Grouting

Grouting is the application that we utilize a mix of cement and sand along with other material
(such as epoxy) to fill the spaces that may result during some construction operation.
Grout is a dense fluid which is used to fill gaps or used as reinforcement in existing
structures. Grout is generally a mixture of water, cement, and sand, and is employed in
pressure grouting, embedding rebar in masonry walls, connecting sections of pre-cast
concrete, filling voids, and sealing joints such as those between tiles. Some common uses for
grout in the household include: filling in tiles of shower floors and kitchen tiles. It is often
colour tinted when it has to be kept visible, and sometimes includes fine gravel when being
used to fill large spaces (such as the cores of concrete blocks). Unlike other structural pastes
such as plaster or joint compound, correctly mixed and applied grout forms a waterproof seal.

Tunnelling
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and
enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel,
though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than
traditional tunnel boring methods.
A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central
portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply
water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Utility tunnels are used for
routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as
connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment.

Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons,
contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife
to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks.

Geotechnical investigation and design

A major tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by
collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice
can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will
reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route, the
horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water
conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required,
in order to excavate through solid rock or other material that is easier to support during
construction.

Conventional desk and preliminary site studies may yield insufficient information to assess
such factors as the blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up
times of softer ground. This may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels. To give
more information, a pilot tunnel (or "drift tunnel") may be driven ahead of the main
excavation. This smaller tunnel is less likely to collapse catastrophically should unexpected
conditions be met, and it can be incorporated into the final tunnel or used as a backup or
emergency escape passage. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be drilled
ahead of the advancing tunnel face.

Other key geotechnical factors:

 Stand-up time is the amount of time a newly excavated cavity can support itself
without any added structures. Knowing this parameter allows the engineers to
 determine how far an excavation can proceed before support is needed, which in turn
affects the speed, efficiency, and cost of construction. Generally, certain
configurations of rock and clay will have the greatest stand-up time, while sand and
fine soils will have a much lower stand-up time.
 Groundwater control is very important in tunnel construction. Water leaking into a
tunnel or vertical shaft will greatly decrease stand-up time, causing the excavation to
become unstable and risking collapse. The most common way to control groundwater
is to install dewatering pipes into the ground and to simply pump the water out. A
very effective but expensive technology is ground freezing, using pipes which are
inserted into the ground surrounding the excavation, which are then cooled with
special refrigerant fluids. This freezes the ground around each pipe until the whole
space is surrounded with frozen soil, keeping water out until a permanent structure
can be built.
 Tunnel cross-sectional shape is also very important in determining stand-up time. If a
tunnel excavation is wider than it is high, it will have a harder time supporting itself,
decreasing its stand-up time. A square or rectangular excavation is more difficult to
make self-supporting, because of a concentration of stress at the corners.[5]

Choice of tunnels versus bridges

For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. However,
navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridge spans
intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel. Bridges usually require a larger
footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, and urban, this is a
strong factor in favor of a tunnel.

Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with
tides, weather, and shipping during construction, aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-
ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more
feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge).

Construction
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of
tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water
conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of
supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk
management.

There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use. Cut-and-cover tunnels are
constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over. Bored tunnels are constructed in situ,
without removing the ground above. Finally a tube can be sunk into a body of water, which is
called an immersed tunnel.

Cut-and-cover

Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is

excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load
of what is to be built above the tunnel.[9] Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling are
available:

 Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground support as necessary, and

the tunnel is constructed in it. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete,
precast arches, or corrugated steel arches; in early days brickwork was used. The
trench is then carefully back-filled and the surface is reinstated.
 Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed from
ground level by such methods as slurry walling or contiguous bored piling. Only a
shallow excavation is needed to construct the tunnel roof using precast beams or in
situ concrete sitting on the walls. The surface is then reinstated except for access
openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface
features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base
slab is constructed.

Tunnelling Route Studies

In a tunnel route study, the following issues should be considered:

• Subsurface, geological, and geo-hydraulic conditions
• Constructability.
• Long-term environmental impact
• Seismicity.
• Land use restrictions
• Potential air right developments
• Life expectancy.
• Economical benefits and life cycle cost
• Operation and maintenance
• Security.
• Sustainability.

Geotechnical factors Investigations for tunnelling:

1. Geotechnical investigations are critical for proper planning of a tunnel.

2. Selection of the alignment, cross section, and construction methods is influenced by the
geological and geotechnical conditions, as well as the site constraints. Good knowledge of
the expected geological conditions is essential. Tunnel alignment is sometimes changed
based on the results of the geotechnical to minimize construction cost or to reduce risks.
3. The type of the ground encountered along the alignment would affect the selection
of the tunnel type and its method of construction.
4. Study of the impact of geological features on the tunnel alignment in the presence of
active or inactive faults. During the planning phase, avoid crossing a fault zone. If it is un
avoidable then proper measures for crossing it should be implemented. Presence of faults
or potentially liquefiable materials would be of concern during the planning process.
5. Geotechnical issues such as the soil or rock properties, the ground water regime, the
ground cover over the tunnel should be analysed. The investigation should address not just
the soil and rock properties, but also their anticipated behaviors during excavation.
6. The investigation should also address groundwater. For example, in soft ground SEM
tunneling, the stability of the excavated face is greatly dependent on control of the
groundwater. Dewatering, pre-draining, grouting, or freezing are often used to stabilize the
excavation.
7. Analysing the ground behaviour during tunneling will affect potential settlements on the
Surface. Measures to minimize settlements by using suitable tunneling methods or by
preconditioning the ground to improve its characteristics would be required.
8. Risk assessment is an important factor in selecting a tunnel alignment. Construction
risks. Sensitive existing structures. Very Hard spots (rock, for example) beneath parts of a
tunnel
Geotechnical Investigations

To successfully plan, design and construct a road tunnel project requires various types of
investigative techniques to obtain a broad spectrum of pertinent topographic, geologic,
subsurface, geo-hydrological, and structure information and data. Although most of the
techniques and procedures are similar to those applied for roadway and bridge projects, the
specific scope, objectives and focuses of the investigations are considerably different for
tunnel and underground projects, and can vary significantly with subsurface conditions and
tunneling methods.
A geotechnical investigation program for a tunnel project must use appropriate means and
methods to obtain necessary characteristics and properties as basis for planning, design
and construction of the tunnel and related underground facilities, to identify the potential
construction risks, and to establish realistic cost estimate and schedule.
The extent of the investigation should be consistent with the project scope (i.e., location,
size, and budget), the project objectives (i.e., risk tolerance, long-term performance), and the
project constraints (i.e., geometry, constructability, third-party impacts, aesthetics, and
environmental impact).
It is important that the involved parties have a common understanding of the geotechnical
basis for design, and that they are aware of the inevitable risk of not being able to
Completely define existing subsurface conditions or to fully predict ground behaviour during
construction.
Investigation program
For planning and design of a road tunnel project may include the following components:
• Existing Information Collection and Study
• Surveys and Site Reconnaissance
• Geologic Mapping
• Subsurface Investigations
• Environmental Studies
• Seismicity
• Geospatial Data Management
Typical stages of a road tunnel project from conception to completion are:
• Planning
• Feasibility Study
• Corridor and Alignment Alternative Study
• Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) and Conceptual Design
• Preliminary Design
• Final Design
• Construction

Information Study
The first phase of an investigation program for a road tunnel project starts with collection and
review of available information to develop an overall understanding of the site conditions and
constraints at little cost.
Existing data can help identify existing conditions and features that may impact the design
and construction of the proposed tunnel, and can guide in planning the scope and details of
the subsurface investigation program to address these issues.
Published topographical, hydrological, geological, geotechnical, environmental, zoning, and
other information should be collected, organized and evaluated. In areas where seismic
condition may govern or influence the project, historical seismic records are used to assess
earthquake hazards.
Records of landslides caused by earthquakes, documented by the USGS and some State
Transportation Departments, can be useful to avoid locating tunnel portals and shafts at
these potentially unstable areas.
Topographical Data
Topographic maps and aerial photographs that today can be easily and economically
obtained, are useful in showing terrain and geologic features (i.e., faults, drainage channels,
sinkholes, etc.). When overlapped with published geological maps they can often, by
interpretation, show
geologic structures.
Aerial photographs taken on different dates may reveal the site history in terms of earthwork,
erosion and scouring, past construction, etc.
Surveys and Site Reconnaissance

Site Reconnaissance and Preliminary Surveys:

The lower-resolution contour maps are sufficient only for planning purposes. However, a
preliminary survey will be needed for concept development and preliminary design to expand
existing topographical data and include data from field surveys and an initial site
reconnaissance. Initial on-site studies should start with a careful reconnaissance over the
tunnel alignment, paying particular attention to the potential portal and shaft
locations. Features identified on maps and air photos should be verified. Rock outcrops, often
exposed in highway and railroad cuts, provide a source for information about rock mass
fracturing and bedding and the location of rock type boundaries, faults, dikes, and other
geologic features. Features identified during the site reconnaissance should be photographed,
documented and if feasible located by hand-held GPS equipment.

Subsurface Investigations:

Ground conditions including geological, geotechnical, and hydrological conditions, have a

major impact on the planning, design, construction and cost of a road tunnel, and often
determine its feasibility and final route.
Fundamentally, subsurface investigation is the most important type of investigations to
obtain ground conditions, as it is the principal means for:
• Defining the subsurface profile (i.e. stratigraphy, structure, and principal soil and rock
types)
• Determining soil and rock material properties and mass characteristics;
• Identify geological anomalies, fault zones and other hazards (squeezing soils, methane gas,
etc.)
• Defining hydrogeological conditions (groundwater levels, aquifers, hydrostatic pressures,
etc.); and
• Identifying potential construction risks (boulders, etc.).
Subsurface investigations typically consist of borings, sampling, in situ testing, geophysical
investigations, and laboratory material testing. The principal purposes of these investigation
techniques are summarized below:
• Borings are used to identify the subsurface stratigraphy, and to obtain disturbed and
undisturbed samples for visual classification and laboratory testing;
• In situ tests are commonly used to obtain useful engineering and index properties by testing
the material in place to avoid the disturbance inevitably caused by sampling, transportation
and handling of samples retrieved from boreholes; in situ tests can also aid in
defining stratigraphy;
• Geophysical tests quickly and economically obtain subsurface information (stratigraphy
and general engineering characteristics) over a large area to help define stratigraphy and to
identify appropriate locations for performing borings; and
• Laboratory testing provides a wide variety of engineering properties and index properties
from representative soil samples and rock core retrieved from the borings.

Test Borings and Sampling:

Various field testing techniques can be performed in conjunction with the test borings as
well. In general, borings should be extended to at least 1.5 tunnel diameters below the
proposed tunnel invert. Borings at shafts should extend at least 1.5 times the depth of the
shaft for design of the shoring system and shaft foundation, especially in soft soils.

Sampling - Overburden Soil:

Standard split spoon (disturbed) soil samples (ASTM D-1586) are typically obtained at
intervals not greater than 5 feet and at changes in strata. Continuous sampling from one
diameter above the tunnel crown to one diameter below the tunnel invert is advised to better
define the stratification and materials within this zone if within soil or intermediate
geomaterial. In addition, undisturbed tube samples should be obtained in each cohesive soil
stratum encountered in the borings; where a thick stratum of cohesive soil is present,
undisturbed samples should be obtained at intervals not exceeding 5m.
Sampling – Rock Core:
In rock, continuous rock core should be obtained below the surface of rock, with a minimum
core diameter of 2.16 inch or 54.7 mm. For deeper holes, coring should be performed with
the use of wire-line drilling equipment to further reduce potential degradation of the
recovered core samples. The rock should be logged soon after it was extracted from the core
barrel.
Borehole Sealing:

All borings should be properly sealed at the completion of the field exploration, if not
intended to be used as monitoring wells. This is typically required for safety considerations
and to prevent cross contamination of soil strata and groundwater.

Test Pits

Test pits are often used to investigate the shallow presence, location and depth of existing
utilities, structure foundations, top of bedrock and other underground features that may
interfere or be impacted by the construction of shafts, portals and cut-and-cover tunnels. The
depth and size of test pits will be dictated by the depth and extent of the feature being
exposed.

Geophysical Testing
Geophysical tests are indirect methods of exploration in which changes in certain physical
characteristics such as magnetism, density, electrical resistivity, elasticity, or a combination
of these are used as an aid in developing subsurface information. Geophysical methods
provide an expeditious and economical means of supplementing information obtained by
direct exploratory methods, such as borings, test pits and in situ testing; identifying local
anomalies that might not be identified by other methods of exploration; and defining strata
boundaries between widely spaced borings for more realistic prediction of subsurface
profiles.
Typical uses of geophysical tests include determination of the top of bedrock, the ripability of
rock, the depth to groundwater, the limits of organic deposits, the presence of voids, the
location and depth of utilities, the location and depth of existing foundations, and the location
and depth of other obstruction, to note just a few.

Groundwater Investigation
Groundwater is a major factor for all types of projects, but for tunnels groundwater is a
particularly critical issue since it may not only represent a large percentage of the loading on
the final tunnel lining, but also it largely determines ground behavior and stability for soft
ground tunnels; the inflow into rock tunnels; the method and equipment selected for tunnel
construction; and the long-term performance of the completed structure.
Groundwater investigations typically include most or all of the following elements:
• Observation of groundwater levels in boreholes
• Assessment of soil moisture changes in the boreholes
• Groundwater sampling for environmental testing
• Installation of groundwater observation wells and piezometers
• Borehole permeability tests (rising, falling and constant head tests; packer tests, etc.)
• Geophysical testing
• Pumping tests

Environmental Issues
Although tunnels are generally considered environmentally-friendly structures, certain short-
term environmental impacts during construction are unavoidable. Long-term impacts from
the tunnel itself, and from portals, vent shafts and approaches on local communities, historic
sites, wetlands, and other aesthetically, environmentally, and ecologically sensitive areas
must be identified and investigated thoroughly during the project planning and feasibility
stages, and appropriately addressed in environmental studies and design. .

Seismicity

The release of energy from earthquakes sends seismic acceleration waves traveling through
the ground. The factors that can affect the response of the ground during earthquakes.
• Distance of the seismic source from the project site.
• Magnitude of the seismic accelerations.
• Earthquake duration.
• Subsurface profile.
• Dynamic characteristics and strengths of the materials affected.
Conclusion:
Geology plays a very important role in this. Any adverse and unforeseen geological
conditions may influence the safety of tunnels, loss of life, construction time and costs.
When a tunnel or shaft is excavated, the rock stresses are perturbed around the opening and
displacements will occur. Important aspects which needs to be considered are related to the
construction works, geology, environment and operation.

Engineering Geology
Introduction
Geology together with its influence on topography is a key factor that significantly controls
route selection through the following:
• Earthworks and ease of excavation
• Foundation conditions
• Geo-hazards such as landslides and other ground movements, expanding and
collapsing soils, earthquake and volcanic hazards, surface and sub-surface erosion,dune
migration etc.
• Availability and suitability of materials for construction.
Route selection, probably more so than any other aspect of the project cycle, is reliant on
adequate assessment of geology and, in particular, engineering geology. The outcome of
insufficient attention to engineering geology is often an uneconomic, unsafe, environmentally
incompatible and unsustainable product in the long term.

Topography and Route Selection Implications

The type of terrain encountered in the route selection process can have a profound influence
on the choice of alignment.

Earthquakes
The assessment of earthquake risk should be considered in route selection, and it may have an
important bearing when long lengths of alignment encounter active faults or where large
structures, including major bridges might be required to be constructed in the vicinity of
active faults and seismically active zones. Information such as the spatial distribution of
significant historical earthquakes and recurrence of events, epicenter depth and focus,
magnitude, peak ground acceleration, attenuation with distance from the focus and duration
of the force will be required in any seismic risk assessment. The extent to which these factors
will influence route selection per se will vary from project to project: it may be the case that
all route options are affected in the same way by seismic risk and the issue is therefore more
of a consideration for route corridor selection and detailed design.

The following considerations should be born in mind when reviewing seismic risk for
alignment selection:
• Faults, depending on their activity, could present a significant source of seismic hazard.
Identify active and potentially active fault lines and fault zones and avoid locating
structures in their vicinity.
• Identify and avoid unstable soils such as loose, saturated sands as they are particularly
susceptible to liquefaction during earthquakes, leading to flow slides or unstable foundation
conditions.
• Volcanoes, depending on their activity (see below), could present localized seismic
hazards. Identify and avoid areas where there is a history of active volcanic activity.
High Groundwater
Groundwater investigation and assessment should form part of engineering geological studies
carried out for highway design, but should also be considered in general terms during route
selection. Potential adverse effects of high groundwater include:

It has a crucial role in slope stability as it influences strength of slope forming rocks and soils.
Increasing pore water pressures, and subsequent decrease in shear strength, reducing apparent
cohesion of slope forming materials due to capillary forces upon saturation, softening of eak
materials (clay, shale, marl, tuff, ash etc.), chemical and hydrothermal alteration and solution
(limestone, gypsum, salt) are some of the detrimental effects of groundwater.

In addition, groundwater and seepage has implications in:

• Increased susceptibility of slopes to landslides

• Hydrothermal alteration, solution and salt precipitation, and the influence of these
processes on material strength, the presence of cavities and the weakening of concrete
and corrosion of steel
• Excavation stability and practicality of compaction, drainage of pavement layers and
potential pumping and heaving effects
• Foundation of structures in relation to hydrostatic uplift While these effects are more
relevant to detailed design they should be considered in route selection, and the following
studies are recommended:
• Identify saturated zones and avoid areas with shallow water tables to the extent possible
• Identify and avoid seepage lines and springs
• Identify and avoid faults, fault zones and auto-brecciated contacts as they are typical
weakness planes and may potentially provide sources of large seepage flows, and
failure zones in slopes and foundations.

Ground subsidence and collapse

Ground subsidence and collapse refer to vertical movement of the ground caused by the
presence of cavities and open joints in rocks, tubes in ‘ropy lava’ and large voids in chaotic
landslide debris. Ground subsidence can be classified into three general categories:
• Regional subsidence related to excessive ground water abstraction, cavities from abandoned
underground mines.
• Sudden ground collapse related to soluble carbonate and sulphate rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, gypsum, salt rocks; and open tubes and former lava vents in volcanic rocks.
• Soil subsidence and heave related to hydro-compaction in collapsible soils, settlement
in compressible soils, piping failures in dispersive soils and swelling and shrinkage in
expansive soils.
For route selection it will be necessary from desk study to:
• Identify local aquifer characteristics, areas of abandoned underground mines and avoid
highly hazardous conditions.
• Identify solution susceptible rocks, collapsible, dispersive, compressible and expansive
soils.

Geo-hazards
Geo-hazards can pose significant constraints to the construction and operation of road
infrastructure, and therefore should be critically important to route selection in all terrain
types.
Geology and tectonic setting, combined with climate and hydrology, create conditions that
encourage the occurrence of a range of geo-hazards. These occur naturally and are often also
triggered or exacerbated by road construction.

Problematic rocks and soils

Problematic rocks range from expansive, soft, porous, deformable, susceptible through
soluble and highly fissile to those prone to softening, slaking and rapid deterioration. Such
rocks owe their adverse engineering characteristics to their mineralogical composition, fabric
and discontinuities (geological structures). Problematic rocks can be of igneous, sedimentary
or metamorphic origin.
Common problematic rocks and typical problems that they present.

Groundwater
Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer
when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures
and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table.
Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at
springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for
agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The
study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called
groundwater hydrology.
Typically, groundwater is thought of as water flowing through shallow aquifers, but, in the
technical sense, it can also contain soil moisture, permafrost (frozen soil), immobile water in
very low permeability bedrock, and deep geothermal or oil formation water. Groundwater is
hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is
likely that much of Earth's subsurface contains some water, which may be mixed with other
fluids in some instances. Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. Groundwater is
often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water.
Therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides
the largest source of usable water storage. Underground reservoirs contain far more water
than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes

Polluted groundwater is less visible and more difficult to clean up than pollution in rivers and
lakes. Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land.
Major sources include industrial and household chemicals and garbage landfills, excessive
fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, industrial waste lagoons, tailings and process
wastewater from mines, industrial fracking, oil field brine pits, leaking underground oil
storage tanks and pipelines, sewage sludge and septic systems.