of jet: 5 meters;
Its operation is as follow: the mixture of water and liquid foam generator (LGE)
already under pressure is expelled when the trigger is fired; passing through the nozzle
launcher. The entrainment of the atmospheric air occurs and foam is formed.
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Operation: They are operated as the pressurized water extinguisher. We must:

Take it to the fire location; place it safely, break the seal, pull the safety pin, pull the
trigger and the nozzle and launch the foam against a bulkhead.
Note: The nine-liter extinguisher must receive 8,6 liters of water and 0,4 liters of AFFF,
and must be pressurized until the indicator of pressure (gauge) show the pressure of
13,5 kgf/cm2 on the green line (operation).
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

The extinguisher consists of a seamless steel cylinder, in
which the CO2 is compressed to a pressure of 850 lb./in2.
The use of trigger lever enables an intermittent operation
of the extinguisher.
Its features are:

 Capacity: 2,4 and 6 kg;
 Extinguishing unit : 6 Kg;
 Fire application : Classes “B” and “C”;
 Jet reach: 2,5 meters;

The gas stored under pressure is released when the trigger is fired.
Operation: Remove the safety pin and then press the lever to command the exhaust
valve. In almost all types of fire, the discharge must be directed to the base of the
flames. After its extinction, proceed cooling down the area to prevent reignition. It must
be taken to the fire location, safely placed, and then break the seal and take off the
safety pin, pull the trigger and the diffuser and launch it with lateral movements.
Cautions: Hold the handle diffuser when operating. The carbon dioxide
extinguishers, with metal diffuser, must not be used with class “C” fires; they present a
risk of electric shock. When used in confined spaces, the operator must do it carefully in
order not to suffer the effects related to the low percentage of oxygen. They cannot be
used in class “D” fires. They are effective against small class “A” fires, controlling them
until the arrival of the specialized team.
 Dry chemical extinguishers

The sodium bicarbonate extinguishers are originally known
as “dry powder”, this name being maintained for all fire
extinguishers with extinguishing agent in powder, except those of
class “D” fires. The propellant may be CO2, nitrogen or
compressed air, free from humidity, in order not to granulate the
powder.
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Its features are:

 Capacity: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 12 kg;
 Extinguishing unit: 4 kg;
 Fire application: Classes “B” and “C”;
 Class “D”, using special dry powder ;
 Average jet reach: 5 meters;
 Discharge time: 15 seconds for 4 kg extinguisher, 25 seconds for 6 kg
extinguisher and 45 seconds for 12 Kg extinguisher.
The powder is expelled under pressure when the trigger is fired.

Operation: The Jet should be directed to the base of the flames, moving the nozzle
rapidly from side to side. Some extinguishers have high speed nozzles, which when used
on a thick layer of flammable liquids must be applied at a distance of 2 to 2,5 m.
Cautions – The dry chemical extinguishers are not effective in class “D” fires and
they can even cause violent chemical reactions.
 HALON
Halons are halogenated hydrocarbons. It is a extinguishing
agent that used to have great success in fighting fires, given its
proprieties as a relatively clean and efficient agent for classes A, B
and C fires. The halon contains chemical elements such as
bromine, fluorine, iodine and chlorine that act on the combustion
process by inhibiting the chain reaction. However, despite its
proven effectiveness, this product is prohibited by environmental
reasons. Today there are alternative extinguishing gases,
considered clean and without the adverse effects of halon on the
ozone layer, including the inert gases and halogenated agents such
as Argonite, Inergen, FM200, FE13 etc.
However the use of these types of products in portable fire
extinguishers are not widespread since most of them are primarily
intended for fixed systems in confined spaces. It is common to find
carbon dioxide as an alternative to halon extinguishers, as it is an
inert gas, but its use has advantages concerning the safety of the
user and the equipment to protect.
Its features are:
Capacity: 1 2, 4 e 6 kg;
Extinguishing Unit: 2 Kg;
Fire applications: Classes “B” and “C”;
Average jet reach: 3,5 metros;
Discharge time: 15 seconds for 2kg extinguisher.
The pressurized gas is released when the trigger is fired. The halon is pressurized
by the action of another gas (propellant), usually nitrogen.
They are particularly employed in fires in electronic equipment, not leaving
residues. It falls into disuse, but is still used in some marine units.
Operation – They are operated similarly to CO2 extinguishers. The jet must be
directed to the base of the flames. In fires at containers with flammable liquids, the jet
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must be directed against the opposite wall, over the flames. As soon as possible, the
operator must direct the jet around the fire in order to cover the largest possible area
during the discharge of the extinguisher.
 Dry chemical extinguisher for fuel metals (D Powder)

These extinguishers are usually known as “Dry powder”
extinguishers for class “D” fires.
The most commonly employed powder is MET-L-X (sodium
chlorite, tricalcium phosphate, thermoplastic and metal stearate
additive). The powder is non-toxic, non-combustible; it is not
abrasive and does not conduct electricity.
The propellant is generally the nitrogen. The powder forms a
solid layer, preventing contact of oxygen with the flames,
extinguishing them. It is important that the solid layer is not
broken, which would allow the entry of oxygen and consequent
intensification of flames. The powder has the characteristic of adhering to hot surfaces,
involving irregular and die-cast patterns. The extinguishers MET-L-X are suitable for fires
involving sodium, potassium alloy and magnesium.
The pressurized powder is expelled when the trigger is fired.
Operation: When approaching a fire, fully open the nozzle and throw the powder
on the burning metal.
 ABC dry chemical extinguishers

A fire is characterized by the type of combustion material and
the stage where it is on. There are three more common classes of
fire, identified by “A”, “B” and “C”.
The new type of extinguisher, with ABC powder put out the
three types of fire. When using it you it is not required to identify
the fire class.
The ABC powder, which is widely used in Europe and The
USA, is not harmful to health. Its main component,
monoammonium phosphate, is a product largely used in the
production of agricultural fertilizer. After using an ABC extinguisher,
it is recommended to ventilate the affected areas.
It advantages are:
 Safety to the operator. The ABC powder efficiently put out all fire classes. It
is capable of extinguishing flames up to 2 meters (1-A) in solids, and 4
meters (5-B) in flammable liquids;
 Expired date of 5 years. (automotive fire extinguishers);
 Quality assurance by manufactures;
 Convenience to the user who spends long time with no worries.
Its features are:

 Type of pressurization: Direct;
 Discharge time (s): 25 (6 Kg powder);
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 Jet reach (m): 5 (average);

 Yield in the vertical position: 93% (minimum);
 Extinguishing capacity: 2-A NBR 15808 and 20-B NBR 15808;
 Load capacity: 1, 2, 4, 6 and 12 Kg;
 Specifications: Dry powder type, pressurized;
 Valve: Made of forged brass intermittent type, pressure gauge capable of 0
to 21kgf/cm2;
 Cylinder feature: Phosphate internal and external;
 Epoxy painting finish (electrostatic powder) as ABNT rules.
Wheeled extinguishers (carts)
They are devices with greater amount of extinguishing agent, mounted on easily
conducted wheels.
Due to its size and load capacity, the operation of these devices requires the use
of at least two operators.
They can comprise water, mechanical foam, dry powder and carbon dioxide.
 Water cart
It is a higher proportion and capacity extinguisher, led by wheels. Its features are:
 Capacity: 75 to 150 liters;
 Fire application: class “A”;
 Average Jet reach: 13 meters;
 Discharge time for 75 liters: 180 seconds;
 Water cart operation and handling.
There is a compressed gas cylinder attached to the body of

the cart that, when open, pressurizes it, expelling the water after
firing the trigger.
Operation – Conduct the cart distributing the weight on the
Wheel axle, remove the hose bracket, break the Seal and pressurize the cart opening the
gas cylinder register (wait 10 seconds so the complete pressurization is reached), test
and direct the jet to the base of the flames.
 Foam cart
Its features are:
 Capacity: 50 to 150 liters (mixture of water and LGE).
 Fire application: Classes “A” and “B”;
 Jet average reach: 7,5 meters;
 Discharge time for 75 liters: 180 seconds.
Operation and handling of the mechanical foam cart (to be

pressurized).
There is a compressed gas cylinder attached to the body of the
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extinguisher, which once open, pressurize it, expelling the mixture of water and LGE
when the trigger is fired. It is added air to the pre-mix in the nozzle launcher thus
forming foam.
Operation: Conduct the cart distributing the weight on the wheel axle, remove the
bracket hose, break the seal and pressurize the cart by opening the gas cylinder register
(wait 10 seconds so the complete pressurization is reached), test and launch the foam
against the bulkhead.
 Dry powder cart

Its features are:
 Capacity: 20 kg to 100 kg;
 Fire application: Classes “B” and “C”. Class “D”, using
special PQS ;
 Discharge time for 20 kg: 120 seconds.
Operation and handling of 50kg of dry powder cart (to be
pressurized).
Next to the extinguisher body there is a compressed gas
cylinder that when open, pressurize it expelling the powder when the trigger is fired.
Operation: Conduct the cart distributing the weight on the wheel axle, remove the
hose bracket, break the seal and pressurize the cart by opening the gas cylinder register
(wait 10 seconds so the complete pressurization is reached), test and direct the jet
towards the base of the fire.
 Carbon dioxide Cart (CO2)

It features are:
 Capacity: 25 kg to 50 kg;
 Fire application: Classes “B” and “C”;
 Jet average reach: 3 meters;
 Discharge time for 25 Kg: 60 seconds.
The carbon dioxide, under pressure, is released when the

trigger is fired.
Operation - Conduct the cart distributing the weight on
the wheel axle, remove the bracket hose, break the seal opening the cart valve and
open the valve (rapid release) at the end of the hose and direct the jet to the base of the
fire doing lateral movements with the diffuser.
Maintenance And Inspection
The maintenance starts with a periodic and complete exam of the extinguishers
and finishes when the problems found are corrected, thus ensuring a safe and efficient
operation. It is accomplished by local inspections: location, access, visibility,
identification label, seal and INMETRO seal, weight, physical damage, obstruction on the
tip or on the hose, loosen or broken parts and reading on the pressure gauge.
The inspections must be:
 Weekly: Check access, visibility and signaling;
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 Monthly: Check if the tip or the hose is clogged. Observe the reading on the
pressure gauge (if any), the seal and the safety pin;
 Semiannual: Check the CO2 extinguisher and the compressed gas weight, if
any. If the extinguisher weight is below the 90%, recharge;
 Annually: Check if there is any physical damage to the extinguisher, the
safety pin and seal malfunction. Recharge the extinguisher;
 Every fifteen days: Do the hydrostatic test, which is the proof that the
extinguisher is submitted every Five years or whenever the unit suffers
accidents, such as: beatings, exposure to high temperatures, chemical
attacks or corrosion. It must be done by qualified personnel and specialized
equipment. During this test, the device is subjected to a pressure 2,5 times
the working pressure for low pressure extinguishers (Dry powder
Extinguishers, Water, Foam and lower pressure Halogenated) – This test is
preceded by a detailed observation of the device to check if there is physical
damage – and 1,5 times the working pressure for high pressure
extinguishers (CO2 and high pressure halogenated).
General observations:
 Extinguishing agents, such as, water and sand thrown by bucket are
considered resources of reasonable efficiency for controlling fire starts. It is
a simple and economical resource indicated as an alternative for isolated
locations where fire risks are small, and the space do not constitute a
problem;
 The extinguishers that use chemicals under pressure must be
hydrostatically tested at regular intervals and also when the extinguisher
shows corrosion or mechanical problems. The extinguishers indicating
corrosion, distortion in the cylinder, or have been reinforced by welding or
another mechanical process, must be replaced by new extinguishers already
hydrostatically tested;
 The portable extinguishers that use gaseous or powder agents can be
ineffective if used outdoors under strong wind conditions.
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Personal Protection and Safety
The protective equipment comprises all the material provided to protect the fire
team members against any factors that endanger their physical integrity.
The PPE is selected according to the identified risk in a particular operation.
As it is a fire fighting operation, the first concern is the protection against burns.
However, we should never forget that respiratory and protection against head shock are
as important as the first.
During firefighting preparation, three basic types of protection must be provided.
 Protection against burns;
 Protection to the respiratory tract;
 Protection against head shock.
 Protection Against Burns

People who are engaged to firefighting operations need protection against heat.
 Protection clothing
Certain forms of water application (high fog and low
speeds) and even foam (foam fog) provide good protection
against radiant heat, but the individual basic protection is directly
linked to the clothing. Most of the models are the anti-fire 7/8
coats or fire retardant jacket and pant set. The most appropriate
protections against high temperatures are NOMEX® and the
aramid fireproof.
The crew members composing the fire team must wear the
complete firefighting uniform, including the hardhats with
intrinsically safe flashlight, hood and anti-exposure gloves or
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gloves for heavy duties, and flame-retardant clothing and, if it is possible, anti-static.
The threats to the fire team members are the high temperatures in the existing
fires and a greater amount of vapor produced when water comes into contact with the
material in combustion, or hot bulkheads or floors.
The vapor penetrates the gloves and the hood, causing burns. The use of
complete anti-penetration clothing enables an effective attack for
longer time. Steel-toe rubber long boots are required.
Observations about the use of protective clothing and
equipment:
 The clothing must be always under the coveralls, thus
providing better protection to the person;
 The clothing upper part must be closed only when
starting the operation in order to keep the person
fresh as long as possible;
 The clothing must have its collars turned up, the
Velcro and zippers closed;
 The gloves to be used must be appropriate;
 The gloves must be placed over the sleeves of the
clothing, if possible, and be of slightly larger size, to
allow man to move the fingers, preventing steam burns;
 The anti-flash hood must be placed on the face
 A mask covering all exposed parts of the person skin and the top part of the
mask, and within penetration clothing;
 The firefighting masks must have all straps closed and correctly adjusted to
the person’s body;
 The use of hardhats is mandatory (must be very well attached through the
chin strap).
 Penetration suit (aluminized)

The penetration clothing is used in firefighting
operations, where the person will be able to stay longer into
direct contact with flames or high temperatures.
The aluminized clothing must be dressed over the
coveralls. It comprises pants, jacket, boots, gloves and hood
with visor. They are to be used under conditions. They
protect against the radiant heat.
Nowadays, glass wool and aluminized clothing replace
the asbestos clothing. The aluminized surface reduces the
absorption of radiant heat.
Observations about the use of the protective clothing
and equipment:
 The clothing must always be used over the
coveralls, thus providing greater protection;
 The clothing upper part must be closed only when starting the operation in
order to keep the person fresh as long as possible;
 The clothing must have the collars turned up, Velcro and zippers closed;
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 The appropriate gloves must be used. The leather skin gloves, for example,
can complicate the nozzles handling when wet;- The gloves must be
dressed over the clothing sleeves, if possible, be of slightly larger size to
enable the person move the fingers inside it preventing vapor burns;
 The anti-flash hood must be used on the face piece of the mask covering all
exposed parts of the person’s skin, inside the protective clothing ;
 The firefighting masks must have all the straps extended and correctly
adjusted to the body;
 The use of hardhat is mandatory (it must be tightly secured to the head
through the chinstrap); and allows you to pass through the flames and to
stay there for a longer period of time.
 Basic protection
In the absence of special clothing, the use of
flame retardant cotton-based clothing offers
significant protection against the radiant heat from a
fire. That is why the coveralls are used as the
standard clothing on board. The fabric is submitted to
a nontoxic chemical treatment where the cellulose
fibers from cotton have their structure changed, thus making it fire retardant. It is also
recommended the use of cotton underwear (underpants, socks and t-shirts), since the
synthetic fabrics can burn and stick to the skin when subjected to heat. Use heat
resistant gloves and anti-exposure hoods (ant flash) provided with considerable degree
of impermeability made of raw cotton to complement to protect hands and head.
 Hardhats
The anti-impact and flame retardant
firefighter hardhats with shields must be used. The
best composition material for these hardhats is
KEVLAR®.
 Boots
The special firefighting steel toed long boots provide protection against heat and
chemicals. They must include characteristics such as dielectric, anti-slip and anti-flames
and, if possible, with thermal isolation inside.
Respiratory Protective Equipment

The formation of irritating and harmful gases is very common during fires.
Depending on the material in combustion, the formation of toxic gases are also possible,
or even the emergence of asphyxiating gases. Certain respiratory devices are equipped
with filters (usually coal) that allow breathing in contaminated atmospheres, since the
appropriate content of oxygen is still present. The masks provided with filters are
inappropriate for firefighting operations onboard.
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When fire occurs in confined places, it is almost certain the buildup of gases,
while, the reduction of percentage of oxygen is observed. In these cases, it is necessary
the use of closed circuit masks that can provide an ideal amount of breathable air for the
user. It is called closed circuit for not being dependent on the exterior air, contacting the
external site only to make exhalation.
Oxygen is called the source of life. Its presence in the composition of our
atmosphere ensures the perfect functioning of the human machine concerning our body
reactions to produce the necessary energy to maintain our vital functions, providing our
physical strength and body heat.
The breathable air must be characterized by:
 Containing at least 19,5% and at most 23% of Oxygen in volume;
 Being free from dangerous substances, which through breathing can provide
disturbances to the body or even poisoning;
 Having normal pressure and temperature, that under no circumstances will
cause burns or frostbite;
 Not having any substance that becomes unpleasant, such as, odors.
During the firefighting operation our breathing is impaired by lack of oxygen, due
to its consumption by the combustion process and the intense production of carbon
monoxide, a toxic explosive gas. The table below helps to demonstrate that the physical
strength employed during the firefighting labor can also represent another form of
oxygen consumption.
The carbon monoxide has no color or odor, so the risk includes not realizing its
presence eluding the need of ventilation in the location. Our body (lungs) absorbs CO up
to 300 times faster than the “source of life”, the O2.
The respiratory protection is paramount, as the inhalation is one of the greatest
means of exposure to toxic chemicals. The respiratory protection equipment consists of a
face mask connected to a source of air or an air purifier unit.
The respirators provided with open circuit induced air can be of 2 types: the first
type comprises the so-called autonomous breathing equipment and the second is called
airline.
The autonomous set usually consists of a face mask connected to a hose, pressure
regulator valve and a compressed air cylinder loaded by the crew.
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These cylinders provide 30 (thirty) or 60 (sixty) minutes of air, depending on its

size.
The autonomous sets have a limited air supply; they are bulky, heavy (even with
composite cylinders) and increase the chance of physical stress.
 Emergency escape breathing apparatus

The vessels must have emergency escape mask. Among the existing masks we
can mention: ELSA (Emergency Life Support Apparatus) and EEBD (Emergency Escape
Breathing Device). These masks were exclusively designed to the personal escape from
sites taken by thick smoke, and for this purpose, they cannot be used in firefighting
operations.
The ELSA apparatus are disposable. The EEBD apparatus are disposable, having
service life of fifteen years after its manufacture.
Rescue Equipment
They must be proceeded practical exercises with the use of statements for the
following rescue equipment:
• Stretcher;
• First aid kit;
• Artificial breathing apparatus;
• Manual resuscitator ( air - oxygen type);
• Automatic resuscitator;
• Rescue cover with line and safety hook;
• Intrinsically safe portable lights;
• ax;
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• Clothing, fireproof; and

• PPE, consisting of helmets, gloves and boots.
During the search and rescue of injured or burned people, rescue team must carry
a SCBA (Self Contained Breathing Apparatus) the most.
During the exercise, demonstrate the use of the first aid kit for burns and injuries.
Exercising the practice of resuscitation.
Demonstrations and practical exercises on the use of security cable and cable
guide.
Thermal protective clothing, lifejackets and lifebuoys are of fundamental use in
abandonment exercises.
Equipment for Rescuing
It is of utmost importance to practical demonstration of operation, the operating

principles and operating practices of these lives saving equipment:
• Fire and rescue tugs;
• Helicopters;
• Hand flares, parachute rockets, smoke floats, rifle launches heaving,
EPIRB 's, two-way communications, etc.
• Oxy -acetylene cutting kit;
• Signaling flags and Morse signaling lamps;
• Rescue boat;
• Pumps and ejector pumps of large capacity, placed in boats and tugs
firefighting;
• Oxygen analyzer and toxic gas analyzer for entry into empty spaces ;
and
• High expansion foam system put in firefighting tugs.
Communication Equipment
Communications equipment used in the firefighting are of two kinds: for internal
communications and external communications.
It is important that internal communications trainings are performed, such as:
• hands free , speaker , fonoclama and messengers;
• two-way with a set of walkie talkies properly distributed;
• using radio equipment of the lifeboats; and
• with the phone system .
As for external communications, equipment can be used:

• VHF , MF and HF
• Inmarsat A / C
• GMDSS
3.6. AUTOMATIC FIREFIGHTING SYSTEMS

The Automatic Fire Fighting Systems in offshore units should be well sized ,
according to the activity and risk area :
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a) Efficient and sufficient amount distribution according to the rules of SOLAS II -2

/ 74:
• The types of fire extinguishers, including systems of fixed, mobile and
portable;
• The hydrants (making fire) and hoses;
• The need and proper distribution of sprinklers;
• The individual protections against fire.
b) the need and installation arrangements for supply of powder and water,
including the emergency .
c) the allocation of spaces subject to automatic fire detection.
d) the installation of emergency controls.
3.7. BOARD INSPECTORS ON FIRE PREVENTION

They are legally qualified trained professionals able of acting on behalf of Brazilian
Maritime Authority, in performing the services described in Conventions and
International Codes and/or the corresponding national laws. The employees comprising
technical responsibilities established in the Social Contract or equivalent document,
skills, qualification and training inherent to the activity of inspector can also be
considered Inspectors for the application of the current rule.
 Exclusive Inspector
The Exclusive Inspector is a person who has exclusive and permanent labor with
the respective classification.
 Non-exclusive Inspector
Any Inspector who does not meet the specified requirements to be an exclusive
surveyor.
3.8. INVESTIGATION AND REPORT OF FIRE ON BOARD

The accident investigation is required to avoid another accident. It can also be
necessary to settle an insurance, part of the legal procedures, to improve the operational
procedures and update the firefighting techniques.
The command of the vessels must be able to investigate minor incidents, with the
basic understanding of combustion. The process to locate the fire base, for example, the
initial fuel, the ignition source can be fairly easy to detect since there are many
malfunctions. The greater the damage is, the more difficult it will be to establish the
cause, especially in a vessel, because of the oven effect (uniform heat damage).
Serious malfunctions or major injuries will initiate a formal investigation, maybe
by more than one representative (Police, Navy, insurance, etc.). In this case, we must
consider as priorities the preservation of evidences, the scenario and any relevant
records. Nothing must be removed from the scene, unless it affects the safe operation of
the vessel or because the evidences can be lost, and in this case, photographs or videos
should be used to record the scene.
The investigation starts with the initial reports regarding the fire. The incident
report logbook chronologically details the events and actions that will assist in the
preparation of the report or will help an investigator from an external agency to recreate
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a scenario of events. Every effort should be made to interview the witnesses after the
incident as soon as possible.
This along with a comparison of the different versions of events will provide a
more accurate account.
The scenario can present clear indications of the cause, since the use of water is
controlled while the fire decreasing. The use of water in low pressure fog at short
distance instead of water jet can better preserve the scene.
A fire investigation must include registration of:
 How the fire was found;
 What time and which alarm was sounded;
 How the alarm was sounded;
 What time and to whom it was informed, whether to the master or the
officer in service;
 The fire position and nature;
 Who was the first person on the scene;
 Which initial actions were taken to stop the fire;
 How much and which firefighting equipment with autonomous breathing
was used;
 Which firefighting equipment was used, whether portable, movable or fixed;
 How many people were involved in the firefighting operation;
 What time the fire was extinguished;
 The number of accidents with injuries and details of the nature of the
injuries;
 What damage was caused, including those structural ones;
 An estimate of the proportion of the damage cause by extinguishing , i.e.,
water or foam, compared to those caused directly by fire;
 After how long the fire was extinguished and being found;
 What is the length of the ship, or any part of it, i.e., engine room, pump
house, etc., was immobilized because of the fire;
 An analysis of the fire, which materials that burned, the knowledge or
probability of the origin; and the conclusions of the cause of fire and the
recommendations to prevent recurrence.
Concept of report
It is the writing describing the facts verified through research or history on the
service performance or through experiences. It is usually accompanied by documents
evidencing the fire, such as, tables, graphics, statistics and others.
In general, we can say that the goals of writing a report are:
 Disclose the technical data obtained and analyzed;
 Permanently register them.
The reports can be the following types:

 Technical-scientific;
 Travelling;
 In training;
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 Visiting;
 Administrative;
 Special purpose.
 The technical-scientific report: it is the original document by which a
person disseminates the current information, and even the permanent
register of the information taken. It is primarily designed to describe the
experiences, investigations, processes, methods and analysis.
 Phase of a report
Generally when making a report it goes through the following phases:
 Initial plan: determination of origin, preparation of the report and the
program of development;
 Collecting and organizing the material: during the performance of work, it
done the collecting, the sorting and storage of the material necessary for
the development of the report;
 Writing: recommend a critical review of the report, considering the following
aspects: writing (content and style), sequence of information, graphic and
physical presentations.
The report must include the details of the firefighting procedures, such as:
 The fire occurrence and moment;
 Actions taken and when;
 Data concerning the fire, including its location, material and ignition;
 The extinguishing agents used and the number of each type used;
 Number of crew and onshore members engaged in the operation;
 Number of firefighting equipment and Masks;
 The damage caused by the fire;
 The damage caused by the extinguishing agents;
 The length of the ship and the areas immobilized by the fire.
The reports should also contain the conclusion of the facts, including:
 An analysis and discussion of the facts;
 The conclusion taken from the analysis and discussion;
 Recommendations of preventive measures;
 Recommendation, if appropriate, of actions to implement prevention and
firefighting.
Brief
It is the concise presentation of the text, highlighting the major important aspects
and interest. It should not be confused with summary, which is a list of chapters and
sections. In the summary, the content is described by titles and sub titles, while in the
brief, which is a synthesis, the content is presented in forma of reduced text.
In general a good brief should be:
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 Short and concise: in brief, for example, we should leave aside the
examples given, details and secondary data.
 Personnel: it should always be done with your own words. It is a result of
your idea described in a text.
 Clearly studied: a brief is not only an overview of loosen phrases.
It should bring the central ideas (the argument) of what you are summarizing.
Thus, the ideas should be presented in logical order, i.e., to have a relation between
them. The text in brief should be comprehensible.
Some steps should be observed so that the final result is satisfactory:
 A first attentive reading is essential for you to understand the main subject;
 Other readings should be done (as many as necessary to select the main
ideas in the text); It is important to note what is more relevant;
 Every text has keywords that contain essential ideas; these ideas should be
underlined so that they can serve as a starting point for the brief;
 It should be done a brief of each paragraph;
 It is important to make two briefs: one from the paragraph and the other of
the own brief for the ideas are well summarized;
 During all the process, the attentive reading should be done to check if
there is coherence and logical sequence between paragraphs summarized to
make the necessary adjustments.
Note: the brief is not a critical comment; it should stick to the ideas, without giving any
opinion, for that the brief ideas should be faithful to the exposed ones.
Report of the fire occurred
The fire report should have the fact, the occurrence description and the
conclusion.
 Fact - Example of a fact:
Beginning of Fire Class B in the Engine Room D (PMR) going to class A.
 Description - Example of a fact description:

During the 15 to 18 h shifts, the alarm of low pressure oil lubricating MCA 3
sounded on the controls in CCM. It was found that the fire was in the thermal insulating
of MCA gases discharger. The cause of fire was the combustion of oil impregnated in the
thermal insulating of the engine gases of the exhaust duct. After the finder inform the
CCM, he returned to make the first firefighting with CO2 extinguisher.
At this moment, the emergency alarm sounded and the fire Brigade arrived in the
scene to extinguishing the fire. Due to the possibility of flames reignition, started to sue
fresh water from the own compartment to soak the thermal isolation. During all the
firefighting, the CCM followed the labor by the video of PMR camcorder.
 Conclusion - Example of conclusion:

The existence of a closed-circuit TV in the engine room allowed the visualization
and monitoring the fire team operation during the firefighting activities as well as the
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fast spread of information by CCM. This resource is essential to assist the safety officer
in monitoring the action of the groups inside the engine room. Considering that the
equipment was only with 170 hours of operation and had completed a general review
(W-6), it is necessary a better monitoring of the equipment and its accessories.
4. BREAKDOWN CONTROL NOTION
Damage Control is the set of means necessary for the prevention or restoration
of the tightness, stability of the ship; to control the band and the Trim, limit the
propagation.
4.1. BREAKDOWN CONTROL CONCEPT AND PURPOSE
The breakdown control is the group of actions required to prevent or restore the
vessel tightness and stability; as well as to control the list, trim, and limit the situation
progress.
Stability
This is how the vessel resists to the forces trying to change its regular balance
position. It is to be considered on its transversal and longitudinal direction. It is
measured whenever the vessel changes the balance position.
 Transversal Stability
It is the tendency to keep the regular balance position whenever it is transversally
disturbed by external forces.
Examples:
 Ocean waves action: billow, winds etc.;
 Vessel yawing;
 Pull a hawser during Off Load operations.
The stability is to be transversally and longitudinally considered:

 Transversal Stability (Starboard – Port): It is measured in inclination
degrees with a clinometer;
 Longitudinal Stability (Bow – Stern): Measured by draft differences.
Buoyancy
It is the most important tasks in a vessel. Keeping the stability and buoyancy is
not the only task of a Ballast Operator. The tasks carried out onboard are extremely
important to keep the stability and buoyancy control. If somehow the vessel loses the
stability and buoyancy, it will capsize or sink.
 Buoyancy Principle
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As a basic principle, in order to keep the vessel floating it is required to keep:

 Stability;
 Positive Buoyancy.
Physics shows us that when a matter is submerged in a liquid it receives a vertical

upwards thrust equivalent to the displaced liquid volume. (Archimedes Principle) When
this force is equivalent to the vessel total weight (which acts downwards), the vessel
floats.
The buoyancy is divided into three parts:
 Positive;
 Negative;
 Neutral.
 Positive Buoyancy
It is when the vessel's weight is lower than the displaced water volume weigh
throughout the watertight hull.
 Negative Buoyancy
It is when the vessel's weight is higher than the displaced water volume weigh
throughout the watertight hull.
 Neutral Buoyancy
It is when both weights are the same, which balances the vessel.
Center of Gravity (CG)
The center of gravity is the resultant application point of all forces in a matter.
Therefore, adding the momentums of all weights in relation to any axis passing through
it is equal to zero.
In a vessel, when its own weights or others added are equally distributed on both
symmetrical sides, the center of gravity must be on the diametrical plane. This point
high depends on each vessel project and on the cargo distribution and movement.
Thrust
It is the resultant of all pressure

vertical components exerted by the liquid
on the vessel submerged surface.
So, a static vessel is submitted to
the action of two equal vertical forces: the
vessel weight acting downwards on G
(Center of Gravity) and the thrust acting
upwards on C (Center of Buoyancy).
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Metacenter
This point position determines the floating bodies stability. The definition of two
basic concepts of metacenter is required when referring to vessels, the Transversal
Metacenter (M) and the Longitudinal Metacenter (M¹), which respectively speak with
respect to the transversal balance and the longitudinal balance.
 Transversal Metacenter
It is when the vertical axis passing through the center of buoyancy (C), the
diametral axis passing through the center of flotation (O) and the center of gravity (G)
meet. When these two axes form an angle equals to zero, the metacenter is a fix point
called initial metacenter.
 Longitudinal Metacenter
It is when the vertical axis passing through the center of buoyancy (C) and the
transversal axis passing through the center of flotation (O) and the center of gravity (G)
meets.
4.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF A VESSEL: LENGTH; BEAM; FREEBOARD; DEPTH;

DRAFT; QUICK WORKS; DEAD WORKS; WATER LINE; TRIM AND LIST.
Total Length
It is the distance between the bow and stern ends. It is an important measure,
because it refers to the vessel maximum length, which is required for dry dock and
berthing operations. It is measured in parallel to the project water line, fore and aft,
considering emerged and submerged parts.
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Maximum Beam
It is the hull largest width measured between the external coating external
surfaces, in other words, the vessel maximum external width.
Freeboard
It is the vertical distance between the main deck and the load waterline. It is
defined by NORMAN 02 as rule length. It means 96% of the total length on the water
line, corresponding 85% of the smaller molded depth (the smallest vertical distance
between the top of the keel and the top of the freeboard deck beam) or the length
between the stem post and the rudder stock axis, measured at the same water line, if it
is bigger.
Hull Bottom
It is the lowermost part of the ship that is submerged at full load.
Upper works
It is the emerged part of the hull at full load.
Depth
It is the vertical distance between the keel and the main deck.
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Draft
It is the vertical distance between the keel and the water surface. It is also
designated as the keel's lowest end depth. The draft is vertically measured from a point
on the keel external surface.
Regarding the vessel and the measuring method there several drafts. The most
common are:
 Midship Draft — it is the vertical distance between the water line and the
vessel lowest part measured at midship. It is generally different from the
mean draft, which is the arithmetic mean of the measured drafts on the fore
and aft perpendiculars.
 Maximum / Load Draft — it is the vertical distance between the water line
and the keel lowest part measured when navigating at full load (or at
maximum displacement).
 Mean Draft — it is the arithmetic mean of the measured drafts on the fore
and aft perpendiculars.
 Minimum Draft — it is the
vertical distance between
the water line and the keel
lowest part measured when
navigating at minimum
displacement.
 Molded Draft — it is the
vertical distance between
the water line and the hull
molded base. It is used for
displacement calculations
and to determine the
vessel's hydrostatic curves.
 Normal Draft — it is the vertical distance between the water line and the
keel lowest part measured when navigating at regular displacement.
Water line
It is the line lengthwise painted on the vessel hull; its lower limit is the light load
line and its upper limit is the load waterline.
Trim
It is the longitudinal inclination measured by the AV and AR drafts difference.

When the AR draft is higher than the AV draft, the trim is by the stern; when the AR
draft is lower than the AV, the trim is by the bow.
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List
It is the vessel inclination towards its sides; the vessel may be listed to starboard
(BE) or to port (BB). “G” on the picture is the center of gravity around which the vessel
lists.
4.3. VESSEL MAIN STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS

Let's see details of the main structural components of a vessel.
Bulkheads
They are the vertical divisions between the compartments inside the hull in each
level. They also increase the vessel's resistance and help keeping its shape. They may be
transversal or longitudinal, tight or not.
Frame
They are curved structures perpendicularly attached to the keel used to shape the
hull and support the external plating. Giant is a reinforced frame. Master Frame is the
frame located in the master section. Framing is the set of frames on the hull. The
distance between two continuous frames measured from center to center is the spacing.
The frame ends beyond the bilge are called frame stations. These are the vessel “ribs”.
Outer Skin
It is the external watertight lining, which also increases the hull resistance. It is
made of welded steel plates forming the hull structure.
Floor Plates
Plates vertically placed in each frame to increase the high between the keel and
the bilge.
Girder
Components extended from bow to stern inside the frames, connecting them,
forming the framing to reinforce the structure.
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Pillars
They are columns supporting the beams to increase the structure resistance when
the distance between the bulkheads is big or to distribute the local tension for a greater
hull extension. The pillars are named according to the deck they support.
Keel
It is made of wood or steel, depending on the vessel. It is considered the most
important component of a vessel.
It is longitudinally placed on the lowest part, from fore to stern. It is the vessel's
“spine”.
Deck Girders
They are elements placed from bow to stern on a deck to connect the beams and
frames.
Beams
The beams are placed from starboard to port in each frame in order to support the
deck plates, as well as to hold up the frame stations. The beams are named according to
the deck they support.
4.4. STRUCTURE REINFORCED SPACES FOR CARGO AND LASHING

According to the Law no. 630/93, lashing is a stowage technique, but in Brazilian
Ports it is carried out by other operators in accordance with regional convenience.
Lashing means attaching something by using slings to prevent them from moving due to
the vessel swing. Nowadays the term is broadly used as the methods used to hold the
cargo. Unlashing means the opposite, removing the lashes.
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Lashing Material
A great variety of material is used for this purpose:
Container packing requires materials of greater strength and durability beyond

the requirement to be sorted.
Regardless of the material used for the casting, it is important to
distribute eye bolts through the cargo and deck compartments.
Among the main materials used in the packing of containers, we can
mention:
 Galvanized Cables - These are used for diagonal or vertical container
boring to the deck floor, hatch or any cargo bay.
 Stretcher jack - To be used in container preparation by fixing the
galvanized steel cable, rigid bar or chain to the eye.
 D Ring - Foldable "D" eyebolts, which are used to fix the stretcher jack
used for container handling.
 Thimble - These are steel parts, usually galvanized, welded to the deck,
hatch cover or any cargo compartment, which are used to fit the twist pin
used to secure the container.
 Twist lock - A type of twist lock used to get the container to the hatch cap,
deck, cargo bay or other container.
Cargo space
 Hold - Is the space between the lowest deck and the double bottom deck,
or between the lowest deck and the bottom if the vessel is not double-
bottomed. In a merchant vessel intended for the carriage of goods, the hold
shall be the whole watertight compartment where the cargo is conditioned;
these holds are then numbered from front to back and from bottom to top.
 Hatch - These are openings on decks, where loads are lowered and hoisted.
They are the "lids" of basements. Generally, the towers are numbered from
bow to stern. So basement 1 is the most prow, followed by basement 2,
and so on.
 Box shapped - It is said of the holds of certain ships, notably the
multipurpose, which has the capacity to carry almost all types of loads.
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Shoring
It is the operation fundamentally complementary to the garment. In

general, when it comes to heavy loads, tipping is not always sufficient to ensure their
total safety during the journey.
On deck, such a practice is indispensable, since compact stowage is not
possible and the cargo is more likely to run during the voyage due to the boat's balance.
The shoring is also necessary when the compartment is not fully filled and
there are gaps between the volumes.
• Materials used in shoring - Wood is the material most used in this work,
and should be made of bars, boards, boards and wooden wedges.
The bars or rafters serve as anchors which are classified in:
 Horizontal;
 inclined; and
 vertical, depending on the direction of the pressure exerted on the
load.
- Horizontal: They are used by shims and placed horizontally between the load
and the structural parts of the vessel.
- Inclined: These must hold the load from top to bottom, since the bottom up
tenders tend to come off with the movement of the boat.
The struts shall be secured and supported on separation boards to distribute the
pressure exerted by the load, preventing it from occurring in a single point. These boards
are placed both horizontally and vertically and, if placed on the deck, should go from top
to bottom, reaching the full height of this place of stowage.
They are pieces of wood that fit and tighten the wooden struts in opposite
directions, beating against each other.
4.5. DAMAGE PREVENTION: TANKS; GASES; WELDING; ELECTRICITY;

DETECTORS; ALARMS; OVEN AND KITCHEN
Prevention is the best way to deal with damage; however some measures are
essential when they are inevitable. Sometimes a detailed measure is required to prevent
accidents or even fire. It is important to emphasize that in certain situations a careful
plan is recommended.
Adequate fire prevention includes limiting the amount of fuel onboard, as well as
controlling the ones to be used for certain operations. The tasks to be carried out in
tanks and welding require special care, because it is known these are risky tasks.
These tasks require a previous assessment and permit to work. In order to carry
out a risky task it is important to ensure safety, so the required PPE must be worn
together with the resources available onboard. As an example, we mention tasks in the
galley. A fire in the galley generally results from oil overheating in fryers, lack of
attention when operating the equipment and faulty cleaning on extraction meshes and
ducts.
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4.6. IDENTIFY OPEN WATER: PLUGGING AND PROPPING
Open water is when the free surface extends from side to side and favors water
entry and exit onboard due to the vessel swing, thus applying a great tension on the
internal bulkheads.
Plugging
Plugging is the temporary partial or complete obstruction of holes resulting from

hull or bulkheads damage where water may enter. It is difficult to make a completely
tight plugging, but it limits the water entry to an acceptable level.
Holes on the vessel plates comprise several sizes and shapes. They are usually
higher than what caused the damage. The damage is even more irregular when caused
by ricochet or fragments. Cracks may irradiate from the hole, thus making the plugging
more difficult. These irregularities on the boundaries may sometimes be eliminated by
hammering or using oxyacetylene cutting, which makes the plugging easier but requires
time.
There are two plugging processes:
 First Process: The sealing material is placed through the hole;
 Second Process: The sealing material is placed over the hole.
The simplest way to plug a small hole is using a single soft wooden plug. This is
useful for holes up to eight millimeters of diameter.
The plugs are conical or pyramidal, and may be used by a combination of two or
more plugs or wedges in order to achieve better sealing in irregular shaped holes.
They may be surrounded by fabric to improve fixation. The leakage may be
reduced by using oakum or small wedges and rags. In order to accomplish better
sealing, the oakum is to be impregnated with water resistant epoxy or expanded foam
provided in the Damage Control Kit.
For plates' thickness of under 1/4 in, pyramidal plugs are better than conical ones.
Plugs cannot be painted so they better absorb water, which improves fixation.
Plugging is easier implemented from inside the vessel, but sealing is difficult to
accomplish when the hole edges are turned inwards, which is the most common
situation. Plugging from outside the vessel takes longer to be implemented and is less
resistant.
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 Cofferdam
They are boxes used for plugging that are usually made of 1/4” in steel plates.
They can be supported and then fixed by welded angle bars. A bucket may be used the
same way as the boxes. It is useful when the hole edges are very irregular, but the area
where the box will be placed must be plan. As a sealing material, it may be provided
with rubber joints, canvas or card board edges, or even a pillow or oakum inside it.
 Plug
It is a conical wooden piece provided
with fabric straps (for example, from
blankets, rags, etc.) around it. It adapts
better to irregular holes.
 Prefabricated Stoppers
They are articulated plates used for external plugging, but installed from the
inside. The plate is folded to pass through the hole and then opened. Their use is
restricted to slightly small holes (around 50 cm of diameter).
 Clamps
The clamps are used as the articulated plates, but they have better fixation. They
may be used to help fixing a cofferdam, plates provided with rubber joints, etc.
There are three different types: T, L, J.
Propping
It is the process by which bulkheads and floors are supported to receive loads
above their limits by sharing this load with other parts of the structure. It is specially
used when damage has occurred, when these areas may be exposed to abnormal loads,
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or when they are impaired due to the damage. Impaired doors and hatches, machine's
bases or structural components in general may also be shored for the same purpose.
Wedges, wooden and metallic shores are the main components used for shoring;
however wooden ones are generally used onboard.
There is not a strict rule determining when shoring a bulkhead. The only guideline
to be met is common sense after observing the damaged area condition.
When a dry compartment is flooded, the floor, bulkhead and sometimes the ceiling
experience abnormal loads, so they require shoring, which must be implemented first on
the weakest parts. It is important to remember that due to the vessel swing the shoring
may slacken, so the area must be continuously monitored.
On the other hand, excessive tightening the shoring may be as harmful as its
absence, which may collapse the bulkheads joining.
The shoring aims to alleviate tension. Their purpose is not straightening warped
floors and bulkheads.
Shoring drills should be carried out to check the nearest support sources available,
taking into consideration the distance, the method to be applied, the possible obstacles,
etc.
 Shoring Material
Concerning wooden shores, the best kind of wood to be used is Pine Wood and
Spanish Cedar, but other types of soft wood easy to handle may be used as well.
The wood must be provided with resistant fibers relatively free from knots and
cracks. Green woods are less resistant than dry woods. If only weak or faulty wood is
available, use more shores or heavier shores to support the same weight.
Hard wood shores are stronger, but more difficult to be cut or nailed.
The shores, as other wooden elements used as a support, must go through anti-
fire chemical treatment. Painting this material is not recommended, unless it is part of
the treatment against combustion.
The shore size should not exceed thirty times its minimum thickness. Squared
ones are usually used, measuring 4”x 4”, 4” x 6”, 6” x 6” e 6” x 8”, but the last two are
heavier for the shoring implementation.
The shoring material is listed below:
 Counter-shore – the specifications are the same from the shores. Actually,
the difference is in the function in the shoring arrangement;
 Wedges – they must be made of soft wood, preferably pine or Spanish
cedar. They must be rough, without painting. An unpainted wedge absorbs
water and has better fixation. Wedges should have approximately the same
width as the shores they will be used with. They may be provided with
several inclination angles, but the most inclined do not have good fixation.
As a general rule, a good wedge measures around six times its thickness;
 Sills – sills must be made from wood of the same quality from the shores,
cut as boards measuring 1 inch or more (thickness) and 8 to 12 inches
(width). Larger sills may comprise more than one board attached by their
sides and nailed by transversal wooden reinforcements. Even if you are
using only one board, it can have reinforced on the edges. Prefabricated
sills are not required.
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 General Shoring Principles and Rules

The maximum shore resistance is achieved when the load it is supporting is
applied on the axial direction. When it is transversally loaded the resistance is minimum,
and it will probably warp or break. According to this principle, the simplest method to
shore a bulkhead is placing a shore at direct compression, transferring the bulkhead
load. The counter-shore function is to distribute the bulkhead load.
 Shoring Types
The shoring type to be implemented depends on the area to be supported.
According to the situation, the damage control team leader determines the
implementation of a shoring at certain place according to the required techniques. For
example:
 Type “T” Shoring
It is very used by the team to control damages at the roof, floor, hatches and
scuttles.
 Type “K” Shoring
It is very used to reinforce tight doors and bulkheads.
 Type “H” Shoring
This type of shoring is very difficult to be implemented, but may be used to
support roofs, floors, hatches, scuttles, tight doors and bulkheads when the
place has an obstacle that makes it impossible to implement the previous
types.
 Adjusting the Shoring

The adjustment means to properly shape the shoring parts so they fit and do not
break nor slip.
The adjustment includes cutting the ends, adapting the sills, fixing the wedges
and other measures that aim to ensure the shoring safety and resistance.
Sharp edges are to be removed, especially where the pressure will be applied. If
this measure is not taken, this edge will be creased, thus slackening the whole shoring.
The shore ends preparation is required so they achieve their purpose. The shore
must be prepared to provide supporting surfaces as well as to be properly supported by
another shore or counter-shore.
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 Aspects to be observed before implementing the shoring

 Place to be supported;
 Foothold;
 Available material;
 Shoring implementation.
 Aspects to be observed after implementing the shoring

 Foothold (shoring fixation);
 Alignment (correct distribution of the load applied over the shoring);
 Pressure (wedges final tightness).
4.7. TIGHTNESS AND WATERTIGHT DOORS
Tightness
The whole vessel is divided by the decks and bulkheads, below and above the
waterline, into several watertight compartments. The higher is this division, the higher is
the resistance provided against flooding and sinking.
Each compartment has its tightness degree determined according to its function
and location. So the accessories and valves inside it must naturally be provided with at
least the same tightness degree.
The several tightness degrees required onboard are:
 Oil Tightness
It prevents oil leakage (petroleum derivatives) when under the pressure of an oil
column equal to the compartment high. It is required at fuel and lubricants tanks
boundaries.
 Water Tightness
It prevents water leakage when under the pressure of a water column equal to the
compartment high.
It is required at the hull plates and water tanks boundaries, closing accessories
and structures that may stand flooding in case of hull damage. As the oil tightness, it is
also an obstacle against chemicals diffusion. So, it is extremely important to be kept. Its
inspection must be regularly carried out. In general, when we mention compartment
tightness, we refer to water tightness.
 Air Tightness
It is the compartment capacity to assure that pressure drop will not overcome the
specified percentage when submitted to a stated air pressure within a given period of
time.
It is required on the boundaries of non-watertight compartments, where personal
protection against chemicals is necessary, as well as in compartments working at
pressures higher than the atmospheric.
 Smoke Tightness
It is when visible openings are not allowed. It is required where the areas must be
protected against direct contamination from chemicals or when their concentration must
be reduced to an acceptable level.
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 Flame Tightness
The flames cannot overcome these boundaries. The existing openings are provided
with mesh screens measuring up to 1/100 inch. It is required where it is required to
prevent the spread of the flames resulting from the operations inside the compartment.
Tightness Tests and Inspections
During the construction of the vessel, before its incorporation, the

constructor arsenal performs, in each compartment, two types of test: the resistance
and watertightness test and the final test. The nature of each of these tests depends on
the location of the compartment and the purpose for which it is intended. These tests
may be carried out using hydrostatic pressure with fresh water (equivalent to the water
column of the design specification), air pressure, or in a simple compressed air jet.
The data and instructions for these tests are provided to the ship in the
compartment test plan and compartment test diagram. Once the vessel is incorporated,
the sealing obtained by the constructor arsenal could be degraded due to several causes.
It is therefore imperative that the seals of the various compartments of the vessel be
periodically checked.
This verification is carried out by on-board tests and inspections, which are
normally as follows:
 Weekly Inspections; and
 Periodic Inspections and Tests.
 Weekly Inspections
All compartments of the vessel (except oil tanks, water, other inert gases or
liquids, spaces classified as voids, double bottoms and coferdam) shall be inspected
weekly. Usually these inspections are carried out by itself.
In charge of the Division Responsible for the compartment. Inspections carried
out by the Commander, GEPLAT / IOM, Immediate and heads of departments, in the
various sectors of the vessel, value these inspections.
• Periodic Inspection and Testing

In all vessels, tests and periodic inspections shall be conducted to check their
watertightness, in accordance with their own plan. This plan lists all of the vessel's
compartments that must be inspected or tested, specifying the type of test or inspection
to be performed on each of them. On vessels where there is no such plan, the limits of
the main subdivisions of the vessel shall be inspected in accordance with the principles
dealt with in this chapter.
The tests and inspections contained in the plan shall be carried out on board,
with the exception of submarines or other special vessels, which shall be conducted by
the bases and arsenals during periods of repairs or when necessary.
The tests and inspections indicated in the Plan are detailed below:
- Leak Inspection: The boundaries between oil or water tanks and dry
compartments should be inspected for leaks at least once every six months. The
observation should be made with the tank filled to its maximum capacity. If an oil or
water tank remains empty for a period of 18 months, it shall undergo an air test as
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determined in the plan or shall undergo a visual inspection if the vessel does not have
such a plan.
- Visual Inspection: For the testing plan and watertightness inspections, some
compartments should be subjected to visual inspections. In case the vessel does not
have this plan, the Safety Officer must organize a list of the main watertight limits of the
vessel, which must pass this examination. This inspection is made by completely
darkening one of the compartments bounded by the bulkhead or deck and, with the
personnel in charge of the inspection in that compartment, the other side is intensely
illuminated, observing the points where there is light passing. In general, the related
compartments for this type of test are those that cannot be submitted to the air pressure
test, due to permanent openings in the upper part, as in some squares of machinery,
mooring loft, Ammunition.
It is necessary to understand that the visual test is not of less importance than
the air test, it is done as a consequence of the impossibility of maintaining air pressure in
the compartment.
At the same time that you are conducting the visual inspection, all watertight
fittings located in the compartment should be carefully inspected. The result of
inspection of doors, hatches, eyebolts, porthole covers, acoustic tube covers, ventilation
caps etc. must also be recorded.
A simple process for checking the conditions of diamond sealing of doors,
hatches and porthole is the chalk test. It consists of scratching the diamond with chalk
and closing that accessory by the normal process. When opened again, the gasket will be
scratched by chalk.
Chalk irregularities or flaws indicate improper adjustment of staples, defective
joints, diamond or other warped parts, or diamond failure.
- Air test: When a compartment is not intended to receive water or oil and does
not have permanent openings to the atmosphere, the most appropriate process to
determine its degree of watertightness is the air test. To do this, the compartment must
be closed completely and subjected to air pressure. The pressure drop over a given
period of time (usually ten minutes) provides an element of comparison with the degree
of watertightness. The test plan and leakage inspection establishes for each
compartment:
 The pressure for the test;
 The acceptable pressure drop for a given time interval.
Each compartment to be tested has a special outlet for the air hose. When it
comes to tanks, the drill pipe or air exhaust may be used. There should be on board the
air test apparatus which, in general, consists of a base where a reduction valve is fitted
(reduces to 1 to 3 lb./pol2), an inlet valve, an interception valve and a pressure gauge.
In order to test air in a room, the following measures must be observed:
 Perform a visual examination. The leaks thus located must be
repaired; and
 Close all normal openings, if the bulkheads are crossed by any
rotating shaft, or other moving parts, they must be stopped, so that
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the packing is tightened tightly; The test is finished, it must be

adjusted again.
Compartmentation
Compartmentalization is the division of the unit tanks, and was made using the
structural topology and taking advantage of the symmetry of the geometry.
4.8. LASTRO SYSTEM: PUMPS, NETWORKS, TANKS AND VALVES.
Ships have always required ballast to operate successfully and safely. For
centuries, ships used solid ballast, in the form of stones, sand, shingles, and many other
heavy materials. Beginning in 1880, ships increasingly used water for ballast, thus
avoiding the long time for loading solid materials and the dangerous instabilities of the
ship resulting from the exchange of solid ballast during a voyage.
Today, ships' ballast can be made with fresh, brackish or salt water, the
latter being more commonly used. Shipping is the basis of most commercial transactions
in the world. Around 80% of the world trade volume is shipped. Unfortunately, in many
cases, half of a given trip must be made with ballast to compensate for lack of cargo.
And this shows itself in the very word. The etymology of the word "ballast", meaning
"useless cargo" in dutch, reflects the fact that shipowners make every effort to avoid the
use of ballast.
The function of the ballast is to provide a more adequate stability for ships
at sea, being used to force it down and reduce the height of its center of gravity relative
to the thrust center. As has been said, the ballast is usually made with seawater, which
is pumped into the tanks known as ballast tanks. Depending on the type of vessel, the
tanks may be double-bottomed or side tanks, which will be detailed throughout the
work.
These ballast tanks are connected to pumps, which can pump water in or
out (debris). These tanks are filled in order to add weight to the ship once the cargo has
been discharged, and improve its stability. In some extreme conditions, ballast water
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may be introduced into the spaces dedicated to the load in order to add extra weight
during bad weather or to pass under low bridges.
Ballast water is used by various types of vessels and is stored in a variety of
tanks or basements. The complexity of ballast or demarcation operations depends on the
size, configuration, and needs of the ship and its pumping system. The capacity of
ballast tanks can range from several cubic meters in sailboats and fishing boats to
hundreds of thousands of cubic meters in large cargo ships.
Large tankers can carry more than 200,000 m³ of ballast. Due to the
fundamental importance of the ballast system for the ship, this is the need for a correct
sizing of the ballast pump. And because of the complexity of the system, the task
becomes even more difficult when it comes to a system with several reservoirs, and it is
necessary to take some considerations to make the calculation adequate.
The Ship´s Ballast System
The ship's ballast system consists basically of tanks, pumps and valves and
their function is to stabilize the longitudinal movement of the ship, also known as trim;
the rotational or band motion, known as heel or list; is to change the height that the ship
gets submerged, which is called draft. For the rotational movement, there is a specific
system responsible for controlling this movement. It is the so called anti heeling system
or band compensation system.
The piping of the ballast system is in two parts of the ship. One section lies
in the engine room and another section in the double bottomed area, outside the engine
room, practically traveling the entire ship. The double bottom of the ship is a type of hull
construction in which two layers are placed on the bottom of the ship. An outer layer,
forming the normal hull of the ship and a more internal, acting as a second hull and
forming a barrier to water in case the outer hull is damaged.
In the space between these two layers are the majority of the ship's ballast
tanks. In addition to these double bottom tanks, there are also side ballast tanks, which
start just above the double bottom tanks and extend almost to the main deck, as shown
in the figure below.
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Ballast System Components - The main components of the ballast system are
pumps, valves, tanks, and piping networks, as discussed above. These components have
the following characteristics:
- Centrifugal pumps: The system has centrifugal

pumps responsible for the ballast and debris operations. In
the operation to weigh the ship, only one pump is used, the
other one being stand-by in case of failures. In the de-
blasting operation a pump is used to de-glaze each edge of
the ship.
-Ballast Tanks: Ballast tanks are often the largest area of a ship's steel
structure - and the structural integrity of the tanks is important for the operational safety
of the ship, for its efficiency and service life.
Ballast water tanks are dark environments where there is no incidence of
sunlight or oxygen inlet. In addition, the operation of loading and unloading water makes
most of the species that ship do not survive inside the ballast tank. However, a few
species are able to withstand these conditions and long journeys by temporarily or
permanently staying in the sediments that accumulate in the bottom of the tank and
when dumped in a new environment become exotic or invasive species.
The greatest consequence of the introduction of these invasive species is the
imbalance of the local ecosystem and may threaten biological diversity, since invasive
species cause changes in the environment from the moment they begin to play the role
of a new predator in the local food chain Invaded, and can proliferate and spread rapidly,
causing a pollution by species. The tanks are all at atmospheric pressure.
P a g e | 160
- Butterfly valves: The valves are pneumatic butterflies that operate the
system, where they are used to allow the control of the tanks that will be weighted and /
or the maneuvers that will be made. This control is done remotely by an operator in the
control center of the engine room.
- Ballast System Networks: The ballast system networks are with steel
tubing.
- Control system: The control system is the assembly (valves, pumps)

responsible for the entire ballast handling operation of the platform.
The control system is usually used on platforms along with software that
monitors and monitors the entire unit. The system, for example, allows the transfer of
ballast between tanks through valve opening with a simple command.
Ballast System Diagrams
The ballast system diagrams tell us, in a schematic way, how the system's
networks are interconnected, from salt water entering the sea boxes, through the pumps
to their respective destination tanks. Below, we can see the diagrams of the ship's
ballast system networks. One, shows the networks belonging to the engine room,
P a g e | 161
including the pumps; and the other shows the nets outside the engine room that run all
over the ship and divide for each of the tanks.
 Ballast System in the Engine Room
 Ballast System Off the Engine Room
 Ballast and Slip Operations - Ballast and slag operations consist of

placing and removing the salt water from the ballast tanks, respectively.
However, these operations work in different ways. While only one pump is
used to ballast the ship (and the other remains as a reserve), in the case
of the debris the two are used, so that each pump depletes one edge of
the ship. The operations themselves are the same in the region outside
the engine room except for the direction of the fluid. In the region of the
engine room is that different maneuvers are made and will be shown
later.
P a g e | 162
- Ballast Operation: The ballast operation is done through the sea boxes.
Due to the fact that the sea level is above the tanks, there would be no need to use the
pump, the water being drained into the tanks only by the force of gravity. In spite of
this, the water level increasing inside the tanks, added to the increase of the pressure
loss due to the long length of the pipe, causes the time to become very big for this
operation. Thus, it is necessary to use the pump for this process to be accelerated. For
this operation only one pump is required.
- Slip Operation: Slip operation is, in a sense, the reverse process of ballast
operation. Except for the fact that in the operation of dewatering the salt water will not
leave by the sea box, but by a pipe that leads to the side of the ship. And, furthermore,
as previously mentioned, the two pumps are used for this procedure. Each pump is
responsible for the demarcation of one edge.
Ballast Pump
The task of selecting a centrifugal pump for a system is to calculate the

following parameters for the pump: flow and pressure. With these values in hand it is
possible to find a suitable pump in a manufacturer's catalog. There are also, besides
these two main parameters, the necessity of checking the nosh of the pump to avoid
cavitation.
 Pump Flow Calculation - The pump working flow is obtained by

dividing the total volume of the ballast tanks by the ballast / dewatering
time. The maximum time determined for these operations, in this case,
is one day or 24 hours. An important detail that must be taken into
account is the number of pumps used in each operation, as already
mentioned in the previous chapter. Because in the ballast only one pump
operates, the flow calculation should be done for this situation, which for
obvious reasons is considered the worst case. Thus, we have the
following working flow for each pump: 𝑄 = 11762 𝑚³ / 24 h ≅ 500 𝑚³/ h
 Pump Pressure Calculation - The calculation of pump pressure is a

more complex calculation because it deals with pumping to several
reservoirs. The KSB training manual recommends that in this case, we
must treat each reservoir as a separate path. Thus, through the
manometric height formula, the characteristic curve of the system will
be made for each of the paths separately. Then, taking into account that
the paths to the tanks are associated in parallel, will be made the
association curve of these systems, thus generating a single curve for
the system. This whole process will be seen in more detail throughout
the chapter.
P a g e | 163
 Calculation Considerations - Some considerations must be made for

calculating the pressure. Firstly, the operating condition for which the
calculation will be done is the desplitting condition. This is the most
critical condition of operation, because the pump has to overcome the
resistance imposed by the water column which measures, in the worst
situation, the bottom of the double bottom ballast tank, to sea level.
Another issue is that in the condition of demarcation the operation is made by 2

pumps, each one being responsible for one edge of the ship. Having said that, and
knowing that the pumps must be the same, the calculation must be done for the bomb
that will make the depletion of the largest number of tanks (worst case). In this way, the
pump pressure will be calculated to the port side.
Fuel System
The fuel oil system / line has the main purpose of feeding the main
machines.
However, through proper oil transfer maneuvers, it can also be used to improve
vessel stability. The system comprises tanks, pumps and plumbing.
The tanks are the storage, service, contaminated oil, or leftovers. The pumps can
be service, set-up, transfer, ballast and emptying of tank.
The pipelines of the fuel oil network can be grouped into:
 Service Line - communicates the service tanks to the service pump;
 Transfer Line - communicates all tanks to each other, by means of
convenient valve pianos maneuvering. It is served by transfer
pumps, which have large capacity and small pressure;
 Ballast Line - allows to weigh with salt water some storage tanks and
ballast, according to the table of oil consumption, by means of
reducers and, sometimes, by derivations of the fire network. These
pumps and reducers also perform the inverse tank maneuvering of
the tanks, by means of a low suction. In the case of ballast by the
fire system, the sewage is made by the sewage system. The oil tanks
P a g e | 164
are also communicated by valves, which facilitate the receipt of the

oil on board. These valves must be kept closed, and it is not
advisable to leave the tanks connected, especially on a war cruise.
4.9. RIGGING
Let's see some topics concerning rigging by starting by the most common rigging
devices.
Spool
This device aims to lift small loads, such as:

tool bags, yokes and several distribution material.
Electric Hoist
It is used for precise assembly operations or soft

load handling, such as precision machine, containers
containing liquids or fragile loads.
Forklift
It is used for cargo movement,

which is to be used on perfectly paved
flat floor. The ground must be capable of
supporting the whole weight, forklift plus
lifted load.
Forklift Operation
It works as a seesaw, in which the
load is balanced by the equipment
weight.
The rotation center or the seesaw support is the center of the front wheels.
The counterbalance comprises the vehicle structure (combustion) or by the
battery (electric).
The lifting capacity is affected by:
 Load weight;
P a g e | 165
 The distance of the load center of gravity.
Gantry Crane
It is an overhead equipment over rails used to move

cargo and material.
Crane
It is a huge equipment used to lift heavy loads.
Safety on Crane Operations
The main equipment to lift and move loads on rigs is the pedestal crane. They can
lift loads weighting of 15 or more than 45 tones. The typical pedestal crane executes
three basic tasks.
 Lift and lower loads;
 Lift and lower the boom;
 Swing.
Every Crane mounted on an Operational Unit must

be provided with an assessed and certified Load Cell,
perfectly operational.
Floating Cage
Floating crane that combines vertical and horizontal load handling.
Portainer
Container handling equipment

installed in container terminals (tecon). It
operates the load in the horizontal and vertical
directions in a safe way, as it does not cause
sudden swings. The operator's cabin is located in
the portainer itself, which facilitates the view of
the terminal, the deck and the interior of the
hold.
P a g e | 166
Personnel Transfer Basket
It is a device lifted by a crane that aims to safely transfer

personnel from an Operational unit to a Support Vessel or vice-versa.
The most important operation ever is the one involving people.
Training is mandatory, regardless the type of vessel and basket to be
used.
The personnel transfer is to be carried out only during daylight
under normal situations at the following weather conditions:
 At least 3 km or 1,6 nautical miles of visibility;
 Wind speed of at most 30 knots or 55 km/h.
Main fittings used for rigging.
Single Block
It is a wooden or metal oval box provided with a sheave inside it. It is used
to restore the cable on hoists and gun tackles.
Double Block
It is a wooden or metal oval box provided with two or more sheaves on the
same axis inside it. They are classified according to the number of sheaves they
have.
Travelling Block
It is a special steel block used for heavy operations, especially at the davit
devices.
Snatch Blocks
It is similar to a single block, but longer and opened at the side in order to reeve
or unreeve the rope.
Hooks
They are forged steel hooks provided with padeyes, usually as a single piece. They
are used on the davit and cranes wire ropes to lift loads on slings.
Shackles
It is a metal U shaped device closed at one end by a pin. It is usually used for
rigging operations.
Clips
They are U shaped fittings used to attach wire ropes, widely used for rigging
operations.
P a g e | 167
Slings
They are used to fix the cargo to the lifting devices hooks. There are several types
that are classified according to the load to be rigged:
 Sling Stripping
They are slings that have their ends attached by a round seam, whose fiber may
be vegetal or synthetic or steel wire. It is used to move containers in general and light
individual volumes.
 Canvas Sling
It is a sling whose ends are seamed to canvas, which is used to rig rice, coffee and
cereal sacs in general
 Drum sling
This is a chain or steel wire sling that

comprises claws or hooks at the ends. It is used to
move drums, barrels, tubes, plates etc.
Davit
It is an equipment or vertical movement

mounted on the vessel deck at each hold to move
light loads. It is not common nowadays because the
crane is more efficient.
Pontoon Crane
It is a crane combining vertical and horizontal cargo transfers.
Container Crane
It is equipment installed at Containers Terminal (Tecon). It operates horizontally
and vertically in a safe way because it does not cause sudden swings. The operator cabin
is at the crane, making the visualization of the terminal, deck and hold easier.
P a g e | 168
4.10. AIRCRAFT CRASH TEAM DUTIES AND COMPOSITION

The rigs' helideck is to be manned by the Fire Fighting Aircraft Team (EMCIA)
comprising:
 A Helicopter Landing Officer

(HLO), who is the EMCIA
leader and is qualified to use
the portable;
 Two or Three Aircraft
Firefighters (BOMBAV)
according to the helideck
category.
Operational Duties and Responsibilities
Each man or team member engaged in aircraft operations on the helideck must be
previously trained and qualified to carry out the functions and responsibilities according
to the EMCIA composition.
Helicopter Landing Officer (HLO)
The HLO is the team member responsible by the EMCIA. He must:

 Be qualified and certified (certification valid two years);
 Be familiar with the helideck requirements specified by NORMAM 01 Chapter
06;
 Wear fire protective clothes, besides a fluorescent vest (orange and white)
in order to be easily identified;
 Have a portable VHF transceiver tuned on the helideck aeronautic frequency
for emergency communication with the aircraft;
 Be familiar with all team members functions;
 Be familiar with the emergency exits and dangerous areas of the aircrafts
serving the vessel.
During the aerial operations, the HLO must:

 Be the EMCIA Leader;
 Supervise the helideck activities;
 Prepare the helideck for landing and takeoff;
 Establish emergency communication with the aircraft;
 Ensure the cargo and luggage is weighted, packed and labeled (Cargo and
Passengers Manifest);
 When it is required to communicate with the aircraft during emergencies,
the language used must be Portuguese;
 Use the radio to communicate with the pilots during landing and takeoff
when dangerous situations are observed. Besides the radio, hand signs may
be used during emergencies;
P a g e | 169
 Brief the EMCIA members before and after the aerial operations;
 Show the HLO course certification and curriculum during surveys.
Aircraft Firefighter (BOMBAV)
This is the crew member responsible by preparing the firefighting equipment. He

must:
 Wear basic fire protection clothes;
 Be familiar with the emergency exits and dangerous areas of the aircrafts
serving the vessel.
During the aerial operations, the BOMBAV must:

 Prepare the firefighting equipment at least 15 minutes before the estimated
time of arrival (ETA), as well as be ready to use the foam monitors during
landing and takeoff. If crash occurs followed by major fire, the foam is to be
immediately launched;
 Follow safety rules and procedures;
 Man the helideck at least 15 minutes before the ETA;
 Show the BOMBAV course certification and curriculum during surveys.
4.11. CRASH OPERATION STAGES

It starts when the properly qualified personnel approach the crashed aircraft to
extinguish or prevent a possible fire and rescue passengers and crew.
Rescuing victims precedes the preservation of evidence for the accident
investigation. However, preserving evidence is extremely important when it does not
affect rescue.
The operation is divided into three stages:
 Firefighting;
 Crew and passengers rescue;
 Wreckage removal.
Stage A: Fire Fighting
This is the personnel and equipment monitoring and coordination at crash scenes
during firefighting, control and extinguishing operations.
A helicopter is composed by several elements. Among them, magnesium is widely
used due to its low density and great resistance.
The fires involving this element are the most difficult to extinguish. Magnesium
ignites after some heat exposure, which will not occur at the beginning, but it will
inevitably happen in major fires.
The technique suggests segregating magnesium parts from other, letting them
burn. If it is not possible, special extinguishers must be used, and if they are not
available, the area must be cooled down. The dangerous situation is having the heat
generated by the magnesium combustion reigniting flammables material already under
control.
P a g e | 170
As helicopters are provided with electrical equipment, fuels and substances that
leave embers after burning, these fires comprise the four class fires, which is why they
are so difficult to extinguish.
Up to the present moment, the most used agent that is efficient and adequate for
helicopter fires is foam, due to its cooling and damping characteristics. It must be
abundantly applied in order to completely cover the helicopter, forming a blanket. Its
effect remains, so it prevents reignition. Foam is a group of small bubbles provided with
specific gravity lower than the flammables' and water's. Each situation requires a specific
solution. This requires professional knowledge, expertise and clear and logical thinking
despite the emergency stress. The success of the operation depends on the time the
extinguishing operation starts until when the fire is actually extinguished.
Stage B: Crew and passengers Rescue
Rescuing the personnel is the most difficult duty faced by the helideck fire team,
especially if fire occurs, which is usually after the crash. The operation success or failure
depends on the correct evaluation of the situation, the team training, the rescue
operation readiness, as well as on the fire team members' agility and common sense.
Time is extremely important once human beings tolerate heat effects for a short
period. So, the rescue operation must be accomplished right after the crash. The fire
team must be alert and ready for action, especially during landing and takeoff.
The person in charge of removing the crew and passengers from inside the
helicopter must have an axe or a sharp instrument to save time if someone is stuck to
the helicopter structure or safety belts. That is why the team members should always
have pliers, manual saw for metals, crowbar, etc.
While there is someone inside the helicopter, the fire team must try to keep the
flames as far as possible. The regular access routes must be used whenever possible,
which are the helicopter sides perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.
Stage C: Removal of aircraft
This phase includes not only the removal of the crashed helicopter, but also
the execution of all emergency repairs in the helideck. The replacement of equipment
and accessories in order to proceed with the air operations as fast as possible.
4.12. PROCEDURES TO ESCAPE FROM AN AIRCRAFT CRASH ONBOARD OR

ON THE WATER
Evacuation and Escape from an Crashed Aircraft

 Emergency landing at the helideck;
 Disembark when instructed to do so;
 Proceed to the ACCESS instructed by the HLO;
 Careful with the rotor blades. Walk lowered.
P a g e | 171
Crash over the Helideck

 Activate the emergency exit ejection device;
 Evaluate the situation;
 Wait until the blades stop;
 The aircraft master will instruct the evacuation;
 If fire is observed, leave the aircraft immediately windward. “Careful with
the rotor blades!” If you cannot escape, wait for the EMCIA member’s
rescue.
Crash on the water

 Keep sat and wait for the crew instructions;
 The helicopter weight is on the upper side, if everybody moves
towards the same direction, it may upset;
 Activate the emergency exit;
 Locate and launch life rafts;
 They may be under the sits or elsewhere. (Refer to the safety
booklet). Throw the door overboard, check and tie the lifeline to a
resistant point, launch the life raft and inflate it by pulling the specific
device;
 After inflating it, carefully leave the helicopter keeping its buoyancy
stability. Once everyone is inside the life raft, take survival measures;
 It the helicopter is still drifting, do not cut the lifeline. This is the
most appropriate anchor point, besides being the first place to be
searched by the rescue team;
 Take the appropriate measures to keep the life raft.
Uncontrolled Emergency Landing
It is unlikely you experience this situation, but if it happens, you may face real
problems such as:
 Panic;
 Injury;
 Dizziness
 Confusion;
 Float;
 Thermal Shock;
 Hypothermia.
P a g e | 172
It is also likely the aircraft upsets. Keeping the right position depends on:
 Helicopter damage due to the impact;
 Weather conditions. (wind and waves);
 Weight parting. (disorientated evacuation).
 Procedures to escape from a submerged helicopter

 Never inflate the lifejacket inside the aircraft! This will make the escape
almost impossible;
 Wait until the rotor blades stop or break;
 Slowly move from your impact to the right position ;
 Locate and open the exit. (It is also possible to open the emergency exits
from the outside);
 Firmly hold the exit structure before releasing the safety belt;
 Move outwards the aircraft but do not batter your legs;
 Try to keep facing the aircraft;
 Do not swim unless you are sure where the surface is;
 Once on the surface, inflate your lifejacket and wear the spray hood during
bad weather conditions tempo, if available;
 Keep away from oil/fuel slicks floating nearby. Swim against the
wind/current until a safe area;
 Keep the life rafts together;
 Look for and help other survivors.
P a g e | 173
5. BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE
1. SOLAS 74/78.
2. Manual do Cameleão (Marinha do Brasil).
3. Manual do ECIA (Marinha do Brasil).
4. Manual da Escola Nacional de Bombeiros.
5. NR-30 – Norma Regulamentadora de Segurança e Saúde no Trabalho
Aquaviário (Anexo II).
6. NR 33 – Norma Regulamentadora de Segurança e Saúde nos trabalhos em
Espaços Confinados.
7. Manual do Advanced Firefight (U.S.NAVY).
8. BRASIL. Ministério do Trabalho / Fundação Jorge Duprat de Figueiredo -
FUNDACENTRO.
9. Operação nos Trabalhos de Estiva. São Paulo: FUNDACENTRO, 1991.
BRASIL. Ministério da Defesa. Marinha do Brasil. Diretoria de Portos e
Costas.
10. Norma da Autoridade Marítima nº2 (NORMAM 02). Rio de Janeiro, 2000.
FONSECA, Maurilio M. Arte Naval. 5 ed. Rio de Janeiro: SDGM, 1989. 916
p. ISBN 85-7047-051-7.
11. http://www.horadopovo.com.br/2008/abril/2657-11-04-08/P5.
P a g e | 174

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Advanced Firefighting Course

Advanced Firefighting Course

This book is in accordance with the sequence determined by

File’s Name 20161201 AP CACI–EN–REV02

 Certificate of good standard of physical and mental health;

 Regarding class attendance

The class attendance and practical activities are mandatory.

 On the Course Approval

It will be considered approved the student:

1. ONBOARD OPERATIONS CONTROL

1.1 SAFETY PRINCIPLES

Main Fire Causes

1.2 MAIN AREAS COMPRISING FIRE RISKS

Fire is one of the most dangerous situations onboard. Fortunately it is not

Fire Risk Areas

1.3 PREVENTING FIRE

Considering fire cannot be 100% prevented onboard, especially during dangerous

Some preventive measures are already part of shipbuilding standards, while

 Removal of Unnecessary Material - The vessel must have the risks

 Vessel Maintenance Concerning Fire Resistance - It can be

1.4 PROCESS AND CARE IN DRY DESTILLATION, CHEMICAL REACTIONS,

 Fire in confined space;

The dry distillation dangers may be reduced by:

That is why the sudden, inappropriate and precipitated entry in a

 Spontaneous combustion, like occurs with phosphorus when its packing is

Fire in Gas Collectors and Water Tube Boilers

• Components - Found these boilers generally the following components:

The saver network may reach 700°C when:

 The iron burn in the vapor is independent of the supply;

 Overheating as Explosions Cause

 The main causes of overheating

1.5. FIRE CONTROL PROCEDURES

These are methods or measures taken by the

Firefighting activities start through the initial fight.

Subsequent Measures - Subsequent measures include:

Affirmative answers to the questions above characterize an out of control fire,

Controlling the Situation

 Smoke status: smoke boundaries, watchmen; ventilation and refrigeration

Checklist For Firefighting Operations

Some immediate considerations must be taken, as follows:

Some considerations concerning the fire boundaries establishment:

Considerations concerning the smoke boundaries establishment:

 Was the compartment mechanically isolated?

 Considerations when the fire is extinguished

1.6. FIRE CONTROL STRATEGY AND PROCEDURES

 Strategies related to Fire Fighting - Small fires found at their initial

fire without endangering their own lives.

 Force the attack through an opening (improvise or make one);

 Care when using the handrails;

 Preparing to enter a compartment

 Process for compartment access opening and entry

Class “A” Fire

Class “B” Fire

A sealing line (water fog) must be established at the access to be opened.

Observations and Recommendations

The attack is to be always coordinately implemented only in one direction, if

1.7. EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

In some situations, such as when fires occur in mattresses or pillows, it is

 Water chemical and physical Properties - Water appears in nature in all

The temperatures mentioned vary according to the pressure, as the pressure

There are some types of foam available, namely:

 ARC/ATC (Alcohol Resistant Concentrate, Alcohol Type Concentrate).

 Fluoroprotean Foam (FFP)