Effects of Body Shape on Body Cathexis and Dress Shape Preferences of Female

Consumers: A Balancing Perspective

by

Phillip Anthony Sidberry

A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty of

Auburn University
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science

Auburn, Alabama
August 6, 2011

Approved by

Veena Chattaraman, Chair, Assistant Professor of Consumer Affairs

Pamela Ulrich, Professor of Consumer Affairs
Karla Simmons, Assistant Professor of Consumer Affairs





 Abstract

Apparel design has been proposed as a tool for altering the perceptual body and

an individual’s level of body cathexis. The purpose of this study was to uncover dress

shape preferences of female consumers as a function of body shape and body cathexis.

An online survey with 203 college-aged students revealed support for all hypotheses: a)

actual body shape had a main effect on body cathexis, with X and V body shapes

demonstrating higher body cathexis than A and H body shapes; b) ideal body shape

moderated this effect; c) A and H body shapes demonstrated greater comfort and

purchase intent for Rectangular and Wedge dress silhouettes than X and V; d) X and V

body shapes demonstrated greater comfort and purchase intent for A-line, Bell and Hour-

glass dress silhouettes than A and H; e) body cathexis mediated the effect of body shape

on comfort with dress shapes.

ii



 Acknowledgements

The author wishes to first and foremost thank the Lord and savior for the all the

opportunities granted to him through his life, most recently the opportunity to be a

Master’s degree candidate and also for gracing him with the presences of all those

individuals who made the completion of this thesis possible. Thanks to Dr. Veena

Chattaraman for her PATIENCE, encouragement, guidance and support throughout the

entire thesis process. Also, the author wishes to thank Dr. Pamela Ulrich and Dr. Karla

Simmons for their patience, flexibility and support as committee members and mentors as

well. The author would also like to send a special thank you to Dr. Carol Warfield for all

of her support.

Lastly, the author would like to extend his love and gratitude to Alecia Scott

Sidberry and Rudolph Sidberry for their continued support throughout everything.

Thanks so much.

iii



 Table of Contents

List of Tables ................................................................................................................... viii

List of Figures .................................................................................................................... ix

Chapter I. Introduction.........................................................................................................1

Statement of Problem...............................................................................................3

Purpose.....................................................................................................................6

Significance of Study...............................................................................................7

Definition of Terms..................................................................................................8

Chapter II. Background Literature and Conceptual Framework .......................................10

Body Cathexis........................................................................................................10

Body Shape ............................................................................................................12

The Body Shape Assessment Scale ...........................................................14

Bonnie August’s Body I.D. Scale ..............................................................15

Douty’s Body Build Scale .........................................................................17

Female Figure Identification Technique for Apparel ................................18

Stunkard’s Obesity and Thinness Scale.....................................................22

Interaction between Dress and Body Shape...........................................................23

Balancing Techniques................................................................................24

Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................27

Sproles’ Fashion Adoption Process ...........................................................28

iv



 Pre-existing Conditions..................................................................28

Directing Influences.......................................................................28

The Channel of Decision ...............................................................28

Clothing Comfort Model ...........................................................................29

Proposed Conceptual Model ......................................................................32

Hypothesis Development .......................................................................................34

Body Shape and Body Cathexis.................................................................34

Body Shape and Dress Shape Preferences.................................................37

Body Cathexis and Dress Shape Preferences.............................................39

Chapter III. Methodology .................................................................................................42

Pilot Study..............................................................................................................42

Main Study.............................................................................................................44

Sample........................................................................................................44

Procedure ...................................................................................................44

Instrumentation ..........................................................................................45

Body Cathexis Scale ......................................................................45

Body Shape Scale ..........................................................................45

Dress Shape Preferences ................................................................46

Purchase Intention..............................................................47

Comfort Level....................................................................47

Data Analysis .........................................................................................................48

Chapter IV. Results............................................................................................................49

Pilot Study..............................................................................................................49

v



 Main Study.............................................................................................................50

Sample Characteristics...............................................................................50

Reliability Analysis....................................................................................53

Hypothesis Testing.....................................................................................55

Body Shape and Body Cathexis.....................................................55

Body Shape and Dress Shape Preferences.....................................56

Actual Body Shape’s Effect on Consumer’s Comfort Level.........58

Body Cathexis’ Role in Actual Body Shape’s Relation to Level of

Comfort ..........................................................................................59

Chapter V. Discussion and Conclusions............................................................................61

Actual Body Shape, Ideal Body Shape, and Body Cathexis..................................61

Actual Body Shape’s Effect on Consumer Preferences.........................................63

Body Cathexis and Consumer’s Level of Comfort................................................65

Chapter VI. Implications and Limitations .........................................................................67

Conceptual Implications ........................................................................................67

Practical Implications.............................................................................................69

Suggestions for Further Research ..........................................................................70

Limitations of Study ..............................................................................................71

References..........................................................................................................................74

Appendix A. Pilot Study Questionnaire.............................................................................81

Consumer Body Satisfaction..................................................................................81

Body Shape Identification......................................................................................82

Dress Shape Preferences ........................................................................................83

vi



Appendix B. Main Study Questionnaire............................................................................89

Information Letter..................................................................................................89

Dress Shape Preferences ........................................................................................91

Body Shape Identification....................................................................................103

Body Size Identification ......................................................................................104

Body Area Satisfaction Scale...............................................................................105

Demographics ......................................................................................................106

vii



 List of Tables

Table 1. Comparison of Industry Developed Body and Dress Shape Figures....................5

Table 2. Pilot Study Dress Preference Subscale Reliabilities...........................................49

Table 3. Sample Characteristics and Frequency Distribution...........................................50

Table 4. Actual/Ideal Body Shape Frequencies.................................................................52

Table 5. Main Study Scale Reliabilities.............................................................................54

Table 6. Mean Scores for Body Cathexis: A &H versus X & V ......................................55

Table 7. Analysis of Variance amongst Dress Shape Purchase Intention ........................57

Table 8. Analysis of Variance amongst Level of Comfort for Dress Shape.....................59

viii



 List of Figures

Figure 1. Body Shape Assessment Scale (BSAS©) .........................................................15


Figure 2. Bonnie August Body I.D. Scale ........................................................................17

Figure 3. Douty Body Build Scale....................................................................................18

Figure 4. FFIT Scale with modified FFIT stimuli based from original descriptions........21

Figure 5. Stunkard’s Obesity and Thinness Scale ............................................................22

Figure 6. Dress Silhouettes ...............................................................................................27

Figure 7. Physical dimension triad of the clothing comfort model...................................31

Figure 8. Social-psychological dimension triad of the clothing comfort model...............31

Figure 9. Conceptual model developed based on Sproles’ fashion adoption process

(1979) and Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) clothing comfort model ....................33

Figure 10. Interaction effect of Body Shape and Dress Shape on Purchase Intention .....57

Figure 11. Interaction effect of Body Shape and Dress Shape on Consumer’s Level of

Comfort .................................................................................................................59

ix



 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION

Complete satisfaction with an apparel purchase depends on the fulfillment of

several aspects of consumers’ design preferences. These design preferences may be a

direct result of an individual’s current figure or body shape, their ideal body shape, and

their feelings towards their body (Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006; Feather, Ford, & Herr,

1996; Kwon & Parham, 1994; Yoo, 2003). Kwon and Parham (1994) found that

consumers desire to camouflage their bodies as a direct result of negative feelings toward

their body. Yoo (2003) found that consumers with body shapes similar to the diamond-

shape preferred a loosely fitting jacket silhouette and suggested that these individuals

prefer to cover areas of their bodies that do not reflect the ideal proportions. Feather et

al.(1996) discovered that female athletes preferred more coverage on their lower bodies,

an area in which they indicated dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction, and particularly

consumers’ feelings towards their bodies, has been linked to low self-esteem (Striegel-

Moore & Franco, 2002). Clothing has been proposed as a tool for altering the perceptual

body, therefore altering the level of body satisfaction that an individual experiences

(Fiore & Kimle, 1997).

There was a gap in the literature about the interaction between body shape and

garment shape preferences of female consumers. Existing research has mostly addressed

the influence of body cathexis on design preferences. The few studies in which body

shape is addressed operationalize design preferences with respect to the garment

silhouette’s proximity to the body, and not the shape that the garment lends to the wearer,

which is the focus of the current study. The perceptual body shape may have an important

effect on an individual’s body cathexis. Body cathexis, a direct subset of body image,

1
may potentially be influenced by a number of factors including gender and cultural

background (Kaiser, 1997). Jourard and Secord’s (1955) research suggested that there

exists a standard for an ideal body against which women compare themselves. A

negative body cathexis may originate due to divergence between the actual body of an

individual and this ideal body (Higgins, 1987). Body cathexis also has a significant

influence on consumers’ comfort level with clothing and hence their garment selection

(Labat & DeLong, 1990). Another study suggested that the more negative an individual’s

feelings toward her body, the more likely she is to cover the body (Kwon & Parham,

1994).

Several body shape scales exist, creating many options when attempting to

uncover a female’s shape or desired shape. The actual and ideal body shape may be

categorized in different ways via the use of landmarks (Bookstein, 1991; Dryden &

Mardia, 1998). Landmarks are designated points along the two-dimensional (2-D)

silhouette that serve as common areas linking the different body shapes (Bookstein,

1991). Through the use of a process called shape recognition, grouping of shapes by

using existing classification segments, in combination with the aforementioned

landmarks, body shape classification may be achieved (Costa & Cesar, 2001).

Several studies (August, 1981; Connell, Ulrich, Brannon, Alexander & Presley,

2006; Douty, 1968; Simmons, Istook & Devarajan, 2002) have utilized landmarks to

discover the variability of the human body, specifically the female body. These studies

have suggested that differences at landmarks such as the waist, hip, bust, and shoulders

create different body shapes. For example, author Bonnie August (1981) suggests greater

2
deviation at a women’s shoulder landmark than at the hip landmark creates a shape

comparable to the alphabetical letter V, thus giving this shape the indicator V.

It has been proposed that clothing may provide individuals with a better method

of altering the perceptual body in efforts to obtain the ideal body (August, 1981).

Through the use of several garment silhouettes and the incorporation of various

combinations of design elements, women may achieve an alternate perceptual body shape

(Fiore & Kimle, 1997). However, the question that arises in this context is: whether or

not consumers’ dress shape preferences reflect perceptual balancing techniques for

different body types? No previous studies have examined consumer preferences in

relation to the perceptual balancing approach to achieve the ideal body shape.

Statement of Problem

Several past studies have shown varying body shapes exist amongst the vast

female population (August, 1981; Connell et al., 2006; Douty, 1968; Simmons, Istook, &

Devarajan, 2002). The relationship between these varying body shapes and clothing tend

to shape consumers’ overall buying decisions (Eckman, Damhorst, Kadolph, 1991). As a

result, consumers may use various styles to intentionally hide body areas perceived as

undesirable (Yoo, 2003). The apparel industry has recently taken notice of consumers’,

particularly women’s, use of clothing as a mechanism to obtain a desired shape. Several

retailers such as MyShape.com and Nordstrom.com have taken initiatives to provide their

customers with guidelines for obtaining ideal bodies through online suggestions of

different clothing styles and silhouettes for different body shapes.

With increasing competition and the full emergence of a consumer-driven market,

catering to the needs of consumers has become an essential step in creating and

3
maintaining profit for firms in the apparel industry. A review of online shopping and

fashion consulting sources revealed that online retailers are beginning to incorporate

several interactive categorization methods to help consumers easily find the garment they

are looking for (see Table 1). Four well-known retailers were found to have some form of

dress categorization that was either dress-oriented or body-oriented. The dress-oriented

category denotes that the items are categorized by characteristics of the actual dress. The

body-oriented category signifies that the items are categorized by the garments ability to

accentuate the particular body type to which it is assigned. Nordstrom’s online dress

shop provides consumers with a total of five body shape categories: straight, pear, apple,

hourglass, and full bust. The visual stimuli used included fashion illustrations, which

were partnered with short descriptions of the shape. MyShape.com provides online users

with seven body shape categories: M, Y, S, H, A, P, and E. The visual stimuli included

with these shapes were in the form of abstract line representations paired with shape

overview and a list of recommendations.

Though these scales represent good initiatives in the right direction, the industry

needs more concrete information about consumers’ garment shape preferences in order to

more accurately provide consumers with a relevant offering based on body shape. The

problem presented by this industry initiative is the lack of empirical research

documenting the relationship between body shape and female consumers’ garment shape

preferences. This lack of research-based evidence leaves designers within the industry

without a scientific basis for designing garments befitting consumers with different figure

types. By providing this actionable information, this study informs both future research

and industry practice by creating a greater foundation of knowledge when designing for

4
particular body shapes, consequently providing apparel researchers, merchandisers and

designers a means of giving consumers a more desirable product.

Table 1
Comparison of Industry Developed Body and Dress Shape Figures

Name Advantages Disadvantages Nature of Stimuli Shapes Dress

Silhouettes
Nordstrom Women that Consumers Fashion Straight, *Body-
identify with are expected illustrations Pear, oriented;
the chosen body to identify with short Apple, not dress
shape are given with a certain descriptions of Hourglass, oriented
a selection of shape rather shape included Full Bust
dresses to than
accentuate/de- including a
accentuate tool similar
different areas to MyShape's
to make the measurement
body appear to entry tool.
be more
balanced
between the
waist and hips
(hourglass).

My Shape Shape Shape M, *Body-

classification is Shape Y, oriented;
assigned via Shape S, not dress
measurement Shape H, oriented
entry rather Shape A,
than the Shape P,
consumer and Shape
choosing. Deep E
classification

Neiman None perceived. *Dress Sleeved or

Marcus oriented; Sleeveless
not body-
oriented

Bergdorf None perceived. Lack of None *Dress Sleeved,

Goodman variety in oriented; Strapless,
dress body- or
silhouettes oriented Sleeveless

5
 Purpose

The purpose of this research was the uncover the relationship between body shape

and dress shape preference in a sample of college students by utilizing a conceptual

framework combining Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) comfort model and Sprole’s

(1979) fashion adoption process. The combination of these two models was be utilized

as a mechanism to acquire the respondent’s level of comfort with and purchase intent for

dress shapes. Within this study, body shape and garment shape preferences were be

assessed among young consumers, not overlooking potential influences of ideal body

shape and body cathexis. Young consumers are said to be more fashion conscious, and

therefore provided this study with more relevant and useful information, in contrast to

other age groups (Chowdhary, 1989; Forsythe, Butler, & Kim, 1991).

In order to address the research problem discussed previously, this research aimed

to empirically examine the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: (Self-Identified) Actual body shape will have a main effect on body

cathexis. Specifically, X and V body shapes will demonstrate higher body

cathexis than A and H body shapes.

Hypothesis 2: (Self-Identified) Ideal body shape will moderate the effect of actual body

shape on body cathexis.

Hypothesis 3: Body shape will interact with dress shape to affect the overall purchase

intent for dresses among female consumers.

a: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as A and H will

demonstrate greater purchase intent for rectangular and wedge silhouettes

in dresses than female consumers with X and V.

6
 b: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as X and V will

demonstrate a greater purchase intent for A-line, bell, and hourglass

silhouettes in dresses than female consumers with A and H body shapes.

Hypothesis 4: Body shape will interact with dress shape to affect the level of comfort

with dresses for female consumers.

a: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as A and H will

demonstrate a higher level of comfort with rectangular and wedge

silhouettes in dresses than female consumers with X and V.

b: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as X and V will

demonstrate a higher level of comfort with A-line, bell, and hourglass

silhouettes in dresses than female consumers with A and H body shapes.

Hypothesis 5: Body cathexis will mediate the relationship between actual body shape

and level of comfort with dress shape.

Significance of the Study

Since body image is an important issue for female consumers, this research will

prove extremely useful to both academic scholarship on this topic and industry practice.

By addressing the current gap in research regarding consumers’ dress shape preferences,

this study will enable designers within industry to provide consumers with more accurate

tools for obtaining the desired perceptual body via clothing. The results of this research

will build knowledge of design preferences of female consumers as related to their

current body shapes. Existing research has been able to link individual’s body cathexis

and body size with design preferences, but few researchers have delved into body shape’s

influence on garment shape preferences. The study will also extend Branson and

7
Sweeney’s (1991) and Sproles’ (1979) models, since it specifies new applications and

relationships between variables arising from these models.

The results of this study will provide designers with the information needed to

more accurately provide the consumers with the garments they desire. This study will

build upon the existing knowledge regarding consumer design preferences, providing

dress designers with more information with respect to the collegiate age target market. As

a result of this, the apparel industry may benefit by reducing the percentage of product

returns, as the consumer is more likely to be satisfied with her purchase.

Definition of Terms

Actual Body Shape: the current shape and/or silhouette of the body.

Body Cathexis: one’s degree of satisfaction with his/her body (Kaiser, 1997).

Body Mass Index (BMI): “a number calculated from a person's weight and height.

Formula: weight (lb) / [height (in)]2 x 703” (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,

2011).

Clothing Comfort: “a state of satisfaction indicating physiological, social-psychological

and physical balance among a person, his/her clothing, and his/her environment”

(Branson & Sweeney, 1991, pg. 99).

Dress Shape: the outermost shape and silhouette of a dress and the perceptual shape it

lends the wearer.

Ideal Body Shape: the desired shape and/or silhouette of the body.

Landmarks: designated points along the body shape that serve as commonalities between

varying body shapes.

Ought body shape: the body shape an individual feels he/she ought to possess.

8
WTH Ratio: waist-to-hip ratio; the variation between the waist measurement and the hip

measurement.

9
CHAPTER II. BACKGROUND LITERATURE AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter will first provide an overview of the constructs addressed within this

study. It will also explain how the constructs are operationalized into the conceptual

framework based on Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) clothing comfort model and Sproles’

(1979) fashion adoption process. Hypothesis development constitutes the final section of

this chapter, where the relationships between the key constructs are examined, and

ensuing hypotheses are proposed.

Body Cathexis

Body cathexis is a concept that is closely related to body image, but more

specifically addresses the degree of satisfaction one has with his/her body (Kaiser, 1997).

This construct is described as multidimensional and complex (Kaiser, 1997). As

satisfaction with one’s body can be influenced by many different factors, such as cultural

ideals and gender, body cathexis can vary from body area to body area (Kaiser, 1997).

Jourard and Secord (1955) found body part size to be a predictor of body cathexis in men,

as males desired to possess larger body parts. They proposed that females evaluate their

present body by comparing it with the concept of an ideal body that is shared by most

women. The results of Jourard and Secord’s (1955) study regarding female body cathexis

suggested that a positive body cathexis is associated with possessing a relatively small

body frame, with exception to the bust area. Within their study, Jourard and Secord

(1955) also explored whether or not a shared ideal for body shape or size exists. The

researchers uncovered a small variability in ideal sizes, indicating the existence of a

standard ideal body frame (Jourard & Secord, 1955).

10
 Hwang (1996) defined body cathexis as a factor that aids in the formation of

clothing behavior and attitude towards clothing. Many consumers perceive an innate

problem with their body when their clothing fails to accentuate the body in a desired way.

However, quite often, these consumers neglect to realize that clothing needs to be

designed for the body and not vice versa. These consumers also frequently rely on

outside influences when shaping their ideal body. Bodies of female fashion models are

considered to represent the perfect figure, and women that fall short of those standards

are left with negative thoughts about their own bodies (Labat & DeLong, 1990). In

addition, individuals often have a perceived divergence in their ideal physical self and the

actual self (Kaiser, 1997). This divergence between the actual body shape/size and ideal

body shape/size means that the consumer has a desire to have a shape other than the one

she possesses. Notions of an ideal physical self are formed from elements of society and

standards of beauty to which the person has been exposed, and these often dictate the way

they view themselves. The socially accepted standard of an ideal body has been found to

create body image disturbances and contribute to negative body cathexis among women

(Cusumano & Thompson, 1997).

Actual weight, although important, may not play a major role in women’s feeling

about their bodies (Kwon & Parham, 1994). The results of Kwon and Parham’s (1994)

study regarding body perception and clothing practices indicated that women’s

perception of their weight rather than numerical weight had a heavier bearing on their

clothing practices. Their perception of personal physicality dictated whether garments

were to be used as camouflaging tools or to individualize oneself (Kwon & Parham,

1994). A study conducted by Singh (1994) to determine the role of waist to hip (WTH)

11
ratio in perceived female attractiveness concluded both male and female respondents

ranked attractiveness on the basis of WTH ratio measurements as opposed to apparent

body weight. This eludes to the fact that actual proportion is a higher standard of

attractiveness than weight. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that a woman may

workout to achieve an ideal weight but may still be dissatisfied with her body. However,

the results of Singh’s study have been contradicted by studies conducted by Tovee,

Reinhardt, Emery, and Cornelissen(1998), Tovee, Hancock, Mahmoodi, Singleton, and

Cernalissen(2002)and Tovee, Mason, and Cohen-Tovee (2003), who argue that Body

Mass Index (BMI) serves as a better predictor of body attractiveness than WTH. Another

study conducted by Harrison (2003) regarding mass media ideals and ideal body

proportions, concluded that women’s desire for a smaller figure, specifically smaller

waist and hips, increased on exposure to television images of the ideal body. These

results elude to the suggestion that mass media’s ideal body proportions are the source of

lower body cathexis amongst women; while also supporting both Singh’s and Tovee’s

suggestions that BMI and WTH ratio are integral to women’s satisfaction with their body.

Jourard and Secord (1955) found that none of the women in their study’s sample

possessed the measurements they (women) viewed to be ideal. Most women hold

themselves to a standard that may be unobtainable when body shape and size are taken

into account.

Body Shape

Previous research has concluded that body shape can have a significant influence

on one’s body cathexis and design preferences (Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006; Feather et

al., 1996; Yoo, 2003). Most research concerning body shape has focused on relating

12
body shape to psychological aspects of the consumer, as opposed to the physiological

aspects (Connell et al, 2006) or perceptual aspects. As a consequence, little is known

about the role of body shape in influencing general consumer practices guided by

perceptual analysis. Although a psychological aspect, namely body cathexis, is addressed

in the current study, the focus of the relationships tested was on the perceptual aspects of

the interaction between the body shape and apparel shape.

Studies conducted in the 1990s analyzed body shapes by appointing common

points called landmarks along the 2-D silhouettes of the body (Bookstein, 1991; Dryden

& Mardia, 1998). Landmarks aid shape analysis by presenting examiners with a basis to

compare body shapes by viewing them in an atomistic fashion. Atomistic refers to a

method dividing the body shape into portions or landmarks, which then can be compared.

Although the actual body is a three-dimensional (3-D) structure, 2-D silhouettes often

convey adequate information and allow the original object to be recognized (Costa &

Cesar, 2001). With a common base for shape inspection and analysis, a theory may be

applied. Mossiman’s (1988) theory suggests that two individuals of dissimilar sizes may

be categorized as possessing the same body shape. This shape-based categorization tries

to identify variations amongst multiple groups within the same overall division (Costa &

Cesar, 2001).

The challenge within female body shape classification is the vast range of

variability among female body shapes. This creates difficulty when attempting to

synthesize numerous body shapes into a few categories (Connell et al., 2006).

Costa and Cesar (2001) identified two aspects of attempting to classify shapes, the first

distinguishes whether input shape belongs to some specific predetermined group. This

13
process is called shape recognition. For example, a shape may resemble a triangle,

therefore it would be classified as a triangle. The second aspect is distinguishing the

shape category in a group of shapes that belong to a cluster of previously unclassified

shapes. This process is called clustering. For example, a group of shapes may not

resemble any preexisting figure, but within the collection, commonalities may exist

amongst shapes. Through these commonalities, shapes may be divided and grouped on

the basis of similarity in shape. Both methods involve shape comparison, which is

typically done by matching particular locations (landmarks) on the shape. The following

sections review various female body shape classification systems.

The Body Shape Assessment Scale

The Body Shape Assessment Scale (BSAS©) developed by Connellet al. (2006)

contains nine variants assessing frontal body shapes. This scale came about as a result of

the assessment of body scans derived from a sample of 42 women between the ages of 20

and 55, in combination with the review and revision of existing body scales. The results

of this analysis yielded four prominent frontal body shapes (see Figure 1) discussed

below. The BSAS© uses digitally illustrated female body silhouettes to represent each of

the four body shapes based on the following landmark locations to differentiate whole

body shapes: shoulder point to shoulder point, the frontal waistline, and the widest point

between the waist and crotch line, as seen from the front (Connell et al., 2006).

Hourglass: Shoulder and hip width are balanced with clearly defined to very

small waist in relation to shoulder and hip width.

Pear: Hip and thigh width visually greater than shoulder width.

Rectangle: Shoulder and hip width are balanced with little to no waist definition.

14
 Inverted Triangle: Shoulder width is visually greater than fullest width at hip.

The BSAS© encompasses a 5-step scale for each of the four included body

shapes, which makes the BSAS© an ordinal scale. Each step is given a numerical

representation, one being the first, smallest and thinnest version of the particular body

shape being referenced. For example, variation three of the hourglass body shape would

be the third thinnest hourglass body shape, respectively labeled H-3.

Figure 1. Body Shape Assessment Scale (BSAS©) (Connell et al., 2006).

Bonnie August’s Body I.D. Scale

Bonnie August’s Body I.D. (1981) scale contains eleven proportion designators

categorized into 3 different groups; front view width, side view width, and front view

15
length. These proportions are represented by alphabetic letters, which visually align with

the selected landmarks amongst the varying shapes of the body forms. August’s decision

to utilize the alphabet in contrast to shape names was influenced by the notion that certain

shape classifications may seem derogatory to women. These alphabetic representations

are A, X, H, V, W, Y, T, b, d, i, and r (see Figure 2). The design of this scale allows for

frontal categories to be combined with side view categories. The present study will only

concentrate on the front view width category of this scale (A, X, H, and V), as the other

elements of the scale are not applicable. The Body I.D. process provided by August

(1981) advises women to outline their bodies on a larger paper, then utilize the “squint

trick.” In this method, a viewer must squint to derive the dominant areas of the body

silhouette. Once the dominant areas are located, the observer may then assess the

dominant areas by comparing them to the Body I.D. stimuli (see Figure 2).

August’s (1981) scale is a nominal scale, as it does not contain a ranking. The

stimulus used in Bonnie August’s Body I.D. scale (1981) contains body silhouettes with

the appropriate alphabetic representation aligning with the landmark points of the body

shape. The landmarks used in the formation of this scale include shoulder points, natural

waistline, and widest hip point (Fiore & Kimle, 1997). This scale also uses the shape

recognition classification as a basis for grouping unidentified shapes.

16
Figure 2. Bonnie August Body I.D. Scale (August, 1981).

Douty’s Body Build Scale

Douty’s Body Build scale (Douty, 1968) proposes 5 alternatives in body build.

This scale is an ordinal scale as the body builds are ranked from smallest to largest, with

variations occurring in the waist, hips, thighs, arms, legs, bust, midriff, and abdomen (see

Figure 3). These points serve as the landmarks within this body build scale. The

stimulus used in Douty’s Body Build Scale includes frontal illustrations of female

silhouettes, which gradually increase in size (width, not length) as the numerical

representation increases on the scale.

17
Figure 3. Douty body build scale (Douty, 1968).

Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) for Apparel

The Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) scale (Simmons, 2002) was

derived via a method similar to that of the BSAS, the difference being the FFIT method

utilized circumferential measures as opposed to silhouette. Prior to utilizing a Textile and

Clothing Technology Corporation [TC]2 NX-12 3-D body scanner, researchers reviewed

the existing information regarding female body shape to find commonalities amongst the

data. Next, common body shapes were acquired from the existing information and

synthesized into five shapes: Triangle, which is defined by hips that exceed the shoulder

in width; inverted triangle, which is defined by shoulders that exceed the hips in width;

rectangle, which is described by a lack of deviation between shoulder, waist, and hip

widths; hourglass, which is characterized by equally wide shoulder and hip widths that

created a defined waistline; and oval, which is defined by a narrow top and bottom torso,

with a wide or full abdomen (Simmons, 2002)

18
 Once these five shapes were derived, they were assessed using the body scan data

of a sample of 222 women above the age of 18, in combination with mathematical criteria

that identified each body shape. The landmarks used in this assessment were bust, waist,

stomach, and abdomen circumferences. The results were that more body shape

categories were needed as many subjects failed to be categorized. To alleviate this

problem, four new categories were developed; these groups were labeled spoon,

diamond, bottom hourglass, and top hourglass, as they resembled the shapes of the object

after which they were named. Diverging away from the previously mentioned scales,

some body shapes within the FFIT scale utilize different combinations of landmarks

(Simmons, 2002) (see Figure 4):

Hourglass: appear to be proportional in bust and hip with a clearly defined waist.

This shape uses the bust, waist and hip as landmarks.

Bottom Hourglass: a function of the above mentioned hourglass shape, this shape

has a wider hip than bust, BUT maintains a clearly defined waist as the bust-to-

waist and hip-to-waist ratios are still sufficient enough to create the waist. This

shape also uses the bust, waist and hip as landmarks.

Top Hourglass: also a function of the hourglass shape, this shape has a larger

bust circumference in comparison to the hip, BUT maintains a clearly defined

waist. This shape also uses the bust, waist and hip as landmarks.

Spoon: the waist tapers from the bust creating a defined waistline, but the high

hip and hip spread outward create a greater hip-to-waist ratio. This shape uses the

bust, waist, hips, and high hips as landmarks.

19
Rectangle: the bust and hip measurements are nearly equal with low bust-to-

waist and waist-to-hip ratios failing to create a clearly defined waistline. This

shape uses the bust, waist, and hips as landmarks.

Diamond: this shape has large abdomen, waist and stomach values, which may

exceed or equal the value of the bust and hip measurements. This shape uses the

bust, waist, hips, and abdomen as landmarks.

Oval: the averaged measures from the stomach, waist, and abdomen are lower

than the bust, but higher or equal to the hip. This shape uses the bust, waist, hip,

stomach, and abdomen as landmarks.

Triangle: hips that are wider than the bust and a small hip-to-waist ratio

characterize this shape; bust-to-waist ratio is not considered, therefore this shape

differs from the bottom hourglass. This shape uses bust, waist, and hips as

landmarks.

Inverted Triangle: larger bust when compared to the hips, with a small bust-to-

waist ratio; hip-to-waist ratio is not considered, therefore this shape differs from

the top hourglass. This shape uses the bust, waist, and hips as landmarks.

20
Figure 4. Female Figure Identification Technique (FFIT) Scale (Simmons, 2002).

21
Stunkard’s Obesity and Thinness Scale

The Obesity and Thinness scale was developed by Stunkard, Sorenson, and

Schulsinger (1983). The scale’s visual stimuli encompasses males and females with nine

body type variations each, ranging from thin to obese, left to right respectively (see

Figure 5). This scale is an ordinal scale, as the stimuli are ranked by thinness/obesity and

this order must be maintained for the scale to remain effective. Shape recognition is used

as methodology for the utilization of this scale.

Figure 5. Stunkard’s Obesity and Thinness Scale (Stunkard et al, 1983, pg. 119)

22
 Interaction between Dress and Body Shape

Studies to determine the importance of garment aesthetics to the consumer’s

fashion adoption process have determined that aesthetic qualities transcend utilitarian

characteristics during the consumer’s point of purchase (Eckman et al., 1990). These

aesthetic attributes include the color, pattern, fabrication and styling (Eckman et al.,

1990; Fiore & Damhorst, 1992; Yoo, 2003). Styling includes garment shape, which is a

key variable in this study. Because styling is an element included in the aesthetic

qualities of a garment and garment shape is a consequence of styling, garment shape is an

integral factor in the clothing selection processes of consumers. Yoo’s (2003) study

regarding the design preferences of working females concluded that design components

within garments have an impact on the female consumer’s evaluation of the garment.

Although Yoo’s study and the current study share a common variable in garment shape or

silhouette, Yoo’s operational definition for silhouette differed from the definition used in

this study. Yoo’s study defined silhouette in terms of how closely the garment (jacket)

fits in proximity to the wearer’s body, thus how much it exposed the actual shape of the

wearer. This study defines silhouette as the shape that the garment (dress) actually has

and the shape it lends to the wearer.

It has been proposed that a visually pleasing garment must efficiently follow the

contours of the body, stressing the good points of the figure and masking the

imperfections (Green, 1978; McJimsey, 1963; Morton, 1964; Ryan & Phillips, 1947).

Researchers have proposed that garments provide consumers with a good method of

altering the perceived body to obtain an ideal proportion (Fiore and Kimle, 1997; Kwon

and Parham, 1990). The results of a study conducted to determine the effects of garment

23
shape manipulations on perceived body shape attractiveness suggested that clothing items

revealing the socially accepted contours of the female figure are considerably more

attractive than those that conceal the body (Green, 1978). Items such as close fitting tops,

bottoms that define the waistline and flared hem skirts received positive feedback (Green,

1978).

In Western cultures, the perfect form is typically one with balanced hips and

shoulders with a narrow waist, described as designator “X” by Bonnie August and

hourglass by BSAS© (Connell et al., 2006). Fiore and Kimle (1997) analyzed body

shape and proportion utilizing Bonnie August’s Body I.D. designators. These researchers

posited that proportion and size can be influenced by shifting emphasis via silhouette

manipulation. The silhouette may reach past the natural curves of the body, altering the

perceived size of the area.

Balancing Techniques

August (1981) recommends that women attempting to alter the perception of their

bodies should choose dress silhouettes that play up the desirable landmark points in their

bodies and hide the less desirable areas. Dress silhouettes, such as the following (see

Figure 6), may serve as a tool to alter the perceptions of body shape:

A-line: A garment that falls straight from shoulder in diagonals extending to hem.

There is no indentation at the waist.

Bell: Indented waist with full, gathered, or pleated skirt adding fullness in hip and

falling straight to the floor.

Tubular (Rectangular): Narrow, cylindrical form with little to no indentation for

waist or curve of bust or hip; falls from the shoulder to the floor.

24
 Wedge: Greater width in upper body than lower with diagonal and vertical line,

essentially creating a V-shape; opposite of the A-line.

Hourglass: Balanced or equal shoulder and hip with obvious waist indentation.

Using these dress shapes in combination with the body shape designators, Fiore

and Kimle (1997) suggested balancing techniques to serve as means to obtain the ideal

silhouette. Women with the designator A body shape may emphasize their upper torso

and/or increase shoulder width to effectively create a balanced silhouette. These women

may utilize the wedge and rectangular dress shapes to de-emphasize the hips and lower

torso, while simultaneously shifting focus to the shoulders and upper torso. The wedge

dress shape highlights the shoulders and upper torso, consequently overtaking emphasis

on the hips and lower torso. The rectangular dress shape stresses no particular area of the

body, therefore detracting from the prominent hip and lower torso of the A body shape.

Those with the designator V body shape may emphasize the lower body or

increase hip width, balancing the shoulder with the lower torso. This focus diversion

may be achieved by applying the A-line, hourglass, or bell dress shapes. These dress

shapes will visually alter the proportions of the body, transferring focus from the

dominant shoulders and upper body to the hips and lower body. The A-line dress shape

places emphasis on the hips and lower body and enhances visual weight at the hemline,

thus balancing the wider shoulder. The hourglass silhouette places recognition on the

waist and hip, diverting attention to the lower torso, thus createing the illusion of a

balanced body shape. The bell dress shape places attention on the waist and creates

fullness at lower body, making the shoulders of the V body shape less apparent and

creating a more balanced look.

25
 Females categorized as designator X body shape may simply accentuate their

current waistline, as they already have a balanced frame. These women may gravitate

towards silhouettes that emphasize their current waistline; these dress shapes include the

hourglass and bell shapes. These two dress shapes accentuate the narrow waistline and

emphasize its divergence from the upper and lower torso.

Women with type H body shape may draw attention away from the waist while

adding emphasis to the upper and lower torso. As a consequence, these women may

avoid wearing dresses with the hourglass and bell shapes that emphasize the waist.

Similar to those females with body designator A, women with body shapes categorized as

designator H may utilize the rectangular and wedge to achieve perceptually balanced

proportions that de-emphasize the waist. The rectangular dress shape places no emphasis

on the H waistline. The wedge dress shape highlights the shoulder and upper lower of

the body while synchronously distracting from the waist. The aforementioned

suggestions are methods to achieve a perceptually balanced appearance through a

combined strategy of accentuating desirable attributes and de-emphasizing less desirable

attributes of the body (Fiore & Kimle, 1997).

The above discussion reveals similarities in the balancing techniques applied to

the A& H body shapes and X & V body shapes. The A and H body shapes were grouped

together due to similar suggestions for the use of the rectangular and wedge dress shapes

to de-emphasize the waist consequently obtain balanced proportions. The X and V body

shapes were clustered due to recommendations leading to the use the A-line, bell, and

hourglass dress shapes to create balanced emphasis. Also, as a result of the congruencies

in dress shape mechanisms, the A-line, hourglass, and bell dress shapes were grouped

26
together and the rectangular and wedge dress shapes grouped together; thus creating two

groups of body shapes and two groups of dress shapes.

Figure 6. Dress Silhouettes (Fiore & Kimle, 1997, pg 144).

27
 Conceptual Framework

Sproles’ Fashion Adoption Process

The consumer decision process is extremely important when discussing product

preference, regardless of the product’s genre. Sproles (1979) proposed a fashion adoption

process model that incorporated the following three variables: pre-existing conditions,

directing influences, and the channel of decision.

Pre-existing conditions. Sproles (1979) describes preexisting conditions as

variables that exist prior to the start of the fashion adoption process. Three elements are

described within this portion of the model, style of dress, current level of acceptance of

style, and identity of the potential adopter. Style of dress addresses the actually styling,

characteristics, and design of the fashion item. Current level of acceptance of style

describes how well the item is accepted into the adopter’s social environment. Identity of

the potential adopter denotes the characteristics of the actual adopter at hand.

Directing influences. The Consumer’s Fashion Adoption Process (Sproles, 1979)

describes directing influences as conditions and situations that have influence over a

consumer’s behavior. The three variables that compose this construct include

environment, motivations, and communication. Environment is described as the

lifestyles, social change, and fashion marketing to which the potential adopter is exposed.

Sproles described motivations as the reasons that support a consumer’s tastes as far as

clothing and clothing adoption are concerned. Communication is explained as the outside

factor that directly influences the opinions and processes of the consumer; environment is

an indirect influence on the consumers and their processes.

28
 The channel of decision. All the elements from the preexisting conditions and

directing influences are incorporated into the channel of decision portion of the model.

This channel of decision incorporates several steps:

1. Awareness – exposure to the existing fashion and/or style of dress.

2. Interest – attraction to a particular fashion based on the identity of the potential

adaptor.

3. Evaluation – analysis of the possible advantages and disadvantages of adoptions

the style of dress.

4. Information search on alternatives (if evaluations are favorable) – the pros and

cons of adopting alternate fashion are assessed to find out whether there is a more

beneficial style than the one evaluated in the previous step.

5. Rejection or adoption - the evaluated fashion is either adopted or rejected.

The variables found within preexisting conditions and directing influences aid the adopter

with grounds to make decisions. This channel of decision makes the ultimate verdict on

the selection of a fashion (Sproles, 1979).

Clothing Comfort Model

Consumer’s comfort with clothing items is another factor that heavily influences

product preference (Labat & DeLong, 1990). Branson and Sweeney (1991)

conceptualize comfort as “a state of satisfaction indicating physiological, social-

psychological and physical balance among a person, his/her clothing, and his/her

environment” (p. 99). These researchers proposed a model for clothing comfort which

includes a triad of person, clothing, and environment attributes, which are split into two

dimensions: physical and social psychological dimension triad. Each attribute category

29
contains characteristics that apply to its subheading (See Figures 7 and 8). The physical

dimension variables are those that are measureable, such as core and skin temperatures;

most of these variables can be manipulated to observe changes. The physical triad

variable may be described by sex, age, weight, height, physical condition, activity and

exposed surface area. The social-psychological dimension variables are less apparent;

the person attributes found within this category may be depicted as background

characteristics that influence the entirety of the individual and their decisions, such as

body image and cathexis. Environment attributes are described as intangible incentives

that influence the perceptual/physiological response and eventually comfort judgments,

such as the cultural norms to which an individual is accustomed.

The third component of Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) comfort model is the

physiological/perceptual response of the consumer to a given set of attributes from the

physical and social-psychological dimension triads. Physiological responses are typically

measured and include temperature, sweat rate, heart rate, and oxygen consumption.

Perceptual responses encompass the wearer’s perceived temperature, thermal comfort,

and tactile sensations. Consumer’s attitude towards dress shape is included in the

perceptual response component of the comfort model, as attitude is the inclination of the

psyche to react to circumstances at hand (Jung, 1923).

Once the physiological and perceptual responses of the body and mind are

addressed, a processing period labeled as the filtering process occurs. This process

includes several factors such as past experiences, and expectations, which influence the

consumers’ resultant comfort judgment for the garment. Past experiences may be

relevant to any one or combination of the attributes found within the physical and social

30
psychological triad dimensions (Branson & Sweeney, 1991). The filtering process results

in the final component of the Clothing Comfort Model, comfort or overall judgment.

Figure 7. Physical dimension triad of the clothing comfort model (Branson & Sweeney,
1991, p. 102).

Figure 8. Social-psychological dimension triad of the clothing comfort model (Branson

& Sweeney, 1991, p. 102).

31
Proposed Conceptual Model

As this study assesses both clothing comfort, and fashion adoption, a combination

of the aforementioned Clothing Comfort Model (Branson & Sweeney, 1991) and Sproles’

Fashion Adoption Model (1979) must be utilized to create the proposed conceptual model

(See Figure 9). Within this proposed model, the variables addressed in this study are

categorized into one of the three groupings within Sproles’ framework (1979), while

simultaneously incorporating the variables from the comfort model (Branson & Sweeney,

1991). An adopter’s actual body shape is placed into preexisting conditions group of the

Fashion Adoption Process (Sproles, 1979), as well as the person attributes found within

the physical dimension triad of the Clothing Comfort Model (Branson & Sweeney, 1991).

In relation to Sprole’s Clothing Comfort Model (1979), ideal body shape is categorized as

a motive, therefore a directing influence. This classification comes as a consequence of

consumer’s use of fashion as a gateway to achieve their ideal body shape (Fiore & Kimle,

1997). Ideal body shape, in combination with the adopter’s body cathexis, is, for that

reason, to be classified within the person attributes portion of the social psychological

section of the comfort model (Branson & Sweeney, 1991), as these variables are

embedded in the psyche of an individual (see Figure 9).

The filtering process found within the Clothing Comfort Model (Branson &

Sweeney, 1971) is similar to the channel of decision of the Sproles’ (1979) model in that

both of these processes result in a final decision. For the purposes of this research, the

final outcome of fashion adoption or rejection is operationalized by dress shape purchase

intent; and the final outcome of comfort determination is operationalized by level of

comfort with dress shape. Purchase intent for and level of comfort with dress shapes are

32
 to be classified as preference judgments and form final decision segment of the proposed

model (See Figure 9).

Figure 9. Conceptual model developed based on Sproles’ fashion adoption process (1979) and
Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) clothing comfort model.

33
 Hypothesis Development

Body Shape and Body Cathexis

Body image concerns are much more likely to occur among females than males

(Striefel-Moore & Franko, 2002). Women constantly feel the pressure to modify their

current body shape and weight to coincide with the culturally ideal body (Grogan, 1999).

Women have responded to these pressures by enduring painful procedures, such as

wearing restrictive corsets, undergoing foot-binding, and, in modern society,

withstanding plastic surgeries to uphold these demands set by culture (Grogan, 1999).

The bases of these procedures are to change the overall perception of the female body,

which indicates dissatisfaction with the body. Inconsistencies between an individual’s

actual body and their ideal body may result in discomfort with the self (Higgins, 1987),

and this discomfort may be indicative of a negative body cathexis.

The self-discrepancy theory describes three selves that are relevant to this study:

(1) the actual self, which is an individual’s representation of the combined characteristics

that he or she (or another) actually believes they possess, (2) the ideal self, which is

symbolic of the characteristic an individual desires to possess, and (3) the ought self,

which is described as the qualities individual perceive that they should possess. In this

study, the actual and ideal body shapes would be examples of the actual and ideal selves

respectively. Discrepancy occurs when there is a difference between the actual self and

the ideal and/or ought self. A study conducted by Davis (1985) found that 78% of the 91

student sample indicated some discrepancy between their perceived body build and their

ideal body build; 87.5% of aforesaid percentage indicated their ideal as being more slim

than the actual. In addition, those respondents who perceived discrepancy had a lower

34
body cathexis score than those respondents who perceived no discrepancy, thus

supporting the assumption that actual-ideal body discrepancies create dissatisfaction with

the body (Davis, 1985).

Jourard and Secord (1955) suggested that a cultural standard of female body

guides body cathexis. Therefore, it is assumed that there exists an ideal body shape

against which female body shape attractiveness is rated. Researcher Harrison (2003)

found that women exposed to the cultural ideals via television images desired to be

thinner and possess smaller waist and hip measurements but at the same time wanted a

significantly larger bust. This conclusion by Harrison (2003) is in agreement with results

found by Jourard and Secord (1955) who found that higher body cathexis scores were

associated with a relatively body small frame but large bust size. These conclusions

indicate that it is desirable to possess an upper torso measurement that is significantly

larger than the waist measurement. Another study regarding body attractiveness held by

Douty and Brannon (1984) found body shapes with smooth, uninterrupted contours and

an absence of lumps received higher rankings in regards to figure attractiveness.

Asymmetry, in regards to body silhouette, was associated with lower attractiveness

ratings. This overall admiration for body symmetry implies that the cultural standard for

female body shape is one that is proportional. Body figures with prominent abdomens

also received lower ratings, as respondents within the study seemed to disapprove of

noticeable stomach regions that interrupt the body’ symmetry. An additional study

conducted by Singh (1994) found that both male and female respondents ranked figures

with low waist to hip ratios, figures with smaller waists than hips, more attractive than

those with high waist to hip ratios. Being that the aforementioned studies suggested that

35
small hip measurements as desirable, the results from Singh’s (1994) study indicate that

society idealizes a body shape with relatively small hips and an even smaller waistline.

Another researcher, Tovee (2000), contradicted Singh’s (1994) findings by

suggesting that figure attractiveness was a function of BMI, and not waist to hip ratio.

Tovee’s (2000) results affirmed his predictions, concluding that high attractiveness

ratings were associated with low BMI scores. These results support the notion that the

culturally ideal female body is one that has low fat. Another study suggests that apart

from low body fat being the cultural ideal, women are also progressively moving towards

a more muscularly toned standard for the body (Krane, Waldron, Michalenok & Stiles-

Shipley, 2001). Respondents state that ideally they would desire to be toned, rather than

extremely muscular or skinny. Results from this study suggest that a body with muscle

tone combined with the absence of fat is emerging as an ideal body amongst women.

These results, in conjunction with previously mentioned results from other studies,

suggest that the ideal body shape is physically fit and absent of fat, therefore implying

that the V or the athletic ideal is also desirable among both younger and older women.

Collectively all these studies suggest that western culture idealizes a body that is

moderately thin, physically fit, and yet proportional. The X body shape aligns with

women’s desire for a small waist with symmetrical proportions. The V body shape

satisfies women’s want for muscle tone, as this body shape is associated with physical

fitness. Given the combination of the aforementioned literature, the following is

hypothesized:

36
 Hypothesis 1: (Self-Identified) Actual body shape will have a main effect on

body cathexis. Specifically, X and V body shapes will demonstrate

higher body cathexis than A and H body shapes.

Hypothesis 2: (Self-Identified) Ideal body shape will moderate the effect of

actual body shape on body cathexis.

Body Shape and Dress Shape Preferences

The perception of the body can be altered by the use of clothing (Featheret al.,

1996). Researcher Yoo (2003), while conducting a study concerning the design

preferences of working females, concluded that jacket silhouette preferences were

dependent on figure type. These results indicated that although the majority of

respondents preferred fitted or semi-fitted garments, women who tended to classify

themselves as diamond shaped preferred a loosely-fitted silhouette (Yoo, 2003). Yoo’s

(2003) study also indicated that silhouette wasn’t the only design element influenced by

figure. Collar style and neckline drop also interact with figure type in influencing design

preferences. Yoo concluded that when obtaining consumers’ design preferences, the

relationship between the garment and body form must be addressed.

In addition to altering the perception of the body, clothing may also serve as a tool

for improving the wearer’s body perception (Featheret al., 1996). In a study conducted

by Feather, et al. (1996) regarding the fit of female collegiate basketball players, it was

shown that the larger an athlete’s body, the more likely it was that the individual would

prefer baggy shorts, implying a definite relationship between the body and design

preference. Along similar lines, Chattaraman and Rudd (2006) found that body size has a

positive association with body coverage through clothing. The study specifically found

37
that increase in body size correlates with increased preferences for longer top lengths,

less fitted top silhouettes, longer skirt lengths, less fitted skirts and pant silhouettes, and

higher skirt and pant waists. These results suggest that the size of a female’s body

predicts her preferences for clothing silhouettes.

As discussed in the earlier section, Fiore and Kimle (1997) have compiled a list of

balancing techniques for women of varying shapes attempting to obtain a balanced

perceptual figure. Fiore and Kimle also propose that basic dress silhouettes that may be

used as a mechanism to achieve balanced proportions. Women with body shapes similar

to the figures designated A and H may achieve perceptual balance by wearing wedge and

rectangular dress shapes. These dress shapes balance the wider lower torso of the A body

shape and de-emphasize the lack of waist definition in the H body shape. Women with

body shapes matching figures designated X and V may appear more balanced by wearing

A-line, hourglass, and bell dress shapes. These dress shapes balance the wider shoulders

of the V shape and accentuate the small waist of the X shape. Based on the above

discussion, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Hypothesis 3: Body shape will interact with dress shape to affect the overall purchase

intent for dresses among female consumers.

a: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as A and H will

demonstrate greater purchase intent for rectangular and wedge silhouettes

in dresses than female consumers with X and V.

b: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as X and V will

demonstrate a greater purchase intent for A-line, bell, and hourglass

silhouettes in dresses than female consumers with A and H body shapes.

38
Hypothesis 4: Body shape will interact with dress shape to affect the level of comfort

with dresses among female consumers.

a: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as A and H will

demonstrate a higher level of comfort with Rectangular and Wedge

silhouettes in dresses than female consumers with X and V.

b: Female consumers with body shapes categorized as X and V will demonstrate a

higher level of comfort with A-line, bell, and hourglass silhouettes in dresses than female

consumers with A and H body shapes.

Body Cathexis and Dress Shape Preferences

According to Kaiser (1997), body cathexis plays an important role in an

individual’s attitude towards clothing and clothing preferences. A higher body cathexis

is associated with a higher satisfaction with the fit of garments among female consumers

(Labat & Delong, 1990). The failure of clothing to accentuate the body in the desired

manner may lead to a negative body cathexis. Dissatisfaction may become a determinant

of garment comfort and adoption. Researchers have suggested that clothing may

counteract one’s dissatisfaction with the body and increase self-esteem (Hwang, 1996;

Kaiser, 1997).

Kwon and Parham (1994) found that the higher a woman’s satisfaction with her

weight, the more likely she would be to purchase clothing for purpose of being different

in comparison to others. This implies that the more comfortable a woman is with herself,

the more she desires to stand out. Kwon and Parham found that in both perceived states

of fat and slender, women purchase clothing with the underlying purpose of

camouflaging undesirable parts of their bodies. Not only do consumers desire their

39
clothing to accentuate elements of the body about which they feel confident about,

consumers also want garments to cover any parts they may consider undesirable.

Another study revealed similar findings in that consumers showed preferences for styles

that complement their figure and hid flaws (Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006). Chattaraman

and Rudd (2006) found that individuals with lower body image and satisfaction levels

preferred more body coverage and less fitted garment silhouettes. These results

coincided with the outcome of Kwon and Parham’s research (1994), which concluded

that when women felt they were overweight and were less confident in regards to their

bodies, clothing’s most important function became camouflaging sites that were

perceived to be undesirable.

Hwang (1996) found that females dissatisfied with their torso, lower body, and

weight desired figure flaw compensation via clothing. This may be a result of

overarching pressures for the body to coincide with society’s standard female figure,

which has been confirmed by several studies (Cohn & Adler, 1992; Douty & Brannon,

1984; Jeroud and Secord, 1955; Singh, 1994). Hwang’s results also showed that when a

woman possesses a high body cathexis, she prefers clothing that accentuates the waist

and hip areas. Women’s comfort level with closely fitted garments also rises when her

body cathexis is high (Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006; Hwang, 1996; Kwon & Parham,

1994). Hence, when a woman’s body meets the social standard of society and/or personal

standard, her tendency to wear accentuating garments rises. In contrast, when a woman’s

body fails to meet these standards, she desires to camouflage her body. This leads to the

following hypothesis:

40
Hypothesis 5: Body cathexis mediates the relationship between actual body shape

and level of comfort with the A-line, bell, hourglass, wedge, and rectangular dress

shapes.

41
 CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY

There were several variables utilized in this study. Actual body shape, ideal body

shape, and dress shape served as the independent variables. Body cathexis served as a

dependent and mediating variable. Purchase intention for and level of comfort with dress

shapes served as the dependent variables. The data elicitation for this research took place

via survey research in quantitative form. This information was then investigated using

quantitative data analysis. The following chapter will outline and discuss the scales used

to assess the previously mentioned variables. Once the scales are explained, the data

analysis plan is reviewed.

Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted to check the face validity of the body shape and

dress shape stimuli and also to check the reliability of the purchase intention and comfort

scale items when used in combination with digitally developed dress shape stimuli. A

convenience sample of respondents was recruited by contacting professors and visiting

classes within the College of Human Sciences and offering extra credit in the class, in

addition to entry in drawing for a $50 gift certificate to a local eatery for participating in

the study. Students were given a brief verbal introduction about the study and its

intentions, which was followed-up by an information email containing a link to the

questionnaire. Students opting not to participate or not qualifying for participation in the

study were given an alternative means to gain extra credit chosen by the instructor.

The pilot study utilized a questionnaire containing existing scales that had already

been proven reliable and valid; however, these scales were modified for the purposes of

this study and paired with developed stimuli. This pilot study questionnaire administered

42
was shorter in length when compared to the main study questionnaire and included the

following scales (See Appendix A): a) Cash’s (2000) Body Area Satisfaction Subscale

(BASS) to assess the respondents body cathexis, b) current actual and ideal body shape

indication scale using August’s (1981) Body I.D. as stimuli, and c) dress shape

preference scale which used a synthesis of Kim and Lennon’s (2000) purchase intent

scale and three clothing comfort items from Beaudoin, Moore, and Goldsmith’s (1998)

consumer attitude attributes to measure preferences for the five dress shapes (A-line, bell,

tubular, wedge, and hourglass) displayed as fashion illustrations on identical croqui

figures. The pilot study was used to assess the face validity of certain items via open-

ended questions, as well as to derive the reliabilities of scale items using Cronbach’s

alpha coefficient.

Suggestions for the dress shape stimuli (fashion illustrations) via the open-ended

responses were taken into consideration and addressed in revising the stimuli for the main

study. Based on the open-ended responses, further exaggerations were made to the dress

silhouettes to increase the perceptual differences amongst the five dress shapes. Also, in

addition to providing respondents with fashion illustrations of the dresses, the main study

included a separate flat drawing of each dress shape in order to increase respondents’

comprehension of each dress shape. Photographic stimuli representing each dress shape

on actual models were also included in the main study in addition to the digitally

illustrated stimuli. These photos were controlled for color across dress shapes but not

styling.

43
 Main Study

Sample

After receiving consent from the Institutional Review Board (IRB Protocol # 10-

164), the pilot and main study were conducted. A random sample of female

undergraduate students enrolled in classes within in the College of Human Sciences was

recruited for these studies. Students were only recruited after the professors authorized

recruitment in the classes. First, a brief verbal introduction to the study was administered

in the classes. Following this introduction, the link to the online questionnaire was sent

to every female student within the classes. Only female students were recruited since this

study aimed to discover the body and dress shape preferences of female consumers.

Procedure

The sample of respondents utilized in this study was obtained through a

recruitment email containing a link to the online survey. As an incentive to participate,

these students were offered the opportunity to be included in a random drawing for a

brand new Apple Ipod Touch. Participants’ identity was protected by providing the

respondents with a link for the questionnaire and then, subsequent to the final item, a

separate link for entering the random drawing. This separate link ensured that

respondents’ questionnaire responses were not tied to any personal information needed

for the Ipod drawing.

44
 Instrumentation

Body Cathexis Scale

The instrumentation used in this research included a questionnaire with a

combination of scales. Female consumers’ degree of body cathexis was measured

through the Body Areas Satisfaction Subscale (BASS) developed by Thomas Cash

(2000). This scale was used as is, but also included four additional areas (bust, shoulders,

waist, and hips) pertaining directly to female body shape (see AppendixB). Using the

given items, respondents were instructed to indicate the most appropriate degree of

feelings toward the body area via a 5-point Likert-type scale with “1” = “Very

Dissatisfied” and “5” = “Very Satisfied”. The reliability of this scale was previously

established specifically for use with female respondents via Cronbach’s alpha and a one

month test-retest (Cash, 2000). The resulting values were .73 and .74 respectively. The

validity of this scale as a research instrument has been established by its use in multiple

previous studies (Arbour & Ginis, 2006; Friedman, Reichmann, Costanzo, & Musante,

2002; Gillen & Lefkowitz, 2006).

Body Shape Scale

Respondents’ self-identified actual and ideal body shape were measured utilizing

a short questionnaire containing the front width portion of the Bonnie August’s Body I.D.

scale (1981), A, H, V and X, as visual stimuli for assessing the respondents’ self-

perceived body shape. The A and H body shape were paired together, as well as the X

and V body shapes together, because of similarities among balancing techniques. The

scale was chosen since the stimuli provided the viewer with information via the

landmarks, which are visually marked on the stimuli. Within this scale, respondents were

45
given four images derived from the Body I.D. (see AppendixB), which were labeled

alphabetically as found in the original scale. The respondents were directed to select the

letter that denoted the appropriate body shape that reflected their actual and ideal bodies.

The face validity of this scale was addressed using open-ended questions following the

body shape items in a pilot study. The open-ended responses showed that pilot study

participants found no difficulties with the body shape identification scale and its’ stimuli.

Dress Shape Preferences

Respondents’ dress shape preference was measured using a combination of previously

developed scales and stimuli developed by the author. This scale contained items which

measured for purchase intent and comfort level with dress shape. Two previously used

scales were used in combination with digitally illustrated and photographic visual stimuli.

The illustrated stimuli were manipulated to reflect dress shapes in a single color, utilizing

the same model, to ensure internal validity, (see Appendix B). The varying garment

shapes were based on Fiore and Kimle’s (1997) dress silhouette categories, which include

the following silhouettes (shapes): A-line, bell, tubular, wedge, and hourglass. The first

was a digitally rendered fashion figure draped in each dress shape, which was paired with

the second representation of the dress shape, a corresponding digitally rendered flat

drawing of the dress shape. The third portrayal of the dress shape stimuli was an actual

photographic representation of each dress shape. Respondents separately viewed five

dress shape stimuli, each time indicating their preference for the shape via purchase intent

and level of comfort items.

46
Purchase Intention

Purchase intent was assessed using an adapted version of Kim and Lennon’s

(2000) purchase intention scale (see Appendix B). For example, an original measure that

reads “How likely is it that you will buy the apparel item you viewed today in the next 12

months?” (Kim & Lennon, 2000, p. 315) was modified to read “How likely is it that you

will buy the dress you viewed above in the next 12 months?” The items were rated on a

5-point Likert scale anchored by “1” = “Very Unlikely” and “5” = “Very Likely,” which

respondents used to indicate their level of purchase intent. The internal consistency

reliability of Kim and Lennon’s (2000) scale has been established as .90 via Cronbach’s

alpha coefficient testing. The validity of this scale has also previously been established

in several studies (Kim & Lennon, 2000; Kim, Kim, & Lennon, 2006; Park, Lennon, &

Stoel, 2005; Park & Stoel, 2005).

Comfort level

Respondents’ level of comfort was addressed via the “comfort” and “fit”

attributes found within Beaudoin et al.(1998) original twelve consumer attitude attributes.

A third attribute, “fashionable,” was utilized within the questionnaire, but this single item

was used strictly as a potential covariate. The “comfort” and “fit”attributes were placed

into statements addressing the respondent’s comfort level with the relevant stimulus such

as “this dress shape will fit my body well” and “this dress shape will be comfortable on

my body.” The reliability of these attributes has been previously established via the use

of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient in the original study and is as follows, .93 for domestic

apparel and .95 for imported apparel (et al., 1998). The final section of the questionnaire

47
contained a demographics section (age, race/ethnicity, education level, height, weight and

marital status).

Data Analysis

After all the responses from the data collection were received, the data were

analyzed. The independent variables in this study were two levels of actual and ideal

body shape (A and H; X and V). The dependent variables in this study were body

cathexis, purchase intent for the five dress shapes, and comfort level with the five dress

shapes. Prior to conducting analyses to accept or reject the hypotheses, descriptive

statistics were calculated to uncover the demographic characteristics of respondents.

Reliability analyses were then run to ensure that all scales had adequate reliability.

Hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested using one-way and two-way ANOVAs respectively.

Hypotheses 3, 3a, 3b, 4, 4a, and 4b were tested using repeated measures ANOVAs.

Baron and Kenny’s (1986) meditational analysis was used to test Hypothesis 5.

48
 CHAPTER IV. RESULTS

The main objective of this study was to examine the relationship between body

shape and dress shape preferences of female consumers. The data collection process of

this research included a pilot study, and then the a main study. The main purpose of the

pilot study was to affirm the reliabilities of the measures used and assure the face

validities of the stimuli used in conjunction with the scales’ items. From the main study

data, descriptive information was analyzed to determine frequencies; then the reliabilities

of the main study scales were tested. Following this, one-way, two-way, and repeated

measures ANOVA analyses were used, when appropriate, to assess the relationships

between the dependent and independent variables. The following sections will discuss, in

order, results from the pilot study, the descriptive data results from the main study;

followed by results from the hypotheses testing, and finally the results from additional

analyses.

Pilot Study

A total of 35 of 55 students completed the pilot study questionnaire yielding a

64% response rate. Of the 35 complete questionnaires, 3 were discarded as a result of

insufficient item responses (50% or more of the questionnaire was not completed). The

pilot study displayed that the reliability of both the comfort and purchase intention scales

were more than .70 (see Table 2).

Table 2

Pilot Study Dress Preference Subscale Reliabilities

Scale Reliability – Cronbach’s Alpha

A-line (1) Bell (2) Hourglass (3) Wedge (4) Rectangular (5)
Comfort 0.83 0.91 0.90 0.85 0.87
Purchase Intent 0.91 0.97 0.97 1.00 0.99

49
 Main Study

A total of 240 submitted questionnaires were received. Of these, 203 were valid;

the remaining 37 questionnaires were deleted because 50% or more of the questionnaire

was incomplete. Qualifying data was entered into the PASW Statistics 18 software for

analysis. Frequencies and means were used to derive the demographic characteristics of

the respondents. The bulk of the respondents were undergraduate students (97.1%)

followed by other technical or professional workers (1.9%) and graduate students (1.0%).

The mean age was 21. Since the study took place on a predominantly Caucasian campus,

the diversity in terms of ethnicity wasn’t very high: 88.6% of respondents identified

themselves as Caucasian, 4.8% Non-Hispanic Black, 3.3% Hispanic, 1.4% Pacific

Islander, and 1.4% other. The marital status of respondents was as follows: 93.3% were

single and never married; 4.3% were married; 1.4% were divorced, and .5% were

separated. Other relevant details of the sample are provided in Table 3.

Table 3

Sample Characteristics and Frequency Distributions

Characteristic
Age (N= 198) n % Mean
19-21 158 79.8%
22-24 33 16.7%
25 and older 7 3.5% 21

Ethnicity (N= 209) n %

Non-Hispanic White 186 89.0%
Non-Hispanic Black 10 4.8%
Hispanic 7 3.3%
Asian/Pacific Islander 3 1.4%
Native American/Alaska Native 0 0.0%
Other 3 1.4%

50
Marital Status (N= 209)
Single and Never Married 196 93.8%
Married 9 4.3%
Separated 1 0.5%
Divorced 3 1.4%
Widowed 0 0.0%

Occupation (N= 208)

Undergraduate Student 202 97.1%
Graduate Student 2 1.0%
Other Professional or Technical 4 1.9%

Annual Income (N= 204)

UNDER $5,000 41 20.1%
$5,000 TO $24,999 24 11.8%
$25,000 TO $69,999 18 8.8%
$70,000 TO 124,999 52 25.5%
$125,000 AND OVER 69 33.8%

Amount Spent on Gen. Clothing Monthly (N= 207)

0-50 62 30.0%
50-100 61 29.5%
100-150 42 20.3%
150-200 22 10.6%
Over 200 20 9.7%

Amount Spent on Dresses Yearly (N= 209)

0-300 107 51.2%
300-700 57 27.3%
700 AND OVER 45 21.5%

General Shopping Frequency (N= 209)

At least once a week 42 20.1%
Two or three times a month 82 39.2%
Once in a month or two 63 30.1%
Once in three or four months 18 8.6%
Twice a year 1 0.5%
Once a year 3 1.4%
Never 0 0.0%
Dress Shopping Frequency (N= 208)
At least once a week 17 8.2%
Two or three times a month 55 26.4%

51
 Once in a month or two 63 30.3%
Once in three or four months 51 24.5%
Twice a year 14 6.7%
Once a year 6 2.9%
Never 2 1.0%

Weight (N= 210) Mean

100-125 lbs. 72 34.3% 131.4 lbs
125-150 lbs. 91 43.3%
150 and over lbs. 42 20.0%
Answer Withheld 5 2.4%

Height (N= 210)

4' 10" - 5'3" 59 28.1%
5' 4" - 5' 8" 125 59.5%
5' 9" - 6' 5" 26 12.4% 5’5”

Additional frequency analyses were run to uncover the most preferred body

shapes among respondents. Results declared the X body shape as the most ideal body

shape, accounting for 56.5% of all responses, and the V body shape as the second most

ideal, accounting for 25.6% of all responses. Additional frequencies were run to

determine which actual body shape was most prevalent amongst respondents. The

outcome of these frequencies acknowledged the X body shape as the most prevalent body

shape, accounting for 38.8% of the responses. See Table 4 for additional percentages and

details relating to actual and ideal body shape.

52
Table 4

Actual/Ideal Body Shape Frequencies

Actual Body Shape Ideal Body Shape

Body Shape
n % n %

A 54 25.8% 13 6.3%

H 42 20.1% 24 11.6%

X 81 38.8% 117 56.5%

V 32 15.3% 53 25.6%

Reliability Analysis

Composite variables were created for each subscale by averaging items attributed

to each scale. Using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, the reliabilities of these composite

variables were calculated for all scales. Three sets of analyses were run to derive the

53
reliabilities of each dress shape subscale; one set for the digitally illustrated stimuli, one

set for the photographic stimuli, and one set for the two combined. All scales and

subscales had adequate reliabilities with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient over .70, (see

Table 5). As a consequence of each set of dress shape stimuli being reliable, the

researchers chose to utilize a combination of both photographic and digitally illustrated

stimuli for hypothesis testing since it had greater external validity due to stimulus

sampling.

Table 5

Main Study Scale Reliabilities

Dress Shape Preferences Reliability (CAD)

A-line Bell Hourglass Wedge Rectangular # of Items
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Comfort 0.87 0.91 0.91 0.75 0.8 2
Purchase 2
Intent 0.92 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.98

Dress Shape Preferences Reliability (Photo)

A-line Bell Hourglass Wedge Rectangular # of Items
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Comfort 0.89 0.89 0.92 0.9 0.93 2
Purchase 2
Intent 0.97 0.95 0.98 0.99 0.98

Dress Shape Preferences Reliability (Combined)

A-line Bell Hourglass Wedge Rectangular # of Items
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
Comfort 0.78 0.72 0.86 0.84 0.8 2
Purchase 2
Intent 0.77 0.76 0.86 0.90 0.82

Body Cathexis Scale Reliability

Cronbach's Alpha Coefficient # of Items
0.88 11
*Reliabilities of single item scales (actual/ideal body shape and size indication) were not
assessed.

54
Hypotheses Testing

Body shape and body cathexis. In Hypothesis 1, it was anticipated that a female’s self-

perceived actual body shape would have a significant influence on her body cathexis.

Hypothesis 1 was supported, as a result of a one-way ANOVA analysis. Data analysis

shows that respondents’ self-perceived actual body shape, which included two levels of

body shape: X and V, and A and H, has a significant effect on body cathexis [F(207, 1) =

6.77, η2 = .032, p = .01]. There is a significant relationship between an individual’s

actual body shape and level of body cathexis. The latter portion of Hypothesis 1 was also

supported. This support came as a consequence of a significant mean difference (MD =

.335, p = .01) between those respondents with body shapes X and V (M = 4.98; SE = .09)

and than those with body shapes A and H (M = 4.65; SE = .1). Those respondents with X

and V body shapes reported higher body cathexis scores than those respondents with A

and H (see Table 6).

Hypothesis 2 addressed the role of ideal body shape in the relationship between

actual body and body cathexis. This hypothesis states that ideal body shape will

moderate the effect actual body shape has on body cathexis. This hypothesis was tested

utilizing a two-way ANOVA analysis. Hypothesis 2 gained support via this two-way

ANOVA, the interaction between actual and ideal body shape had a significant effect on

body cathexis [F(192, 8) = 3.97, p =.00, η2 = .14]. Further, the main effects of actual body

shape [F(192, 3) = 1.9, p = .13, η2 = ..03] and ideal body shape [F(192, 3) = .64, p = .59,

η2 = .01] on body cathexis were non-significant. This means that ideal body shape

completely moderates the relationship between actual body shape and body cathexis and

accounts for 14.2% of the variance found. Therefore, Hypothesis 2 is supported.

55
Table 6

Mean Scores for Body Cathexis: X&V versus A&H

Body Shape Mean

Difference Sig.
Measure A&H X&V
M SE M SE
4.645 .1 4.98 ..09
Body Cathexis .335 .01

Body shape and dress shape preferences. Hypothesis 3 predicted that there would be a

significant interaction effect between actual body shape and dress shapes to influence

purchase intentions of female consumers. Hypothesis 3 was tested with a repeated

measures ANOVA conducted with two levels of body shape (A & H; X & V) and two

levels of dress shape (A-line, hourglass, & bell; rectangular & wedge) as fixed factors

and purchase intent as the dependent variable. Results revealed that there was a

significant interaction effect between actual body shape and dress shape on purchase

intentions (Wilks Λ = .98, F(207, 1) = 4.08, p = .05, η2 = .02) . Therefore this portion of

Hypothesis 3 was supported. Specifically, Hypothesis (3a) predicted that females with

body shapes A and H will have a higher purchase intention for the rectangular and wedge

dress shape than females with X and V body shapes. The same data output from the

previous repeated measures ANOVA revealed that respondents with A and H body shape

displayed higher purchase intent for the Rectangular and Wedge dress shapes than

respondents with X and V body shapes (MA&H = 3.18; MX&V = 2.9; SEA&H = .12, SEX&V =

.11) thus supporting Hypothesis 3a (see Table 7). Hypothesis 3b predicted that females

with X and V body shapes will demonstrate higher purchase intent for A-line, bell, and

hourglass dress shapes than females with A and H body shapes. This hypothesis was also

56
supported (MX&V = 4.18 to MA&H = 4.08; SEX&V= .09, SEA&H= .10). Detailed results of

this significant interaction effect are displayed in Figure 10 and Table 7.

Figure 10. Interaction effect of body shape and dress shape on purchase intention

Table 7

Interaction Effect of Body Shape and Dress Shape on Purchase Intention

Purchase Intent
Mean
Body Shape A-line, Hourglass, and Bell Rectangular and Wedge Difference Sig.
M SE M SE
A&H 4.08 .10 3.18 .12 .9 .00
X&V 4.18 .09 2.9 .11 1.28 .00

57
 The repeated measures ANOVA tests also revealed that actual body shape had a

main effect on the purchase intent of dress shapes (Wilkes Λ = .61, F(207, 1) = 130.35, p

= .00, η2 = .39). In general, women of all body shapes preferred the A-line, hourglass, and

bell dress shapes (MAH = 4.08, MXV = 4.18), more than the wedge and rectangular dress

shapes (MAH = 3.18, MXV = 2.90).

Actual body shape effect on consumer’s comfort level. It was anticipated in hypothesis 4

that actual body shape would have an interaction effect with dress shape to influence

consumer’s level of comfort with each dress shape. This prediction was tested by

conducting a repeated measures ANOVA analysis utilizing the two levels of body shapes

and the two levels of dress shape as Independent Variables (IVs), and comfort as the

Dependent Variable (DV). Results from this analysis indicate that there is a significant

interaction effect between actual body shape and dress shape (Wilks  = .98, F(207, 1)=

4.918, p= .03, η2= .023). Particularly, in Hypothesis 4a it was predicted that females with

body shapes A and H will find greater comfort with the rectangular and wedge dress

shapes than females with X and V dress shapes. Hypothesis 4a was supported with the

following results: MA&H= 4.103 to MX&V= 3.860; SEA&H= .129, SEX&V= .119 .

Respondents identifying with body shapes A and H found greater comfort with the

rectangular and wedge dress shapes than body shapes X and V. Hypothesis 4b also

predicted that female consumers with X and V body shapes will demonstrate greater

purchase intent for A-line, bell, and hourglass dresses than female consumers with A and

H body shapes. Hypothesis 4b was supported by the following results: MX&V= 5.020 to

MA&H= 4.876,; SEX&V= .09, SEA&H= .1. This difference displays the higher preference for

A-line, hourglass, and bell dress shapes among body shapes X and V. See Figure 11 and

58
Table 8 for a summary of these results.

Figure 11. Interaction effect of body shape and dress shape on consumer’s level of
comfort.

Table 8

Interaction Effect of Body Shape and Dress Shape on Consumer’s Level of Comfort
Comfort Level
Body A-line, Hourglass, and Rectangular and Mean
Sig.
Shape Bell Wedge Difference
M SE M SE
A&H 4.88 .95 4.10 .09 .78 .00
X&V 5.02 .13 3.86 .18 1.2 .00

Body cathexis’ role in actual body shapes relation to level of comfort. A repeated

measures ANOVA was used to assess body cathexis’ role in the relationship between
59
actual body shapes and level of comfort. Hypothesis 5 addresses the aforementioned role

of body cathexis by stating that body cathexis will mediate the relationship between

actual body shape and level of comfort. In testing this mediational effect, three

conditions need to be met: 1) actual body shape (IV) needs to have a significant effect on

body cathexis (mediator); 2) actual body shape (IV) needs to have a significant effect on

comfort level with dress shapes (DV); and 3) when body cathexis (mediator) is

introduced in the above model as IV, the effect of actual body shape (IV) on level of

comfort should become non-significant. Conditions 1 and 2 were met with Hypothesis 1

and Hypothesis 4 gaining support in the previous analyses. To test condition 3, a repeated

measures ANOVA was run holding body cathexis as a constant covariate, body shape

and dress shape as fixed factors, and level of comfort as dependent variable. Results

stated that the influence of body cathexis is significant (Wilkes Λ = .96, F(206, 1) = 7.76,

p= .01), reducing the main effect of actual body shape to non-significance (Wilkes Λ =

1.00, F(206, 1) = .38, p = .54), passing condition Hypothesis 3. Therefore, Hypothesis 5

was supported by the results of the repeated measures ANOVA analysis. All five

hypotheses were supported by the quantitative testing via PASW software.

60
 CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The goal of this study was to gain further insight into female consumers’ dress

shape preferences, while investigating whether actual body shape has a bearing on these

decisions. It was also the goal of this research to investigate the role of body cathexis in

dress preference decisions of consumers. This chapter will first discuss the results

pertaining actual and ideal body shapes’ bearing on body cathexis. This discussion will

be followed by a summary of the results found regarding female consumers’ purchase

intention for and level of comfort with dress shape. A discussion about the results

pertaining to the influence body cathexis on consumers’ level of comfort with dress shape

will be discussed in the final part of this chapter.

Actual Body Shape, Ideal Body Shape and Body Cathexis

The first hypothesis predicted that actual body shape would have a main effect on

body cathexis, specifically assuming that respondents with the X and V body shapes

would have higher body cathexis scores than those with A and H body shapes. Both

posits from this hypothesis were supported. Hypothesis 2 predicted that the main effect

of actual body shape on body cathexis would be moderated by ideal body shape. This

hypothesis stated that a female consumer’s self-identified ideal body shape would

moderate the effect of actual body shape on body cathexis. This hypothesis was

supported. The interaction effect between actual body shape and ideal body shape

overshadowed the main effect of actual body shape on body cathexis, therefore

confirming that ideal body shape moderates the relationship. The results of hypotheses 1

and 2 will be discussed together.

61
 According to Grogan (1999), women constantly experience pressures to modify

their bodies, or their body shapes, to coincide with societal ideals for the female body.

Researchers Jourard and Secord (1955) suggested that a common ideal body standard

exists. Women may have lower body cathexis scores if their current bodies do not align

with this ideal standard, thereby implying a relationship between actual body shape, ideal

body shape and body cathexis. Previous studies have affirmed that within Western

society, there is an ideal standard of body shape devoid of fat while idealizing physically

fit bodies with relatively small waist, moderately small hips and large, yet proportional,

bust area (Douty & Brannon, 1984; Harrison, 2003; Jourard & Secord, 1955; Krane et al.,

2001). This cultural standard denotes that the X and V body shapes are ideal and that A

and H body shapes are less desirable, which consequently results in lower body cathexis

score for women with this body type.

The body shape frequency results of the current study show that a majority,

56.5%, of the respondents in the sample identified the X body shape as their ideal body

shape, followed by the V shape which accounted for 25.6% of the sample’s responses. Of

those that felt the X body shape was the ideal shape, only 38.8% of these respondents felt

they possessed this body shape. Of the 25.6% of females that felt the V body shape was

the ideal shape to possess, only 15.3% of these consumers felt they aligned with this

shape. This means that, in regards to the X body shape, a minimum of 17.3% of females

in this sample are experiencing discrepancy between their actual and ideal bodies. In

regards to the V body shape, a minimum of 10.3% of these respondents have

discrepancy. The combination of Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2 testing supports the

idealization of the X and V body shape. The discrepancy between the actual and ideal

62
self, according to Higgins (1987), can cause frustration and agitation, which will manifest

into feelings toward one’s own body or body cathexis. This suggests that a minimum of

27.6% of the respondents who fell short of possessing the ideal body shape may indicate

lower body cathexis scores as a result of discrepancy.

Another study conducted by researcher Davis (1985) found that 71 out of 91

students indicated some discrepancy between their actual body and their ideal body.

Those students that felt this discrepancy scored lower on body cathexis assessments than

those who experienced no discrepancy. The results of the current study paralleled the

aforementioned results of Davis’ study, further supporting the notion that actual and ideal

body shape both have a direct effect on the body cathexis, via actual/ ideal discrepancy;

this study further adds that the more discrepancy between actual and ideal, the greater the

effect on body cathexis. This study is also the first to propose and demonstrate lower

body cathexis among A and H body types and higher body cathexis among the X and V

body types since these are endorsed by culture. As mentioned earlier, 82.1% of the

respondents chose V and X body shapes as their ideal. Jourard and Secord (1955)

concluded that there was little difference among the ideals of women in their sample. The

results of this study would suggest that the X and V body shapes are the ideal standard

among college-aged women, as only 17.9% of respondents indicated having an ideal

body shape outside of the X and V body shapes.

Actual Body Shapes Effect on Consumer Preferences

To assess the impact of body shape on consumer behavior, this study also

demonstrates that current body shape interacts with dress shape to affect consumers’

apparel preferences. The first portion of Hypothesis 3 and 4 predicted that actual body

63
shape and dress shape would interact to influence the decision regarding consumer’s

purchase intention and level of comfort with a dress shape. These hypotheses were

supported. The second portion of these hypotheses actually predicted the dress shapes for

which respondents would have higher purchase intention and level of comfort.

Hypothesis 3a and Hypothesis 4a posited that female consumers with body shapes A and

H would have higher purchase intentions for and comfort with the rectangular and wedge

dress shapes than those consumers with X and V body shapes. Hypothesis 3b and

Hypothesis 4b predicted that body shapes X and V would have higher purchase intent for

and comfort with the A-line, hourglass, and bell dress shapes than the A and H dress

shapes. All of these secondary hypotheses found support in this study.

Several studies have determined that women utilize clothing as a method of

masking, altering, or enhancing the view of the body. Yoo (2003) uncovered that women

of varying body shapes may have particular preferences for clothing when attempting to

mask or alter the perception of her body shape. This suggests that no one garment will

help women of varying frames to achieve the same goal, which is to mask, alter, or

enhance the perception of her actual body shape. Therefore, as affirmed in the results of

Hypothesis 3 and Hypothesis 4 testing, the body and dress shape must interact to give

these women the results they prefer. Fiore and Kimle (1997) indicated that there were

balancing techniques through apparel for women who were unsatisfied with their

proportions. Their suggestions were for women attempting to accomplish or accentuate

balanced proportions through perceptually creating the X body shape. These methods

included utilizing clothing as a shaping mechanism to achieve the ideal body shape. As

previously mentioned, a majority of the respondents in the current study identified the X

64
body shape as their ideal body shape, although only a percentage of that majority felt they

had this body shape. This means that these consumers may be attempting to create the

illusion of having their ideal body shape, the X body shape, and those possessing it may

be looking to accentuate the shape through the use of clothing. Fiore and Kimle’s (1997)

suggestions for achieving a balanced body were used as a basis for developing

hypotheses 3a, 3b, 4a, and 4b. These suggestions alleviated top heavy body shapes by

suggesting the use of silhouettes with wider hems and exaggerated hiplines, such as the

A-line, hourglass and bell dress shapes, to balance the upper torso. Fiore and Kimle

(1997) also recommended the use of dress shapes with built-up shoulder lines and little to

no waist definition, such as the wedge and rectangular dress shapes, to offset body shapes

with wider lower torsos. The findings within the current study suggest that perceptual

balancing techniques are an integral part of consumers’ decision making processes with

respect to dresses. Therefore apparel decisions are made to aid women in achieving their

ideal perceptual body shape.

Body Cathexis and Consumer’s Level of Comfort

The notion that actual body shape has a direct effect on both body cathexis and

consumer dress shape preferences received support in Hypotheses 1-4. Hypothesis 5

addresses whether body cathexis mediates the relationship between body shape and level

of comfort with dress shapes. The mediating effect of body cathexis caused the main

effect of actual body shape on consumers’ level of comfort to become non-signficant. As

a result, body cathexis explains the significant relationship between actual body shape

and consumer’s level of comfort with various dress shapes. These results re-affirm and

support the finding of previous studies that assessed body cathexis and consumer comfort

65
(Chattaraman & Rudd, 2006; Hwang, 1996; Kwon & Parham, 1994). This suggests that

the effect of body shape on dress shape comfort of women is explained by body cathexis

or their satisfaction with their body.

As previously stated, X and V body shapes had stronger preferences for the A-

line, hourglass, and bell dress shapes than the A and H body shapes; and the A and H

body shapes had a greater preference for the rectangular and wedge dress shapes than the

X and V body shape. However, all body shapes indicated a higher level of overall

comfort with the A-line, hourglass and bell dress shapes than with the rectangular and

wedge dress shapes. This finding is congruent with the findings of an earlier study

conducted by Green (1978). The results of Green’s (1978) study predicted that the

rectangular and wedge dress shapes would produce unfavorable results. The findings in

her study concluded that silhouettes with little or no waist definition were found to be

undesirable. These findings may be a direct result of the sample’s efforts to create a

perceptual body shape that aligns with their chosen ideal body shape. Previous research

has concluded that the current ideal of Western society idealizes a small waistline.

Therefore, dress shapes with little or no waist definition are consequently not desirable.

Also, as previously stated, a majority of the current study’s sample indicated the X body

shape as their ideal body shape. Therefore, a majority of the sample may have responded

in efforts to accent or obtain a perceptually thin waist. The fashion and trends of the time

may have also influenced the results of both the current study and Green’s (1978) study.

The rectangular and wedge dress shapes were not the popular fashions during the time

that the research was conducted in both studies

66
 CHAPTER VI. IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS

The implications of this research will be discussed in the following sections.

Following the conceptual and practical implications of this research, suggestions for

further research will be reviewed. Lastly, the limitations of the study will be explained.

Conceptual Implications

The concept of this research is important because it’s the first study to utilize the

discrepancy between actual and ideal body shape as a motivator of dress preferences.

Previous studies have established that consumers use clothing as a means to appear

thinner and alter the visual perception of themselves, but none have actually empirically

tested how women alleviate actual/ideal body shape discrepancies via clothing,

particularly dress shapes. The results of this research show that perceptual balancing in

efforts to achieve the ideal body shape is a factor motivating consumer purchase

behavior. The body shape balancing techniques outlined by Fiore and Kimle (1997)

served as a basis for the predictions of the motives of respondents in this study. Though

there is no viable proof to assess respondents’ exposure to these balancing techniques, it

can be suggested that respondents innately adopted dress shapes that balanced their

current body shapes to minimize or eliminate the discrepancy between their actual and

ideal body shapes. This conclusion also alludes to the notion that to achieve perceptual

balance is an ultimate goal for apparel consumers.

This research addressed actual and ideal body shape from the individual’s own

perspective; perhaps if the study assessed actual/ideal body shape from the perspective of

others, additional insights may have emerged. This study also assessed the patternss

among college-aged consumers’ current actual and ideal body shape. These findings

67
displayed the commonalities among the ideal body shapes of consumers that share the

demographics of this sample. These commonalties seemingly had mutual impacts on

preferences; body shapes had higher levels of comfort and purchase intents for dress

shapes that visually balance the bodies and help achieve ideal proportions. Although this

study provides critical research-based evidence on the topic, more research needs to be

conducted with regard to body shape’s impact on consumer preferences outside of dress

shape.

The conceptual model used in this research combined Sproles’ (1979) Fashion

Adoption Process with Branson and Sweeney’s (1991) Clothing Comfort Model. The

successful use of this conceptual model or preference model suggests that comfort and

the fashion adoption process are related and potentially dependent on one another.

Researchers focusing on the adoption on clothing by consumers may want to utilize this

preference model further, as the potential of this model reaches far beyond dress shape

and is applicable to any facet of clothing. Though the two scales regarding comfort and

purchase intent were analyzed separately, the trends among each were similar. Body

shapes within the same grouping displayed the same tendencies as far as comfort and

purchase intent were concerned. This means that if a consumer displayed higher

purchase intent for a particular grouping of dress shapes, then she also displayed a similar

level of comfort with that grouping. This observation from the findings of this study

suggests that comfort and purchase intent are somewhat linked, adding validation to the

conceptual model. To further validate this model and support the linkage between

comfort and fashion adoption, future research should be conducted utilizing this

preference model.

68
 Practical Implications

There are many practical implications for this research, especially in regards to

the fashion industry. This research shows that there are definite trends for ideal body

shape and dress shape preferences among young college-aged consumers. Apparel firms

designing for the demographic segments found in this study may use its results as a guide

to design and cater to their target market. It is extremely important for designers to know

their customer. Though the designer may have creative power as far as the styling details

of garments, specifically dresses, are concerned, this study provides strong indication that

consumers have pre-determined physical and emotional factors that have an important

bearing on their final purchase intent for apparel such as dresses. Firms within the

industry must be exposed to these pre-determined factors, prior to designing for their

market or unfavorable financial consequences can result. The differences amongst actual

and ideal body shape were suggested to have a significant effect on the emotions of

consumers, specially their body cathexis. The results concerning actual and ideal body

shape provide the industry with the information it needs to begin addressing consumers’

emotional needs and wants. These results aid apparel firms targeting collegiate age

females by providing valuable information in regards to the most prevalent self-perceived

actual and ideal body shape amongst this demographic. Using this information, these

apparel companies may more accurately produce dress shapes that aid their consumers by

providing them a means to obtain the body shape they hold ideal. Also for those

companies designing for a market outside of the demographics of this study, this research

provides a research framework for them to uncover the actual and ideal body shape

patternss and preferences of consumers within their market.

69
 This research may also be beneficial to the average female consumer because the

results display that many women have a body shape that is alternative to the body shape

they hold ideal. This study also shows average women that a majority of females utilize

clothing as a means to obtain their ideal body shape and improve their body cathexis.

This means it is normal to gravitate towards particular dress shapes because these dresses

provide a more positive emotional response in regard to the current body. Therefore,

women exposed to the results of this study may feel more confident in their dress

preferences, as well as purchases.

Suggestions for Future Research

This research should serve as groundwork for future studies planning to uncover

consumers’ actual and ideal bodies’ effect on purchase decisions. It is clear from the

results of this study that actual body shape does affect consumers’ preference for the two

sets of dress shapes, but other studies may want to de-segregate the dress shapes, to

uncover the consumers’ preferences across each of the five dress shapes. This can be

accomplished by using a larger sample than the one used in the current study. Also in

addition to quantitative research, it would also be beneficial to conduct qualitative

research via focus groups to reveal how consumers’ perceive the interaction between

apparel and their bodies. These focus groups could also address the perceived

availability of certain shapes and fits in the market, which may be revealed in consumers’

open-ended responses. It would also be beneficial for respondents to be asked about their

reason for choosing their ideal body shape. This information may explain if the

motivations of female consumers are strictly internal or guided by outside elements.

Future researchers should also go beyond dress shape, to explore body shape’s effect on

70
styling details, such as value added techniques and seam placements. In addition to

breaking garments down into detailed components, separate body cathexis scores could

be assessed for various parts of the body. This information would give industry even

more insight into the needs and wants of consumers. It would also be beneficial to gain

knowledge in regards to the differences in preferences and body shape ideals across

varying cultures and nationalities. Being that this study utilized a smaller sample of

college students in the southeastern region of the United States, these differences could

not be addressed. Lastly, future research should assess respondents’ actual body shape

via a professional body scanning tool and/or expert evaluators, in addition to self-

identified body shape. These results could potentially reveal flaws in respondents’

perception of their own bodies uncovering deeper actual/ideal body shape discrepancies.

Ma (2003) assessed the differences between respondents’ self reported body and the

analyses of experts and found that 50% of her samples’ selections differed from the

experts selection. This suggests that at least half of her sample may have indicated the

wrong body shape and size. The use of experts and body scanning tools would add more

validity to the actual body shape variable measures of this study and similar studies.

Limitations of the Study

Although this study revealed useful results, there were limitations to the research,

the first one being the size of the sample. Though this study was held on a college

campus of more than 24,000 students, approximately 46.3% of this population being

female, this study utilized only slightly over 200 respondents (Auburn University, 2011).

This was mainly due to time and extra credit permission constraints. As previously

mentioned, actual body shape was left to the discretion of respondent, as it was a self-

71
identified body shape. These respondents may have a flawed perception of their own

actual body shape which would consequently skew the results of this study. With less

time contraints and the help of body scanning technology and/or a team of body shape

experts, a potentially more accurate depiction of actual body shape could be determined.

Also, a majority of the respondents were undergraduate students. That being stated, a

more diverse sample, age-wise, may have created alternative results. Another limitation

in regards to the sample used was ethnicity. A total of 89% of respondents in this study’s

sample identified themselves as Non-Hispanic Caucasian. This overwhelming

percentage seems to be a complete representation of the majority to minority percentage

of the campus; approximately 12% of Auburn University’s campus is said to be of

minority status (Auburn University, 2011). A less homogeneous sample, ethnicity-wise,

may have resulted in varied results. Finally, the current study addressed body shape and

dress shape by creating groupings determined by similarities among balancing

suggestions. This resulted in two separate groups for body shapes and two separate

groups for dress shapes. The limited number of responses also made it necessary for

these shapes to be grouped to derive more robust results. Although valuable information

was derived by using the grouped body shapes and dress shapes, alternative results may

have emerged if the body and dress shapes were not grouped. Though the grouped body

shapes possess similarities in regards to balancing techniques, there are still distinct

differences between them, suggesting that there should be different preferences among

the women who possess these body shapes. The dress shapes not being represented

individually within the analysis of data prevented the creation of individualized findings

for each dress shape, which may provide implications for the industry. The accessibility

72
of fit may also have played a factor in the preferences of respondents. The responses

could have potentially been swayed by the fashions available to consumers in today’s

market.

73
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62.

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 APPENDIX A
Pilot Study Questionnaire
Consumer Body Satisfaction
Directions: Using the scale below indicate your level of satisfaction with each of the body
areas below.

Please indicate your level of satisfaction with the follow body areas:

Neither Very
Very Dissatisfi Dissatisfied Nor Satisfie Satisfie
Dissatisfied ed Satisfied d d
1. Face (facial
features,
complexion) • • • • •
2. Hair (color,
thickness, texture) • • • • •
3. Lower torso
(buttocks, hips,
thighs, legs) • • • • •
4. Mid torso (waist,
stomach) • • • • •
5. Upper torso
(chest, shoulders,
arms) • • • • •
6. Muscle tone • • • • •
7. Overall
Appearance • • • • •
8. Bust • • • • •
9. Hip • • • • •
10. Waist • • • • •
11. Shoulders • • • • •

Questionnaire Clarity

YES NO

Were the directions in the previous section clear? • •

Was the format of the previous section clear and
easy to navigate? • •

Did you clearly understand everything asked of you? • •

81
Part I – Comments/Suggestions
Please take the time to write any comments and/or suggestions on the previous questions
in the following box. Your comments will be used to improve this questionnaire.

Leave Suggestions/Comments Below.

Body Shape Identification

Directions: Use the visual scale above and identify which of the images best represents
your current body and your ideal body shape.

Please indicate the body shape that best completes the follow statements:

A H V X
My CURRENT body shape is • • • •
My IDEAL body shape is • • • •

Part II - Comments/Suggestions
Please take the time to write any comments and/or suggestions on the previous questions
in the following box. Your comments will be used to improve this questionnaire.

82
Please leave your critiques below.

Dress Shape Preferences

Different consumers have different preferences for apparel design details, such as shape
and silhouette. Using the visual stimuli provided, indicate the likelihood as relevant to the
adjacent statement or question.
FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT THE COLOR AND/OR STYLING DETAIL OF
EACH DRESS.

Very Neither
Unlikel Somewhat Unlikely or Somewha Very
y Unlikely Likely t Likely Likely
This dress shape will fit
my body well. • • • • •
This dress shape will be
comfortable on my
body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
attractive on my body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
fashionable. • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will buy the dress you
viewed above in the
next 12 months? • • • • •

83
How likely is it that you
will shop for this dress
shape when you buy
apparel in the upcoming
year? • • • • •

Very Neither
Unlikel Somewhat Unlikely or Somewha Very
y Unlikely Likely t Likely Likely
This dress shape will fit
my body well. • • • • •
This dress shape will be
comfortable on my
body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
attractive on my body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
fashionable. • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will buy the dress you
viewed above in the
next 12 months? • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will shop for this dress
shape when you buy
apparel in the upcoming
year? • • • • •

84
 Very Neither
Unlikel Somewhat Unlikely or Somewha Very
y Unlikely Likely t Likely Likely
This dress shape will fit
my body well. • • • • •
This dress shape will be
comfortable on my
body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
attractive on my body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
fashionable. • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will buy the dress you
viewed above in the
next 12 months? • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will shop for this dress
shape when you buy
apparel in the upcoming
year? • • • • •

85
 Very Neither
Unlikel Somewhat Unlikely or Somewha Very
y Unlikely Likely t Likely Likely
This dress shape will fit
my body well. • • • • •
This dress shape will be
comfortable on my
body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
attractive on my body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
fashionable. • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will buy the dress you
viewed above in the
next 12 months? • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will shop for this dress
shape when you buy
apparel in the upcoming
year? • • • • •

86
 Very Neither
Unlikel Somewhat Unlikely or Somewha Very
y Unlikely Likely t Likely Likely
This dress shape will fit
my body well. • • • • •
This dress shape will be
comfortable on my
body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
attractive on my body. • • • • •
This dress shape is
fashionable. • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will buy the dress you
viewed above in the
next 12 months? • • • • •
How likely is it that you
will shop for this dress
shape when you buy
apparel in the upcoming
year? • • • • •

Part III - Comments/Suggestions

Please take the time to write any comments and/or suggestions on the previous questions
in the following box. Your comments will be used to improve this questionnaire.

Please write any comment/suggestions that you may have below.

87
88
 APPENDIX B
Main Study Questionnaire

89
90
Different consumers have different preferences for apparel design details, such as shape
and silhouette. Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following
statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR AND/OR STYLING DETAILS.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed • • • • • • •
91
above in the
next 12
months?
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress • • • • • • •

92
shape is
fashionable.
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on • • • • • • •

93
my body.

This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

Very Unlikel Somewha Undeci Somewh Likely Very

Unlikel y t ded at Likely Likely

94
 y Unlikely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

95
 Very Unlikel Somewha Likely
Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the • • • • •

96
upcoming
year?

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR, MODEL'S FACE AND/OR STYLING

DETAILS.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed • • • • • • •

97
above in the
next 12
months?
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR, MODEL'S FACE AND/OR STYLING

DETAILS.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •

98
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR, MODEL'S FACE, AND/OR STYLING

DETAILS.

Very Unlikel Somewha Likely

Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •

99
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below on the following statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR, MODEL'S FACE, AND/OR STYLING

DETAILS.

100
 Very Unlikel Somewha Likely
Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

Please indicate your preference for the dress shape below om the following statements.

FOCUS ON DRESS SHAPE, NOT COLOR, MODEL'S FACE, AND/OR STYLING

DETAILS.

101
 Very Unlikel Somewha Likely
Unlikel y t Undeci Somewh Very
y Unlikely ded at Likely Likely
This dress
shape will fit
my body well. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape will be
comfortable on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
attractive on
my body. • • • • • • •
This dress
shape is
fashionable. • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
buy the dress
you viewed
above in the
next 12
months? • • • • • • •
How likely is
it that you will
shop for this
dress shape
when you buy
apparel in the
upcoming
year? • • • • •

102
Use the visual scale below and identify which of the images best represents your current
and ideal BODY SHAPE.

A H V X
Current Body Shape • • • •
Ideal Body Shape • • • •

Use the visual scale below and identify which of the images best represents your current
and ideal body SIZE.

103
 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Current Body Size • • • • • • • • •
Ideal Body Size • • • • • • • • •

Please indicate your level of satisfaction with the following body areas on YOUR body:

104
 Somewha Neither
Very t Dissatisfi Somewha Very
Dissatisfi Dissatisfi Dissatisfi ed Nor t Satisfi Satisfie
ed ed ed Satisfied Satisfied ed d
A. Face
(facial
features,
complexio
n) • • • • • • •
B. Hair
(color,
thickness,
texture) • • • • • • •
C. Lower
torso
(buttocks,
hips,
thighs,
legs) • • • • • • •
D. Mid
torso
(waist,
stomach) • • • • • • •
E. Upper
torso
(chest,
shoulders,
arms) • • • • • • •
F. Muscle
tone • • • • • • •
G. Overall
Appearanc
e • • • • • • •
H. Bust • • • • • • •
I. Hip • • • • • • •
J. Waist • • • • • • •
K.
Shoulders • • • • • • •

105
Directions: Please answer the following demographic questions.

AGE:

ETHNICITY:
o NON-HISPANIC WHITE
o NON-HISPANIC BLACK
o HISPANIC
o ASIAN/PACIFIC ISLANDER
o AMERICAN INDIAN/ALASKA NATIVE
o OTHER

MARITAL STATUS:
o SINGLE AND NEVER MARRIED
o MARRIED
o SEPARATED
o DIVORCED
o WIDOWED

YOUR HEIGHT:
Feet

Inches

YOUR WEIGHT (IN POUNDS):

HOW OFTEN DO YOU SHOP FOR CLOTHING?

o NEVER
o AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK
o TWO OR THREE TIMES A MONTH
o ONCE IN A MONTH OR TWO

106
 o ONCE IN THREE OR FOUR MONTHS
o TWICE A YEAR
o ONCE A YEAR

BASED ON YOUR PREVIOUS SELECTION, HOW MUCH OF THIS TIME IS

SPENT SHOPPING FOR DRESSES?
o NEVER
o AT LEAST ONCE A WEEK
o TWO OR THREE TIMES A MONTH
o ONCE IN A MONTH OR TWO
o ONCE IN THREE OR FOUR MONTHS
o TWICE A YEAR
o ONCE A YEAR

ON A MONTHLY BASIS, HOW MUCH DO YOU SPEND ON CLOTHING?

o $0-50
o $50-100
o $100-150
o $150-200
o OVER $200

ON A YEARLY BASIS, HOW MUCH DO YOU SPEND ON DRESSES?

o $0-100
o $100-200
o $200-300
o $300-400
o $400-500
o $500-600
o $600-700
o $700-800
o $800-900
o $900-1000

IF YOUR PREVIOUS SELECTION IS "OVER $1000," PLEASE INDICATE A

ROUNDED AMOUNT SPENT ON DRESSES:

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING REPRESENTS YOUR OCCUPATION?

o UNDERGRADUATE STUDENT

107
 o GRADUATE STUDENT
o OTHER PROFESSIONAL OR TECHNICAL

IF "OTHER PROFESSIONAL OR TECHNICAL" PLEASE SPECIFY:

WHICH OF THE FOLLOWING REPRESENTS YOUR ANNUAL HOUSEHOLD

INCOME?
o UNDER $5,000
o $5,000 TO $9,999
o $10,000 TO $14,999
o $15,000 TO $19,999
o $20,000 TO $24,999
o $25,000 TO $29,999
o $30,000 TO $39,999
o $40,000 TO $49,999
o $50,000 TO $59,999
o $60,000 TO $69,999
o $70,000 TO $79,999
o $80,000 TO $89,999
o $90,000 TO $99,999
o $100,000 TO $124,999
o $125,000 TO $149,999
o $150,000 TO $199,999
o $200,000 TO $249,999
o $250,000 AND OVER

108