Design and construction of Roads, Highways and

Bridges

Roads and highways, traveled way on which

people, animals, or wheeled vehicles move. In
modern usage the term road describes a rural,
lesser traveled way, while the word street denotes
an urban roadway. Highway refers to a major rural
traveled way; more recently it has been used for a
road, in either a rural or urban area, where points of
entrance and exit for traffic are limited and
controlled.
The most ancient name for these arteries of travel seems to be the antecedent of the
modern way. Way stems from the Middle English wey, which in turn branches from the
Latin veho (“I carry”), derived from the Sanskrit vah (“carry,” “go,” or “move”). The
word highway goes back to the elevated Roman roads that had a mound or hill formed
by earth from the side ditches thrown toward the centre, thus high way. The
word street originates with the Latin strata(initially, “paved”) and later strata via (“a way
paved with stones”).
A bridge is a structure built to span a physical obstacle, such as a body of water, valley,
or road, without closing the way underneath. It is constructed for the purpose of
providing passage over the obstacle,
usually something that can be detrimental
to cross otherwise. There are many
different designs that each serve a
particular purpose and apply to different
situations. Designs of bridges vary
depending on the function of the bridge, the
nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed and anchored, the material
used to make it, and the funds available to
build it.
 Process:
1. Bidding. Bidding is an offer to set a price by an individual or business for a product
or service or a demand that something be done. Bidding is used to determine the cost
or value of something. Bidding can be performed by a "buyer" or "supplier" of a product
or service based on the context of the situation.

2. Planning. Many people, including engineers and construction experts, must be

involved in figuring out what type of road should be made — and what it should be
made from — depending upon the amount and type of traffic it will likely see.
Even simple roads can take months of planning before construction can
begin. Complex roads that involve different structural elements, such as bridges or
overpasses, can take years to plan. Other factors that planners must consider
include environmental impact of the road, cost, availability of materials, and safety.

3. Surveying. Toward the end of the planning

phase, surveyors and construction experts will
develop solid plans for the road to be built. If
part of the land to be used for the road is owned
by private parties, lawyers and government
officials will need to negotiate the purchase of
pieces of property to be used for the road.

4. Public meetings. Public meetings will also often be held, so that any citizens with
concerns about the road construction project can voice their opinions. The local, state,
or federal governmental entities building the road will also solicit construction bids from
a variety of contractors to make sure that the road can be built as economically as
possible.

5. Clearing, Grubbing. Before any

construction the roadway must be cleared of all
vegetation and trees including their roots
removed. Cross sections should be taken prior to
any excavation works. All construction works must
be carried out in as safe a manner as possible.
Before any construction starts the roadway must
be cleared of debris. Unless there are specific
reasons, agreed to by the Engineer in writing, all
materials including trees, grass, crops and structures, which fall within the road
alignment must be removed.

6. Excavation. Before any excavation, including the removal of any areas of

unsuitable materials, cross-sections should be taken of the undisturbed ground. From
this information, and the cross sections taken of the completed road, earthwork
quantities can be calculated. No existing
material, which will remain in the completed
works, should be loosened unnecessarily
during excavation. Excavation works, along
with all construction activities, must be
undertaken in as safe a manner as possible to
minimise the dangers to road users and the
contractors personnel.
6.1. Drainage and Channel
Excavation. During construction, ditches are
required to be maintained to ensure proper
drainage at all times. Any necessary ditches
and channels should be constructed and
maintained to ensure there is no damage to
the roadway section. All existing ditches, or
drainage channels, which the road crosses,
need to be closed at the edge of the
embankment, unless pipes or structures are to be constructed and, where necessary,
alternative outfalls are to be provided.

7. Embankment. All fill materials must be free from vegetable matter and the
material must be approved as suitable. The material should be of an appropriate nature
and at a moisture content that it can be compacted to form a stable layer. Generally
embankments should be constructed in 150 mm compacted layers parallel to the
finished grade of the road.

8. Subgrade. All subgrade material must be free from vegetable matter. The
subgrade must be shaped to the required profile. The subgrade should be of an
appropriate material and at a moisture content
that it can be compacted to form a stable layer,
for the full width of the embankment.
8.1. Subgrade drains. Subgrade drains
are constructed to ensure that water in the
pavement, which would weaken the road, is
allowed to drain away. Subgrade drains should
be extended to the edge of the embankment with
drains on opposite sides of the road being staggered. In case of roads with minimal
longitudinal fall it is often better to install subgrade drains longitudinally at the edge of
the road pavement.

9. Drainage and Channel Construction. The most basic way to drain off rain
and stormwater is via open channels. A more developed but also more expensive
solution is a separate sewer system. Separately collected stormwater has high potential
for increasing agricultural production in rural areas. In addition a more integrated
approach to water management in urban areas can be achieved by replenishing
freshwater resources after a natural pre-treatment of the collected stormwater (e.g. free-
surface constructed wetlands) and a recharge of surface or groundwater bodies (see
also stormwater management). In both cases the receiving water bodies may be
sea, lake, river or groundwater (also see surface disposal of liquids, surface
groundwater recharge, subsurface groundwater recharge).

 FOR CONCRETE ROAD AND HIGHWAY

10. Compaction. Soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a soil
causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. When
stress is applied that causes densification due to water (or other liquid) being displaced
from between the soil grains, then consolidation, not compaction, has occurred.
Normally, compaction is the result of heavy machinery compressing the soil, but it can
also occur due to the passage of (e.g.) animal feet.

11. Preparation of materials. Cement, Water, Sand, Gravel or crushed stone and
more materials should be prepared ahead of time to avoid problems.

12. Formwork. Formwork is temporary or permanent molds into which concrete or

similar materials are poured. In the context of
concrete construction, the falsework supports
the shuttering molds. The formwork serves as
mould for concrete structural components unless
such mould is provided by the soil, other structural
components, etc. It molds the placed fresh
concrete, which in this stage normally is viscous, to
the shape specified in the drawing.

13. Construction of Joints. Joints are

formed in concrete slabs as part of the process of constructing rigid paving for roads.
Joints are discontinuities in the pavement slab that are necessary to allow for
expansion, contraction and warping. Rigid paving consists of a reinforced or
unreinforced in situ concrete slab laid over a thin granular base course. The rigidity and
strength of the pavement enables the loads and stresses to be distributed over a
wide area of the subgrade.

14. Material Mixing. Concrete is

a mixture of Portland cement, water sand,
gravel or crushed stone, and all
these materials are collected separately to
make concrete when ready-mix
concrete is not utilized. Mixing Time of
concrete mixers. Approximately thirty
rotation is sufficient to mix concrete
ingredients into a homogenous slurry
state. Since concrete mixers rotate at a
minimum rate of 15 rpm, mixing time
required to produce 1 batch of concrete is 2 minutes. (Photo taken during our On-the-job
training at ESR Construction and Development Company)

15. Placing of Concrete. Concrete placement is an important process in the

construction that determine the success of the structure and its life. Technical and
environmental conditions are taken into strict consideration while placing the concrete.
The concrete is allowed to pass through different phase from the point it come out of the
mixer till it complete as a finished concrete. The concrete is transported, poured,
vibrated, matured, form removed and cured. Each of these phases must follow
techniques that will come under good construction practice. (Photos were taken during our
On-the-job training at ESR Construction and Development Company)
 16. Compaction of Concrete. The vibrations cause the mixture to liquefy,
reducing the internal friction of the mix components of cement, aggregate, and water.
This allows the mix to move around more easily in whatever form you are placing the
concrete.

17. Curing. Curing is the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and

temperature in concrete for a period of time immediately following placing and finishing
so that the desired properties may develop. Curing has a strong influence on the
properties of hardened concrete; proper curing will increase durability, strength, water
tightness, abrasion resistance, volume stability, and resistance to freezing and thawing
and deicers. • With proper curing, concrete becomes stronger, more impermeable, and
more resistant to stress, abrasion, and freezing and thawing.

 FOR ASPHALT ROAD AND HIGHWAY

10. Demolition and Removal. The first step in the asphalt installation process is
to remove the existing surface, whether it is asphalt, concrete or pavers.

 Demolition and removal is completed using heavy machinery, including small

bobcats and forklifts and when necessary, front loaders and large dump trucks.

 Debris is removed and in most instances, Wolf Paving recycles the old asphalt
and concrete in our asphalt plants, turning deteriorating waste into strong, usable new
asphalt.

 In fact, Wolf Paving typically recycles nearly 100% of the materials removed from
a job site, making the choice to use Wolf Paving both green and environmentally
friendly.

11. Grading and Sloping. With a clean slate, technology helps Wolf Paving
asphalt professionals prepare the surface for appropriate water drainage.

 Using laser guided transits and automatic motor graders, the Wolf Paving team
grades the surface to be paved to ensure that water will run-off appropriately.

 Proper water drainage is vital to your asphalt, because water is a major cause of
damage, including potholes, cracks and heaving.

12. Prepare the Sub Base. You’d never guess that the most important part of your
new asphalt surface is actually the sub base.

 The sub base provides a stable surface to support new pavement.

 The sub base is a frost barrier to help reduce winter damage due to freezing and
thawing.

 During the installation, base thickness, base stability and compaction are
important steps. If the sub base is not appropriately compacted, the asphalt surface on
top will not provide years of durability.

13. Proof Roll, Undercutting and Sub Base Repair. Once the sub base is
fully graded and compacted, Wolf Paving completes an extra step, called a proof roll, to
ensure the underlying surface is strong and ready to support new asphalt.

 A Wolf Paving proof roll involves driving a quad-axle dump truck, loaded with
72,000 pounds, row by row over the entire surface.

 If the gravel flexes more than an inch under the weight of the truck, it means that
the base is not properly supported.

14. Binder and Surface Course. Once the sub base is laid and any soft areas
are identified and repaired, it is time to add the binder.

 The binder layer is large aggregate mixed with oil, making it very strong and
durable.

 The binder layer can be thought of as the strength of any new asphalt surface.

15. Install New Asphalt Surface. Once the supportive structures of a new asphalt
surface are installed, the top layer of fresh asphalt is added to provide a clean, smooth
ride.

 Surface asphalt is made up of small aggregate, sand and oil.

 This combination of materials creates jet-black asphalt that when installed

appropriately, provides a smooth ride and a shiny, attractive finished surface.

16. Butt Joints and Transitions. It is very rare to install an asphalt surface that
does not connect to existing driveways, roadways or parking lots. As such, asphalt-
paving contractors must find a way to smooth the transition from old surface to new.

 Butt joints are areas were old asphalt or concrete meets new asphalt pavement.

 These transitional areas require special attention to ensure that the grading and
water run-off is appropriate.
 Butt joints are important to ensure drivers and pedestrians don’t notice a
difference in the surfaces.

17. Final Roll. Once the asphalt and butt joints have been laid, the entire surface is
smoothed and compacted.

 Using a roller truck, the new asphalt pavement surface is compacted and
smoothed.

 This process step ensures that no small bumps of aggregate or stone are left
poking through the smooth new surface.

Your asphalt paving contractor should follow these installation steps to make sure your
new asphalt surface will provide years of durability and functionally for your home,
business, city or town.

 CONTINUATION OF BOTH KIND OF ROAD

18. Construction of lane stripes and reflectors . Road surface marking is any
kind of device or material that is used on a road surface in order to convey official
information; they are commonly placed with road marking machines (or road marking
equipment, pavement marking equipment). They can also be applied in other facilities
used by vehicles to mark parking spaces or designate areas for other uses.
Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and
information to drivers and pedestrians. Uniformity of the markings is an important factor
in minimizing confusion and uncertainty about their meaning, and efforts exist to
standardize such markings across borders.

19. Road Signs. Traffic signs or road signs are signs erected at the side of or
above roads to give instructions or provide information to road users. The earliest signs
were simple wooden or stone milestones.

20. Guard Railings. Guard rail, guardrails—or railings around properties and more
generally outside of North America in some uses overlaps the industrial term "guide
rail". They are a boundary feature and may be a means to prevent or deter access to
dangerous or off-limits areas while allowing light and visibility in a greater way than
a fence. Common shapes are flat, rounded edge, and tubular in horizontal railings,
whereas tetraform spear-headed or ball-finialled are most common in vertical railings
around homes. Park and garden railings commonly in metalworking feature swirls,
leaves, plate metal areas and/or motifs particularly on and beside gates.

 Process of constructing a Bridge

 1. Study on need for Bridge. The decision of having a new bridge in an area is
taken as a part of development of the society. This facilitates the feasibility of linking the
cities and towns, which gain more importance in the overall growth of a nation. Their
need is studied based on the socio-economic viabilities.

2. Traffic Assessment for Bridge Construction. An assessment of the traffic

type and its quantum is necessary to decide the following factors:

o Number of lanes on the road or the railway tracks

o The geometric design parameters

o Benefits acquired by the society

3. Location Study for Bridge Construction. While having a location study and
fixing the location of the bridge, it is very essential to consider the need and the location
of cross drainage works if any. The cross-drainage work is said to have 15 to 20 % of
the overall project cost if it must be implemented. Hence before choosing the alignment
for bridge construction, it is necessary to determine all the possible CD works and its
effect.

4. Reconnaissance Survey for Bridge Construction. This is a pre-feasibility

study, which studies the entire reach of the river, that must be crossed; to find out best
and suitable position for bridge location. The factors each site satisfies are taken as lists
and each is analyzed individually, from which the best consideration is chosen.
The final number of feasible sites must be refined down to three or four, this can be
done only by going in detail of each site and refining the most suitable ones.

5. Preliminary Engineering for Bridge Construction. This stage of planning

can be called as a techno-economic feasibility study. Here, the technical details related
to the bridge construction is studied in a detailed manner, to bring all possible
alternatives to proceed the construction.
Mainly it is found that the total cost of the project is plus or minus 15% of the cost that is
estimated at this stage of planning. To process the technical study, minimum level of
field study and measurements, the location study, and related parameters must be
done.

6. Detailed Project Report of Bridge Construction Planning. This stage is

the final stage of planning in the bridge construction, before the commencement of the
construction work. Full investigation from the roots is taken and documented. The
investigations conducted are:
o Ground survey
o Soil exploration- foundation details

o Hydrological data

o Model studies and analysis.

7. The Foundations. They serve as a basis for the future structure and should not
be underestimated. The foundations have the function of distributing various loads of
the bridge (mass, weight, overload, forces …) in an efficient manner and that according
to the nature of the ground hosting the structure. Indeed, the characteristics of the
environment will guide the technical decisions and the process to be put in place.

The foundations can be of two types

 The superficial foundations: These foundations are preferred for bridges whose
level is close to that of the ground because in this case structures are subject to
reduced constraints compared to the wind and their gravity. It is also essential that the
rocks receiving the structure are sound, undecomposed and not heavily cracked.

 Deep foundations: This type of foundation is more suitable when the bridge
begins to gain height. In this case it happens regularly that the soil reveals a layer more
resistant in depth. During the construction, three situations are found giving rise to three
types of foundation:
o The so-called “good” soil, when it is possible to lay the foundations directly
on a stable ground, is called flat foundation.
o The so-called “bad then good” soil requires to lay four piles in the unstable
ground until they reach the consistent ground.
o The soil is “unstable”, when the ground does not offer good soil, there is
no choice but to install many piles that will give good resistance even in case of
significant compression.
When there is no resistance at depth it is still necessary to find a solution to exert
effective support on the surface using so-called “floating” piles.

8. Construction of Supports. Whatever the number of supports (abutments and

piles) necessary for the construction of the bridge, they will all be mounted
simultaneously on both sides of the shores. Usually made of concrete, these supports
are either cast in place, or prefabricated in a factory and then assembled on site.

9. Assembly and Launching of the Superstructure. Because of the final

weight of the structure, the greater or smaller distance between each pile and the final
aim of the structure, it is often impossible to use concrete for the construction of the
deck which, over great distances, collapses even sometimes under its own weight and
of its traffic. This is why we now use elements of metal beams that are assembled
together to form the structure of the deck. On each shore, a crane installs the beam
elements which are then reconstituted by welding on site (Welded I-Beams). The deck
can then be equipped with a launching nose, completed with a ballast at the rear to
prevent tipping. Pushed on the piles generally using winches, cables and pulleys, the
deck advances at a speed of about 9m / h. Also, this solution can be supplemented by
restraint systems to prevent runaway.

10. Pouring the Slab. The beams are equipped on factory with connectors that
allow the steel structure to be bonded to the concrete slab of the latter. Thus, once the
beams installed on their final supports, we put lost formwork on them and a
reinforcement before pouring a layer of concrete of a thickness of about 25cm which will
be the slab of the structure.

11. Finishes. To finalize the work, after several months, even years of construction,
the final step is to lay asphalt on the road. Asphalt is a very specialized type of bitumen
whose intrinsic characteristics allow it to withstand deck expansions. Thus, even with
some deformations of steel, the bitumen will not crack and remains of quality to
accommodate the road traffic.
12. Testing of Bridges. Since bridge construction is an expensive project, it is
essential that all necessary tests may be conducted prior to the actual construction.
These tests and investigations can reveal the bridge behavior under different dynamic
loads. Computer aided design and testing are powerful tools that must be used to assist
in the bridge design. Bridge design has benefited considerably due to the growth of
computer programs. Such computer programs reveal immense information concerning
the effect of different forces being applied on a bridge. Wind tunnels are being used
extensively for the analysis of aircraft designs. Now these techniques are also being
applied for bridge design examination. A wind tunnel is basically a space that is
enclosed. Air at a fast speed is moved through the bridge model. Likely design and
structural defects can be discovered by photography and study of the air movement
pattern over the model.

 Geometric Design of Highways and Roadways

Starting out, it's best to define some terms that the readers might find confusing. The
terms are “road" and “roads and highways." Roads and highways can be defined as
land that has been cleared and improved so that people can move from one place to
another and deliver goods from place to place. Road on the other hand has wider
application to it and usually refers to the public’s transportation systems. Its usage is not
limited to roads and highways as it can also refer to railways.

Design Speed
Design speed, according to AASHTO, is the speed that is selected to determine the
conceptual design of the roadway that will have a major influence on traffic operations.
AASHTO states that the design speed should be set as maximum as possible so that
drivers are satisfied with the level of services of the road throughout its life span. Low
volume traffic ranging from 0 to 50 vehicles per day with design speed for flat terrain is
45 km/hour, rolling terrain with 30 km/hour, and mountainous terrain is 30 km/hour. It
can be concluded that the design speed of vehicles is influenced by the average daily
traffic and types of terrain.

Alignment
When a design engineer designs a road system, he/she should not design the roadway
with a sudden change from flat to sharp curve. This not only causes discomfort for
drivers, but also will invite accidents. This is where road alignment comes into use.
Alignment of a road is composed of horizontal and vertical alignment.
The intersection of a road must be provided with certain degree of curve which is
determined by its radius, so that when a vehicle is moving towards the corner of a road,
the driver of the vehicle will not feel any sudden changes while driving and will have a
comfortable driving experience. This curve is known as horizontal alignment and
usually provided on a horizontal profile of a road, which is simply known as the plan
view.
Vertical alignment is a curve provided by the designers during the design phase on the
vertical profile of a roadway. These curves consist of crest vertical curve and sag
vertical curve. The main objective of vertical alignment is to give a gradual change of a
road slope when a vehicle is moving uphill or downhill.

Grades

AASHTO has set maximum grades based on the types of roads and design speeds. For
low-volume local rural roads, grades may be 2% steeper. Roads with design speed of
70 miles per hour have maximum grades of about 5 % and a 30 miles per hour design
speed; AASHTO has set the maximum grades range from 7 to 12 %.

Width of Roadway

The design speed of vehicles will influence the width of the road and when the design
speed increases, the width of roadway also increases proportionally.
Sight Distance

The ability of a driver to see the road ahead is called sight distance. It is the most
important to the safety and smoothness of traffic operations of a road. The road design
engineer who is in charge of the design process must provide sufficient sight distance of
a certain length. Sufficient sight distance is crucial in road design so that drivers can
control their speed while driving and to avoid striking unexpected vehicles coming from
the opposite direction of travel. Roadways with two lanes must have sufficient sight
distance to enable drivers to overtake another vehicle safely without striking any vehicle
traveling in the opposite direction.

Superelevation

When a vehicle is navigating from a normal straight road to a curve, the elevation of the
left edge of the road will gradually get higher than the right edge of the road or vice
versa depending on the topography of the road. This is also known as superelevation or
road cambering, and its main purpose is to counter balance the centrifugal force of the
vehicle navigating on road corners.

 Road Structural Design

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed
materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the
applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to
provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light
reacting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the
transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not
exceed bearing capacity of the subgrade.
Two types of pavements are generally recognized as serving this purpose, namely
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This chapter gives an overview of pavement
types, layers, and their functions, and pavement failures. Improper design of pavements
leads to early failure of pavements affecting the riding quality
TYPES OF PAVEMENT – FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENT
The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible
pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred by
grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible
pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).
On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement
concrete roads). In addition to these, composite pavements are also available.
A thin layer of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most
desirable characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction
because of high cost and complex analysis required.

Flexible Pavements:
Flexible pavement can be defined as the one consisting of a mixture of asphaltic or
bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular material of
appropriate quality in layers over the subgrade. Water bound macadam roads and
stabilized soil roads with or without asphaltic toppings are examples of flexible
pavements.
The design of flexible pavement is based on the principle that for a load of any
magnitude, the intensity of a load diminishes as the load is transmitted downwards from
the surface by virtue of spreading over an increasingly larger area, by carrying it deep
enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material.
Types of Flexible Pavements
The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:
 Conventional layered flexible pavement,

 Full - depth asphalt pavement, and

 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).

 Failure of flexible pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking.
The fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom
of the asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load
repetitions to tensile strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue
test on asphaltic concrete specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as
indicated by permanent deformation or rut depth along wheel load path. Two design
methods have been used to control rutting: one to limit the vertical compressive strain
on the top of subgrade and other to limit rutting to a tolerable amount (12 mm normally).
Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking and thermal fatigue cracking.

 Road Cracks
Road distresses disturb and adversely affect the traffic flow and traffic safety leading to
poor performance of the road. They also cause an increase in fuel costs, result in time
delay and prove troublesome for every road user. Identification of the road cracks at an
early stage is essential as preventive road maintenance and effective remedial
measures can be applied before the problem becomes too severe and the pavement
fails. Pavement maintenance thus leads to enormous economic benefits in preventing
the pavement from failing. Also, the distresses whether of a smaller or larger scale are a
nuisance to the road users and may prove hazardous if neglected for a long period as
their condition worsens with time. Proper, timely and selective road maintenance thus
becomes an important principle which lengthens the life of the pavement and also
reduces the cost of maintenance.

1. Fatigue or Alligator Cracking:

Fatigue cracks are interconnected cracks that are
caused under the influence of repeated traffic loading.
Roads that face extreme climates and heavily loaded
vehicles undergo severe fatigue cracking. It is also
referred to as Alligator cracking as the crack pattern
resembles the skin of an alligator. Fatigue cracking if
not attended causes roughness and may lead to
structural failure, water seepage through the cracks
and can further degrade to form potholes.

2. Block Cracking in Roads:

Block cracking is in the form of interconnected

rectangular cracks. These types of cracks also cause
roughness and water seepage through the cracks.

3. Longitudinal and Transverse cracking:

Cracks formed in the direction of the traffic flow are termed as longitudinal cracks and
those that are formed perpendicular to the traffic flow are called transverse cracks.
(1st photo: Longitudinal Crack. 2nd photo: Transverse crack)
 4. Corrugation and Shoving:

It is in the form of a sudden wave in the

road surface and is perpendicular to the
direction of traffic flow and is mostly located
at the points where a vehicle starts or stops
in the road. It causes roughness and discomfort to the
driver.

5. Depression:

Localized road sections with a slight depression, it

causes roughness and collects water which may lead
to pothole formation.

6. Potholes:

Potholes are bowl-shaped depressions of varying

sizes in the pavement surface. They generally have
sharp edges. Potholes are most likely to occur on
roads with thin surfaces course. They are usually
caused when the severity of cracks increases. They
cause roughness and rider discomfort and are a
major cause of accidents especially at dark times
when there visibility is very low.

7. Raveling:

The crumbling up of the asphalt layer as a result of

the disintegration between the aggregate particles
and the asphalt binder. It causes roughness and
skid resistance problem and may lead to pothole
formation as the moisture infiltration increases
because of the openings.
 8. Rutting:

It is identified as the slight depression along the

wheel paths in a pavement. It is classified into two
types.

Mix rutting: when the rutting does not affect the

subgrade and Subgrade Rutting: When the rutting
is prominent in the subgrade.

9. Water Bleeding:

Water bleeding occurs when water seeps out of

joints or cracks or through an excessively porous
HMA layer.

10. Stripping:

The loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt

binder that typically begins at the bottom of the
asphalt layer and progresses upward. When
stripping begins at the surface and progresses
downward it is usually called raveling.

 ROAD EQUIPMENT:

For Asphalt Road Equipment.

1. Asphalt Plant is an assembly of specialized equipment,

which produces paving mixtures of aggregate and bituminous
material. It is erected and remains, at its selected site till the job
is done. They are commonly available in 100 to 150 ton-per-
hour (TPH)plants and 80 to 120 TPH plants.
(Photo taken during our On-the-Job training at ESR Asphalt Plant located at Kalawit,
Zamboanga del Norte)

2. Aggregate spreader is an attachment to

the tipping trucks, which can be adjusted to
deliver controlled quantity of aggregate over
the surface.

3. Rotary Sweeper is used to remove dust from the

surface before paving to obtain proper bonding
between newly laid asphalt and the old pavement.

4. Asphalt Distributor is a truck-mounted or

trailer mounted unit consisting of an insulated
tank, heating system, an asphalt pump, and
a circulating and spraying system.

5. Asphalt Paver receives hot bituminous mix and

places it to the desired thickness and cross
section. The standard paving width is 10 feet. This
can be reduced by cutoff shoes to a minimum
width of 8 feet, or extended to a maximum width of
12 feet. It is capable of paving 0.25” to 6 inches
at the travel speed of 12 feet to 64 feet per minute.

Concrete road Equipment

 1. Aggregate Batching Plant is
designed to proportion, rapidly and
accurately, the sand, gravel,
cement and water used in a
concrete mix. This equipment is
used to have mass production of
mix hence it is used in massive
concrete casting like bridge
construction or concrete road
paving.
(Photo taken during our On-the-job training at ESR Construction and Development
Company)

2. Concrete Mixer uses a revolving drum to mix

the components. For smaller volume works,
portable concrete mixers are often used so that
the concrete can be made at the construction site,
giving the workers ample time to use the concrete
before it hardens. An alternative to a machine
is mixing concrete by hand.

Earth-Moving Equipment
1. Bull Dozers is the most versatile earthmoving tool
as it accomplishes various tasks like pushing, towing,
ripping etc. Basically dozer blades consist of a
moldboard, cutting edges, end bits and blade arms
connecting the blade to the tractor. Blades vary in size
and type Straight blade, Angle blade, and Special
purpose blade are the main types. Dozers are also
equipped with rippers at the rear of the tractor.

2. Loader is mainly used for material handling. The

following works can be done with this machine-
 Lowering materials to hopper-
 To lift and haul around short distance.-
 Light and medium excavation and dozing-
 Land clearing
 3. Excavator are other highly versatile
machines in the sense; they can be equipped
with several different types of front-end
operating attachments, which are easily
interchangeable. Excavators are generally
available on three types of mountings. Crawler,
Truck, and self-propelled Tyre Mountings. The
common attachments available are Shovel, Hoe,
Dragline, and Clamshell- type Bucket.
(Photo taken during our On-the-job training at
ESR Construction and Development Company)

4. Scraper are primarily designed for self-

loading, hauling and dumping during the
earthmoving phase of construction. This
machine is used during the construction of
roads where massive earth excavation is to be
done. Generally borrow pit material are
excavated with this machine. This machine is
capable of excavation, loading, hauling,
dumping and compacting. Hence, it may
be called a multi-purpose machine.

5. Graders are multipurpose machines used for

grading, shaping, bank sloping, and ditching and for
general construction and maintenance of roads.
Grader can be employed for leveling and crowning,
mixing and spreading, ditching and bank-sloping
and side-casting material. It may also be used for
light striping operations but it is not intended for
heavy excavation. Grade is also equipped with
scarifier, which is used to break the hard material.
6. Dump Truck, known also as a dumper truck or tipper truck, is used for taking dumps
(such as sand, gravel, or demolition waste) for construction. A typical dump truck is
equipped with an open-box bed, which is hinged at the rear and equipped with hydraulic
rams to lift the front, allowing the material in the bed to be deposited ("dumped") on the
ground behind the truck at the site of delivery.
 7.

Road roller (sometimes called a roller-

compactor, or just roller) is a compactor type engineering vehicle used to compact soil,
gravel, concrete, or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundations.
Similar rollers are used also at landfills or in agriculture.

8. Forklift truck is a powered industrial truck used

to lift and move materials over short distances. The
forklift was developed in the early 20th century by
various companies, including Clark, which made
transmissions, and Yale & Towne Manufacturing,
which
made
hoists.
9. A crane is a type of machine, generally
equipped with a hoist rope, wire ropes or
chains, and sheaves, that can be used both to
lift and lower materials and to move them
horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting heavy
things and transporting them to other places.

SOUTHERN MINDANAO COLLEGES

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 PAGADIAN CITY

LLANOS, STEPHENE IMEE P.