meditation

SUMMIT

The Science of Meditation

Provided by
the science team at the Institute of Noetic Sciences
 The  Science  of  Meditation  
Provided  by  the  science  team  at  the  Institute  of  Noetic  Sciences  (noetic.org)  
 
Meditation  is  everywhere.  That  wasn’t  the  case  40  years  ago,  where  the  only  people  meditating  
in  the  US  were  considered  part  of  a  “craze.”  The  1975  cover  story  in  Time  magazine  reported  on  
“The  TM  Craze,”  referring  to  the  rising  popularity  of  the  Transcendental  Meditation  movement.  
Meditation   began   making   inroads   into   popular   Western   culture   in   the   1960s   as   interest   in  
Eastern  philosophies   spread.   Now   we   have  thousands   of   downloadable   guided   audio  and   video  
meditations,   smartphone   applications,   online   courses,   and   of   course   many   options   for   in-­‐
person  clinical  programs  for  a  variety  of  health  conditions.  Over  18  million  people  in  the  US  use  
meditation  according  to  a  National  Health  Statistic  Report  (Clarke,  Black  et  al.  2015).  In  many  
parts  of  the  country,  yoga  studios  are  on  every  corner  along  with  a  coffee  shop.  Over  31  million  
people  in  the  US  use  yoga  (Cramer,  Ward  et  al.  2016).  
 
So,   what   has   shifted   since   the   ‘70s   to   make   meditation   go   from   a   fringe   practice   to   one   that  
many   are   seeking   to   learn,   develop   and/or   deepen   the   scientific   research   on   meditation,   its  
effects,   and   the   development   of   new   applications   has   exploded   (Figure   1).   In   1990,  
approximately  2,000  peer-­‐reviewed  scientific  articles  on  the  science  of  meditation  existed,  and  
today   the   number   is   over   6,000.   In   the   1990's,   the   average   number   of   articles   published   per  
year  was  100,  and  in  the  last  five  years,  about  300  articles  have  been  published  annually  and  
growing.  
 

 
Figure   1.   Meditation   Research   Publications   by   Year.   The   number   of   meditation   research  
papers  has  increased  exponentially  over  the  last  35  years  as  evidenced  by  publications  listed  on  
PubMed.com  for  the  keyword  “meditation.”  
 
In   an   excerpt   from   the   Dalai   Lama’s   book  Contemplative   Mind,   Hard   Science,   His   Holiness  
speaks  about  the  importance  of  research  into  meditation:  
  
“Until   recently,   scientists   believed   that   after   adolescence,   the   hardware   of   the   human  
brain   becomes   relatively   unchangeable.   But   new   discoveries   in   neurobiology   have  
uncovered  a  remarkable  potential  for  changeability  in  the  human  brain  even  in  adults  as  
old   as   I   am.   At   the   Mind   and   Life   Conference   in   Dharamsala   in   2004,   I   learned   of   the  
growing   subdiscipline   of   neuroscience   dealing   with   this   question,   called   “brain  
plasticity.”  This  phenomenon  suggests  to  me  that  traits  that  were  assumed  to  be  fixed—
such   as   personality,   disposition,   even   moods—are   not   permanent   and   that   mental  
exercises   or   changes   in   the   environment   can   affect   these   traits.   Already   experiments  
have  shown  that  experienced  meditators  have  more  activity  in  the  left  frontal  lobe,  the  
part   of   the   brain   associated   with   positive   emotions   such   as   happiness,   joy,   and  
contentment.  
 
These  findings  imply  that  happiness  is  something  we  can  cultivate  deliberately  through  
mental  training  that  affects  the  brain.  The  Buddha  himself  argued  that  if  one  wishes  to  
avoid   certain   types   of   results,   one   needs   to   change   the   conditions   that   give   rise   to   them.  
So   if   one   changes   the   conditions   of   one’s   state   of   mind   (which   normally   gives   rise   to  
particular   habitual   patterns   of   mental   activity),   one   can   change   the   traits   of   one’s  
consciousness  and  the  resulting  attitudes  and  emotions.”  
 
Today’s   meditation   researchers   are   investigating   and   translating   the   wisdom   of   the   ancients  
with   significant   clinical   findings   in   neuroscience,   medicine,   and   psychology.   Scientists,   health  
and   healing   practitioners,   educators,   and   laypeople   are   discovering   the   practical   benefits   of  
meditation  in  contemporary  culture—such  as  increases  in  positive  emotions  and  psychological  
stability,   improved   mental   clarity,   reductions   in   symptoms   of   illness,   beneficial   effects   on  
immunity,  brain  function,  hormonal  functioning,  and  possibly  aging,  and  greater  appreciation  of  
the  fullness  of  the  life  experience.  
 
What  is  Meditation?    
 
The  practice  of  meditation  is  believed  to  have  existed  before  written  history,  and  was  typically  
situated   within   a   set   of   religious   beliefs   and   frameworks.   While   there   are   various   meditation  
styles,   all   types   of   meditation   practices   incorporate   self-­‐observation   of   mental   activity,  
attentional   focus   training,   and   cultivating   an   attitude   that   highlights   process   rather   than  
content.   There   are   different   categories   of   meditation   (Ospina,   Bond   et   al.   2007,   Travis   and  
Shear  2010).  Of  course,  these  categories  can  overlap,  but  some  find  them  helpful  to  understand  
different  meditation  traditions.  
 
First,  we  have  mindfulness  or  open-­‐focus  meditation,  which  most  people  in  the  US  have  now  
heard  about.  The  February  2014  cover  of  Time  magazine’s  title  was  “The  Mindful  Revolution:  
The   Science   of   Finding   Focus   in   a   Stressed   Out,   Multitasking   Culture.”   Open   focus   is  
characterized   by   a   dispassionate,   non-­‐evaluative   awareness   of   ongoing   experience.   The   central  
element   of   mindfulness   is   to   keep   the   awareness   on   events   generated   internally   (bodily  
sensations,  breath,  thoughts,  emotions)  and  externally  (sights,  sounds)  at  the  current  moment  
with  nonjudgmental  acceptance.  
 
A  second  category  is  called  focused  attention  or  concentration  meditation.  Focused  attention  
meditation  is  characterized  by  the  voluntary  control  of  attention  and  cognitive  processes,  and  
entails   directing   attention   on   some   intentional   process   like   the   repetition   of   a   word,   phrase  
(mantra),  or  the  breath.  Lovingkindness  or  metta  meditation  is  an  example  of  concentration  or  
focused  attention  meditation.  
 
Finally,   we   have   the   automatic   self-­‐transcending   category,   which   is   characterized   by   the  
automatic   transcending   of   the   procedures   of   the   meditation   practice   itself   and   moving   into   a  
transcendent   state.   Transcendental   Meditation   and   Nondual   Awareness   Meditation   are  
examples  of  this  type  of  meditation.  
 
Regardless  of  the  type  of  meditation  one  does,  the  scientific  research  purporting  its  benefits  is  
growing   and   thus   increasing   its   popularity.   Let’s   take   a   look   at   one   of   the   more   well-­‐studied  
meditation  styles  as  an  example.    
 
Research  on  Mindfulness-­‐Based  Interventions  for  Well-­‐Being  
 
Mindfulness   meditation   originated   over   5,000   years   ago   in   Eastern   spiritual   traditions.   The   goal  
of   mindfulness   is   to   cultivate   a   stable   and   non-­‐reactive   awareness   of   one’s   internal   (e.g.,  
cognitive-­‐affective-­‐sensory)   and   external   (social-­‐environmental)   experiences.   This   attentional  
skill   enables   one   to   live   less   habitually   (i.e.,   more   mindfully)   in   contrast   with   the   tendency   to  
react  reflexively  to  stressful  experiences  encountered  in  daily  life.    
 
Mindfulness   meditation   was   introduced   to   the   West   in   a   secular   and   standardized   clinical  
format   in   the   1980’s   by   Jon   Kabat-­‐Zinn   and   the   Mindfulness-­‐Based   Stress   Reduction   (MBSR)  
program.   In   MBSR,   the   essential   components   of   mindfulness   were   secularized   and   extracted  
from   their   original   religious   and   cultural-­‐historical   context   making   the   concepts   more   palatable  
to   Western   culture.   MBSR   is   typically   taught   in   the   form   of   an   eight-­‐week,   group-­‐based  
educational   program   focused   on   the   development   of   mindfulness.   Weekly   didactic   and  
experiential  sessions  in  MBSR  typically  include  the  teaching  of  mindfulness  meditation  practices  
along   with   instruction   and   group   discussion   on   the   practical   applications   of   mindful   awareness,  
particularly   in   terms   of   managing   stressful   life   events   and   difficult   physical,   mental,   and  
emotional  states.  
 
Since   the   development   of   MBSR,   mindfulness   has   been   incorporated   into   many   standardized  
clinical  programs  for  a  variety  of  clinical  conditions  such  as  preventing  depression  relapse  with  
Mindfulness-­‐Based   Cognitive   Therapy   (Segal,   Williams   et   al.);   eating   disorders   with  
Mindfulness-­‐Based   Eating   Awareness   Training   (Kristeller   and   Wolever);   addiction   and   relapse  
prevention   with   Mindfulness-­‐Based   Relapse   Prevention   (Bowen,   Chawla   et   al.);   and   even   for  
childbirth   and   parenting   with   Mindful   Motherhood   (Vieten   2009)   and   Mindfulness-­‐Based  
Childbirth   and   Parenting   (Duncan   and   Bardacke).   Meditation-­‐based   principles   and   practices  
have   also   been   incorporated   as   central   components   of   two   other   well-­‐known  
psychotherapeutic  approaches—Dialectical  Behavioral  Therapy  (Linehan,  Heard  et  al.  1993)  and  
Acceptance   and   Commitment   Therapy   (Hayes,   Strosahl   et   al.   1999)—in   large   part   because   of  
the  hypothesized  benefits  of  mindfulness  for  improving  affect  regulation.  Mindfulness  concepts  
are   interwoven   as   a   common   theme   into   these   programs   even   though   their   content   and  
application  may  vary.  
 
In  contrast  to  traditional  cognitive-­‐behavioral  therapies  (CBT)  where  the  emphasis  tends  to  be  
on   altering   one’s   circumstances,   one’s   level   of   engagement   with   stressors,   or   on   changing  
maladaptive   cognitions,   moods,   or   behaviors   related   to   those   stressors,   the   focus   in  
mindfulness-­‐based   interventions   is   on   altering   one’s   response   to   stressors   through   the  
strengthening   of   a   non-­‐evaluative,   metacognitive   awareness   that   has   been   referred   to   as   the  
“observing  self”  (Deikman  1982).  Unlike  most  cognitive-­‐behavioral  methods,  mindfulness  does  
not  involve  the  evaluation  of  cognitions  as  either  rational  or  distorted,  and  does  not  attempt  to  
change   or   dispute   thoughts   deemed   to   be   irrational   or   maladaptive.   In   mindfulness,   one   is  
instead   taught   to   simply   observe   thoughts,   to   note   their   impermanence,   and   to   relax   the  
habitual  tendency  to  evaluate  them.  
 
Another  important  difference  between  traditional  CBT  approaches  and  mindfulness  is  that  the  
former   usually   has   a   clear   goal   in   mind   (e.g.,   changing   some   behavior   or   thinking   pattern),  
whereas  mindfulness  is  practiced  with  an  attitude  of  non-­‐striving  or  non-­‐interference  in  which  
the  ordinary  tendency  to  try  to  alter  or  manage  experience—particularly  when  the  experience  
is  perceived  as  painful  or  aversive—is  relaxed.    
 
Mindfulness   meditation   trials   have   found   positive   results   for   many   conditions—from   improving  
stress,   depression,   anxiety,   distress,   and   the   quality   of   life   of   healthy   individuals   (Khoury,  
Sharma   et   al.   2015)   to   reducing   post-­‐traumatic   stress   disorder   symptoms   (Wahbeh   2014,  
Wahbeh,   Goodrich   et   al.   2016).   These   results   have   been   applied   to   a   wide   variety   of   people  
from  children  (Thompson  and  Gauntlett-­‐Gilbert  2008)  to  older  adults  (Wahbeh,  Goodrich  et  al.  
2016).   With   the   increase   in   use   and   research   of   these   programs,   large   meta-­‐analyses   can   be  
done.   This   is   where   researchers   and   collate   and   synthesize   data   from   many   studies   to   get   a  
better   picture   of   how   well   an   intervention   is   working.   A   recent   meta-­‐analysis   of   209   studies  
found   that   mindfulness-­‐based   therapy   was   effective   even   when   compared   with   other   active  
treatments   (n=68;   Hedge's   g=.33),   including   other   psychological   treatments   (n=35;   Hedge's  
g=.22).   This   was   especially   true   for   reducing   pain,   anxiety,   and   stress   (Khoury,   Lecomte   et   al.  
2013).  As  more  research  is  done,  we  can  be  even  more  certain  about  the  types  of  conditions  
mindfulness  is  beneficial  for.  
 
So  How  Does  Meditation  Work?  
 
We  now  have  some  understanding  for  how  meditation  works,  but  there  is  a  lot  more  research  
that   needs   to   be   done   to   further   evaluate   its   mechanisms.   Many   meditation   programs   are  
multidimensional,   often   including   group   support,   physical   movement   in   yoga   poses,  
psychoeducation,   and   guided   meditations—so   it   is   difficult   to   assess   which   components  
generate   the   positive   clinical   effects.   Regardless   researchers   have   attempted   to   evaluate   its  
mechanism   by   studying   formal   structured   programs   like   MBSR   (Kabat-­‐Zinn   1990)   and  
Mindfulness-­‐Based   Cognitive   Therapy   (MBCT)   (Segal,   Williams   et   al.   2002)   using  
electroencephalography,   functional   magnetic   resonance   imaging,   and   other   physiological  
measures  (Cahn  and  Polich  2006,  Chiesa,  Brambilla  et  al.  2011,  Hölzel,  Lazar  et  al.  2011).  Some  
clear   patterns   have   emerged.   Researchers   have   suggested   that   meditation   works   through   a  
number   of   components:   (a)   attention   regulation,   (b)   body   awareness,   (c)   emotion   regulation  
(including   reappraisal   and   exposure,   extinction,   and   reconsolidation),   and   (d)   change   in  
perspective  on  the  self  (Hölzel,  Lazar  et  al.  2011,  Grecucci,  Pappaianni  et  al.  2015).    
 
Neuroscience  of  Meditation  
 
The   concepts   thought   to   be   involved   with   how   meditation   works   are   supported   by  
neuroimaging   studies   that   show   changes   in   parts   of   the   brain   associated   with   things   like  
attention,  body  awareness,  emotional  regulation,  etc.  Again,  meta-­‐analyses  of  multiple  studies  
have   synthesized   the   data   to   find   the   following:   One   review   found   eight   brain   regions  
associated   with   self   and   emotion   regulation   that   were   consistently   altered   in   cross-­‐sectional  
studies  of  experienced  meditators  compared  to  controls  (Fox,  Nijeboer  et  al.  2014).  
 
Another   recent   review   asked   three   questions.   First,   which   brain   areas   are   activated   during  
meditation?  A  wide  set  of  areas  spanning  from  the  occipital  to  the  frontal  lobes  were  found  to  
be  more  highly  activated  during  meditation  compared  to  control  conditions—areas  associated  
with   processing   self-­‐relevant   information,   self-­‐regulation,   focused   problem-­‐solving,   and  
adaptive  behavior,    interoception,  monitoring  body  states,  and  reorienting  attention.  
 
They  then  asked:  what  functional  changes  are  observed  from  meditation  over  the  long  term?  
Looking  at  studies  comparing  expert  meditators  to  non-­‐meditators,  areas  responsible  for  self-­‐
referential   processes,   perspective-­‐taking,   cognitive   distancing,   sustained   attention,   memory  
formation,   and   high-­‐level   perception—especially   in   perceiving   complex   and   ambiguous   visual  
stimuli—were  more  activated  in  meditators  than  non-­‐meditators.  
 
Finally,   they   asked:   what   structural   changes   can   be   observed   in   expert   meditators   compared   to  
controls?  Greater  structural  development  was  seen  in  areas  of  the  brain  associated  with  self-­‐
regulation,   self-­‐control,   focused   problem-­‐solving,   adaptive   behavioral   responses   under  
changing   conditions,   highly   integrated   tasks   such   as   visuospatial   imagery,   episodic   memory  
retrieval,  and  self-­‐processing  operations  (Boccia,  Piccardi  et  al.  2015).    
 
These   two   large   reviews   were   cross-­‐sectional,   meaning   that   they   are   comparing   data   from  
different   groups   at   one   point   in   time.   Fewer   studies   have   looked   at   how   brain   function   and  
structure   change   from   short-­‐term   meditation   programs;   surprisingly,   these   studies   have  
discovered   significant   effects   from   meditation   in   a   short   time   period.     Two   studies   looking   at  
effects   from   an   eight-­‐week   MBSR   course   found   changes   in   part   of   the   brain   in   charge   of  
emotion  (Hölzel,  Carmody  et  al.  2010)  and  increases  in  brain  regions  involved  in  learning  and  
memory   processes,   emotion   regulation,   self-­‐referential   processing,   and   perspective-­‐taking   in  
the   MBSR   group   compared   with   the   controls   (Hölzel,   Carmody   et   al.   2011).   Remarkably,   the  
evidence   that   meditation   can   change   the   function   and   structure   of   the   brain   is   clear.  
Meditation  can  affect  the  function  and  structure  of  the  human  brain.  Why  not  use  meditation  
then   as   a   tool   to   capitalize   on,   as   the   Dalai   Lama   says,   the   “remarkable   potential   for  
changeability  in  the  human  brain?”  
 
Affecting  the  Nervous  System  
 
Not  only  does  meditation  affect  the  brain  (central  nervous  system),  it  also  affects  the  rest  of  the  
body   through   the   peripheral   nervous   system.   Meditation   has   a   relaxing   effect   on   the   body,  
even   though   many   meditation   techniques   are   not   specifically   meant   to   be   relaxation   tools.  
When   people   meditate,   they   will   often   slow   their   breathing   down   even   though   there   is   no  
explicit   direction   to   do   so.   Just   by   observing   the   breath,   the   breathing   rate   slows.   For   example,  
experienced  and  novice  meditators  are  reported  to  have  slower  respiration  rates  compared  to  
controls   at   rest   and   during   MM   (Ahani,   Wahbeh   et   al.   2014).   What   is   important   about   this   is  
that  when  we  breathe  more  slowly,  this  increases  the  activation  of  the  “rest-­‐and-­‐relax”  part  of  
our   nervous   system   (parasympathetic)   rather   than   the   “fight-­‐or-­‐flight”   part   of   our   nervous  
system   (sympathetic)   (Jerath,   Edry   et   al.   2006,   Ducla-­‐Soares,   Santos-­‐Bento   et   al.   2007).  
Increasing   our   parasympathetic   nervous   system   is   very   good   for   our   health.   It   helps   slow   our  
heart   rate,   regulate   our   blood   pressure,   improve   our   digestion,   increase   blood   flow   to   the  
extremities,  and  normalize  stress  hormones  (Benson,  Beary  et  al.  1974).    
 
Meditation’s  Transformative  Potential  and  the  future  of  meditation  research  
 
As   we   have   described   above,   he   field   of   meditation   research   has   grown   exponentially.  
However,  many  aspects  of  mediation  experience  and  practice  remain  somewhat  “off-­‐limits”  for  
scientists   who   wish   to   be   taken   seriously   (in   terms   of   publication,   career   advancement,   and  
funding).  Yet  these  are  some  of  the  aspects  that  make  the  study  of  meditation  so  important  for  
better   understanding   human   potential   and   the   nature   of   reality.   A   large   proportion   of   the  
expanding  scientific  literature  focuses  on  studies  on  meditation-­‐based  interventions  for  clinical  
conditions   and   biological   correlates   of   meditation-­‐based   practices.   There   is   relatively   little   first-­‐
person,   anthropological,   ethnographic,   and   qualitative   research   being   conducted   on  
meditation.   Almost   all   of   the   social   science   research   focuses   on   cognitive,   emotional,   and  
intrapersonal   aspects   of   meditation,   as   opposed   to   relational,   embodied,   and  
transpersonal/transcendent   aspects   of   meditation.   Certain   types   of   meditation   such   as  
mindfulness   are   dominating   the   field,   while   there   is   much   less   attention   paid   to   research   on  
other  types  of  contemplative  practice.    
 
Great  inroads  have  been  made  in  understanding  the  mechanism  of  action  (or  how  meditation  
works).  However,  less  research  has  been  conducted  on  how  meditation  actually  transforms  us  
individually   and   collectively.   Our   research   at   the   Institute   of   Noetic   Sciences   has   identified  
meditation   as   one   of   the   key   practices   for   cultivating   positive   transformations   in  
consciousness—the   kinds   that   involve   fundamental   shifts   in   worldviews   and   ways   of   being   that  
affect  every  aspect  of  daily  life.  In  addition  to  regulating  emotion,  cultivating  cognitive  stability,  
and   “training   the   brain,”   meditation   is   viewed   by   many   people   as   much   more:   a   pathway  
toward   self-­‐transcendence,   direct   experience   of   an   interconnected   whole,   awakening,   and  
liberation  from  suffering.  
 
There   are   experiences   meditation   practitioners   report   having   during,   just   after,   or   related   to  
their   meditation   practice   that   are   almost   completely   unexplored   scientifically.   Experiences   of  
oneness  and  interconnectedness;  samadhis  and  siddhis;  Shakti  and  Kundalini  energies;  karma,  
past-­‐life  recall,  and  reincarnation  experiences;  visions,  synchronicities,  precognition,  and  extra-­‐
sensory   perception;   experiences   of   God,   deities,   and   other   non-­‐physical   entities;   and   difficult  
stages   of   meditation,   painful   processes   that   can   arise,   periods   of   disorientation   and  
depersonalization   —   all   of   these   are   completely   embedded   in   the   fabric   of   most   contemplative  
traditions,   yet   are   rarely   included   even   in   the   most   rudimentary   way   in   modern   scientific  
studies   of   meditation.   These   aspects   can   and   should   be   studied   with   scientific   rigor,   and   the  
exclusion  of  significant  aspects  of  meditation  experience  from  scientific  dialogue  unnecessarily  
limits  our  knowledge.    
 
There  has  been  some  research  into  what  might  be  called  the  mystical,  transcendent,  or  nondual  
aspects   of   meditation.   Transpersonal   psychology   has   explored   these   subjective   domains   of  
experience,   but   has   primarily   relied   on   theory   and   qualitative   research.   The   field   of  
transpersonal   psychology   has   remained   somewhat   limited   in   its   use   of   rigorous   experimental  
approaches  and  integration  with  more  mainstream  psychological  constructs.  However,  the  vast  
majority   of   clinical   research   on   meditation   focuses   on   randomized,   controlled   trials   for  
therapeutic   applications,   while   neuroscience   research   focuses   on   neural   correlates   of  
meditative   states   and   social   science-­‐oriented   research   focuses   on   cognitive,   mental,   and  
intrapersonal   aspects   of   meditation.   By   contrast,   almost   no   research   is   being   conducted   on  
relational,   group,   transpersonal   or   transcendent,   and   embodied   aspects   of   meditation.   Some  
symposia  are  sprouting  in  an  attempt  to  expand  the  current  view  (see  for  example  this  recent  
seminar  at  Harvard).  There  are  topics  representing  essentially  uncharted  scientific  terrain  that  
provide   excellent   opportunities   for   new   and   existing   researchers.   While   some   are   potentially  
controversial,  these  domains  are  not  inherently  beyond  rigorous  scientific  investigation.    

Along   these   lines,   over   the   last   three   years,   a   task   force   of   over   20   leading   meditation  
researchers  and  teachers  was  convened  by  the  Institute  of  Noetic  Sciences  for  a  series  of  four  
meetings   to   develop   a   roadmap   for   expanding   the   field   of   meditation   research   to   include   more  
expanded   domains   of   human   experience   that   are   not   typically   investigated   in   the   current  
science   of   meditation.   The   task   force   has:   1)   conducted   a   survey   of   over   1,100   meditators   to  
investigate   the   nature   and   prevalence   of   experiences   that   are   not   often   investigated   in  
meditation  research;  2)  written  a  scientific  article  targeted  to  be  published  in  a  peer-­‐reviewed  
journal   to   report   the   survey   results   and   present   the   case,   recommendations,   and   tools   for  
expanding   the   topics   and   measures   used   in   meditation   research,     as   well   as   suggest   future  
directions;   3)   is   building   a   web-­‐based   resource   of   measures   and   protocols   that   can   be  
downloaded   or   accessed   by   researchers   who   wish   to   broaden   their   research   to   include  
constructs   that   are   understudied;   and   4)   is   creating   an   online   course   for   young   meditation  
researchers   who   are   interested   in   pursuing   new   domains   in   meditation   science.   The   current  
status  of  the  project  can  be  found  at  noetic.org/fomr.  
 
While  the  task  force  had  the  hypothesis  that  these  expanded,  anecdotally  reported  experiences  
should   be   studied,   we   really   didn’t   have   an   accurate   representation   of   just   how   often   these  
experiences   were   happening   in   meditators.   So,   between   the   second   and   third   meetings,   we  
conducted  a  survey  of  over  1,100  people  who  had  a  meditation  practice  now  or  in  the  past  to  
assess   the   prevalence   of   the   experiences   we   suspected   were   quite   common.   Below   is   an  
excerpt   from   the   results   of   the   survey.   Questions   in   the   table   below   are   listed   in   highest   to  
lowest  order  of  the  sum  of  the  first  two  responses:  “This  almost  always  happens”  or  “This  has  
happened  many  times”  (in  other  words,  most  common  to  least  common)  (Figure  2).    
 

 
Figure   2.   Experiences   During   or   Just   After   Meditation.   See   full-­‐resolution   image   at  
http://www.noetic.org/sites/default/files/research/fomr/fomr-­‐graph-­‐experiences.png  
 
People   predominantly   reported   feeling   a   sense   of   peace   and   tranquility,   and   a   variety   of  
sensations   and   mental   experiences.   Interestingly,   over   80   percent   reported   having   even   the  
most   dramatic   experiences—“loss   of   awareness   of   where   you   are,”   “experience   unity   with  
ultimate  reality,”  “ecstasy,”—at  least  one  time.    
 
We   also   assessed   more   specific   types   of   experiences   (Figure   3).   Sensations   such   as   altered  
breathing   or   altered   sense   of   awareness   were   most   prominent.   Also,   more   than   half   of   the  
participants   reported   experiences   of   clairvoyance   or   telepathy,   experiencing   nonphysical  
entities   in   their   awareness,   vision   or   hearing,   and   feeling   a   sense   of   collective   energy   from   a  
group.  These  experiences  are  not  normally  evaluated  in  meditation  research  trials.    
 

 
Figure   3.   Specific   Experiences   During   or   Just   After   Meditation.   See   full-­‐resolution   image   at  
http://www.noetic.org/sites/default/files/research/fomr/fomr-­‐graph-­‐specific.png  
 
So,   we   observed   that   these   experiences   were   actually   quite   common.   But,   were   they  
meaningful   to   the   practitioner?   We   asked   the   participants,   “In   general,   how   meaningful   or  
important   to   you   was   this   experience   (e.g.   did   such   an   experience   have   an   impact   on   your  
thinking  or  feeling,  your  sense  of  self,  or  your  worldview)?”  About  40  percent  said  “Very  Much,”  
22  percent  said  “Quite  a  bit,”  22  percent  said  “Somewhat,”  and  13  percent  said  “A  Little  Bit.”  
Only  3  percent  said  “Not  at  all.”  Therefore,  not  only  are  these  experiences  quite  common,  but  
over  84  percent  of  the  participants  said  they  were  at  least  somewhat  meaningful  or  important  
to  them.  These  two  figures  represent  a  small  part  of  all  the  results  we  collected.  However,  they  
clearly  demonstrate  how  prevalent  these  experiences  are  and  the  need  for  more  research  on  
these  concepts  in  meditation  research.    
 
In  summary,  the  field  of  meditation  research  has  grown  exponentially  in  the  past  few  decades.  
This   growth   has   been   largely   driven   by   an   increasing   appreciation   for   the   potential   for  
contemplative  practices  to  positively  affect  psychophysiological  functioning,  reduce  stress,  and  
increase   well-­‐being.   The   evidence   is   growing   that   meditation   improves   a   wide   variety   of  
conditions—especially   stress,   anxiety,   and   depression.   The   mechanisms   for   how   meditation  
works   have   also   been   explored   with   studies   investigating   neural   correlates   of   lifetime  
meditation   practice,   as   well   as   changes   in   brain   function   and   structure   associated   with   short-­‐
term   mindfulness   interventions.   This   has   led   to   a   robust   new   field   of   contemplative  
neuroscience.   Future   research   will   continue   to   evaluate   the   clinical   effects   of   meditation   and  
how   it   might   best   be   delivered.   In   addition,   future   research   would   include   studies   about   the  
more  esoteric  aspects  of  meditation  practice.    
 
 
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