Geotechnical Engineering (FCE 511)

 
 

Introduction to Earth Dams

 
 Introduction to Earth Dams
The procedures taken in the design and
construction of earth dams include:
Thorough pre-design and preconstruction
investigation of the dam foundation conditions and of
the construction materials and design of dams.
Application of engineering skills and techniques
to design
Carefully planned and controlled construction
Carefully designed and installed
instrumentation and monitoring of the completed
dams
 Earth dams

Carefully designed and constructional dams are

in excess of three hundred meters high. Our own
Thika dam which supplies the Nairobi residents with
water rises some sixty three meters above its
foundation.
 Causes earth dam failures
Cause of Failure % Type of failure

Overtopping 30 Hydrological

Seepage effects (piping, 25 Geotechnical

sloughing etc)
Conduit leakage 13 Geotechnical/Structural
Slope slides 15 Geotechnical
Miscellaneous 7 General
Damage to slope 5 Maintenance
Unknown causes 5 General
 Earth dams
The design and construction techniques covered
in this chapter are applicable to all dams.
However the design and construction of small
dams in Kenya is well covered in the manual prepared
by Ministry of Water (1985). Small dams are those
whose height does not exceed 15 metres and or its
impounded volume does not exceed one million cubic
meters
The procedures covered in this chapter are
inappropriate for the design and construction of dam
materials presenting the followings characteristics
 Earth dams
Extremely soft, or dispersive or materials with high
plasticity

Exceedingly pervious foundations

Exceedingly fractured foundations

These conditions require specialized testing and

analysis of the presenting conditions in order to arrive at
an appropriate design
 Selection of type of earth dam

The layers are well bonded into one another to

achieve the necessary requirements of the
particular layer.

The materials are borrowed from borrow pits

and from the reservoir area of the dam.

Earth dams fall into three categories namely,

diaphragm, homogenous and zoned
 Diaphragm types
This type of dam is constructed with pervious
materials namely sands, gravels and or rock. An
impervious diaphragm is constructed to act as the
main barrier to seepage.

The diaphragm is usually made of concrete, or

bitumen.

Or thin compacted earth. In this case the width of

the diaphragm at any depth is either less than three
meters or it thickness at any elevation is less than the
height above that elevation.
 Diaphragm types
All internal diaphragms whether made of rigid
materials like concrete or even compacted earth have
potential of cracking caused by differential movement
of induced during consolidation of the dam
embankment materials, fluctuating water levels or
settling foundations.

Internal concrete diaphragms can not be readily

inspected.
 Earth diaphragms
Require protection with filters, protection
against erosion and wave action. Are protected by
rock fill and rock riprap.

Usually protected from internal erosion by

filters usually in the form of geotextiles

Diaphragms are not readily inspected during

routine or emergency inspections.

If most of the material in a diaphragm dam is

rock, then this type of dam is referred to as a rock
dam discussed below.
 Homogenous types

The material in this type of dam must be

sufficiently impervious to act as the barrier for the
seepage. Because the impervious materials are
inevitably clays which are weak in stability but good as
barrier to the seepage the slopes tend to be rather
flatfish. The usual slopes on the upstream side of the
dams are 1:3.5 to 4 while for the down slope slopes
need slopes of 1:2.5 to 1:3
Inevitably appears on the downstream side at a
height of about 1/3 of the height of the dam.
 Homogenous types
Rock toes and horizontal blankets are usually used
to avoid the seepage breaks on the down slope side of the
dam. Riprap protection is also used on the upstream side
to arrest erosion occasioned by the waves on the
upstream side of the dam.
Drainage and filter layers are designed to meet filter
requirements. Inclined filters in combination with
horizontal filters built with well graded sand and
surrounded by geotextiles have become a normal
practice.
 Because modification of the homogenous dams has
led to successful dams the use of completely homogenous
dams is now not allowed.
 Homogenous types
The homogenous dams are preferred where
other materials of contrasting permeability are
unavailable.
 Alternatively they should be used where
impervious material forming the embankment is
abundant and available principally in the dam area
and within the vicinity of the dam.
 Zoned types

A central core is of impervious material is

franked by more pervious materials.
The permeability of dam embankment materials
increases from the core to the outside franking shells.
The materials enclose support and protect an
internal impervious core. The upstream sections
provide stability during rapid drawdown. The
downstream pervious materials act as drainage to
control the line of seepage. It is usual to place a filter
material between the impervious material and the
downstream pervious materials.
 Zoned types
The impervious inner layers are basically clays
typically the red coffee soils. The pervious layers are
sands, gravels, cobbles, boulders and rocks.
If a variety of soils are available the type of dam
of choice is the zoned dam (Bureau of reclamation
1985). It has inherent advantages of stability and
reduced seepage across the dam wall.
 Design Principles
The dam should be constructed so that a satisfactory
performance at minimum cost is attained.
An earth dam must be stable during all phases of the
construction and the operation of the reservoir. To
accomplish this, following criteria must be met:
The foundation, the embankment,, abutments,
and reservoir sides must be stable and should not
develop unacceptable deformations during
construction or during the usage of the structure
Sufficient seepage control must be ensured to
ensure that excessive piping, instability; sloughing,
material erosion is under control. ing
The reservoir sides should be stable under all
operating conditions to prevent landslides into the
reservoir. It is to be noted that a landslide into the
reservoir could cause large wave to overtop the dam.
Adequately sized spillway which allows design flow
floods to pass without overtopping the embankment.
Free board allowance should be sufficient to prevent
waves from overtopping the dam.
The dam should be provided with camber which
allows settlement of the foundation and the abutment to
take place.
Protection against wave action
Protection against rain erosion and animal grazing
 Foundation design
Foundations must be stable under all
conditions and to offer sufficient resistance to
seepage to prevent loss of water.
Determine the seepage and stability
conditions of foundations in
An appropriate field testing accompanied
by field testing is usually necessary
 For treatment purposes the foundations
can be grouped into Rock foundations,
Foundations of coarse grained materials
(sand and gravel) and Foundations of fine
grained materials (silt and clay)
 Rock foundations

No bearing capacity problems.

Seepage problems which have to be addressed.
Establish faults and any areas of excessive
weathering.
Perform in-situ tests to determine the permeability
of the rock structure.
Excessive permeability leads to uplift pressures,
high water pressures through rock crevices, fissures,
permeable strata, and/or fault planes,
 Grouting
Grout ordinarily consists of cement water
mixture in the ration of 10:1 in the case of rich mix to
0.8:1 in the case of a lean mix. Some additives to the
cement water mix is usually done to improve the
pumping. The most used additive is betonite .
A centerline curtain of grout of holes spaced at
three to six meters is adequate.
 Where large zones of fracture occur below the
dam wall and in the immediate upstream of the dam a
blanket grout on grid is desirable. The depth of the
grouting is usually in the region of 3 to 10 metres.
A blanket grouting of the foundation directly
below the impervious zone is desirable.
 Sand gravel foundations
Generally these foundations have sufficient
strength to adequately support the loads induced by the
embankment and the reservoir.
The main problems of these foundations are under
seepage and subsequent forces exerted by this seepage.
Foundations on looses sands are suspect and
should generally be avoided as the sand has the potential
of collapse under load. These type of foundations
should be avoided or specialized advice sought.
 Sand gravel foundations
Estimate under seepage should be estimated from
values of coefficient of permeability of the strata.
The coefficient of permeability of the strata should
be determined by established methods including pump
out tests, tests conducted by observation of boreholes
when pumping is performed in a test borehole or pump
in tests as described in FCE 311.
The magnitude of the seepage forces should also
be determined by analyzing the flow net of the water
flow under the dam. This topic has been covered in FCE
411.
 Sand gravel foundations
The methods of treatment aim at control of the
under seepage and the control of the subsequent seepage
forces to prevent the undesirable effect of foundation
erosion and piping at the exit of the dam.
Excessive treatment of a detention dam might not
be necessary while treatment of foundation of a water
supply dam might be prudent.
The various treatment techniques are now
presented
 Cutoff Trenches
Where possible this is usually the treatment of choice.
The cutoff should extend down to bedrock or to other
impervious strata.
This treatment ensures no future difficulty will be
experienced in piping and or uplift of the dam

h
d Pervious sand gravel
w
Impervious rock
 Partial cutoff
A partial cutoff that does not go all the way to
the foundation,
It is designed to a proportion of the depth to the
rock or to impermeable layer.
The reduction in area is not proportional to the
reduction in the flow. Thus the reduction cannot be
estimated from the flow equation
The action of the partial cut off is similar to that
of an obstruction of in a pipe.
 Experiments have shown that a 50% cutoff
results in 25% reduction of the seepage while an 80%
cutoff results in 50% reduction in the seepage.
 Sheet piling and Slurry trench
•Sheet piling
An expensive method of cutting of the seepage
through the foundation of an earth dam.
Seepage continues to pass through the sheet pilling
interlocks. Can be used sometimes in conjunction with
the cutoff trenches. The sheet piles cannot be
performed in cobbles and boulders

•Slurry trench
This is a trench excavated and filled with concrete
below the impervious layer. The trench is kept in
position by placing bentonite before concreting to form
 Grouting
Improves the stability and reduces the permeability of
pervious foundations under dam walls.
Grouting materials include:
• Cement – water
• Cement – bentonite – water
• Bentonite
Grouting is usually an expensive process and it
should be allowed after extensive testing and
evaluation.
 Upstream blankets and embankment toes
Upstream blankets
These are usually made of same material as the
impervious core material. In effect the path of the
underseepage is increased and hence the loss of water is
reduced.
•Downstream embankment toes
•Reduce uplift pressures at the exit of the dam and
readily permit discharge and prevent piping of the fines
•Convey the discharge
Achieved by
•Extending the downstream zones
•Pervious downstream shells or by use of horizontal
blankets or use of toe drains
 Embankment Design

Embankment slopes
Design parameters include gradation, composition and
corresponding behavior of the soils under different
conditions of saturation and loading.
The stress – strain relationships can be very complex.
Design of earthfill dam embankment depends largely
on successfully designed, constructed and well
performing dams.

The stability of slopes to the embankments to be

checked under the follow conditions.
 The stability of slopes
Stability during and end of construction.
Embankment has not had the time to have the pore water
in the foundations and the embankments drained. The
pore water pressures are highest in the embankment
materials. The strength parameters applicable are the
undrained parameters.

Steady seepage conditions. The core of the dams act

as the water barrier of dam.
The rate of penetration of water will depend on the
permeability of the core material at steady seepage
conditions a phreatic surface will be developed at the
highest level in the embankment.
 The stability of slopes
The steady seepage conditions is critical for the
downstream slope. Under these conditions the water
has been impounded the seepage has stabilized through
the embankment. The flow net has been established. All
the excess pore water pressures have dissipated.

The slopes of the dam are checked using drained

parameters of the foundations and the embankment
materials
 The stability of slopes

The slopes of the dam are checked using drained

parameters of the foundations and the embankment
materials.
•Rapid drawdown conditions. Stabilizing effects of the
water in the reservoir has been removed on the upstream
slope. The rapid drawdown leaves high pore-water
pressure in the embankment. The upstream slope is
usually in its weakest state. It is to be noted that a
drawdown of up to 40 meters per day is considered as
rapid.
•The upstream slope of the dam is checked using
drained parameters of the foundations and the
Stability under severe seismic conditions.
•The above conditions should be subjected to
acceleration of the embankment occasioned by seismic
activities
•Protection against erosion.
•Erosion arising out of the wave action and sloughing as
the level of the water fluctuates. This is mitigated by
use of appropriate upstream protection by use of stone
riprap.
•Erosion a result of the precipitation and made worse by
grazing animals. The usual practice is to fence off the
dam area and to plant grass and appropriate trees.
•Design factors in stability check
The stability check is usually to ensure that the shear
stresses induced in the embankments are resisted by the
mobilized shear strength. The shear stresses are from
the externally applied loads which include reservoir
weight and earthquake forces. Additionally internally
generated forces from the self weight of embankment
 σ1

σ τ
σ3
θ

External and internal forces produce a compressive

stress along the sliding surface. This mobilizes the
shearing strength which resists shearing along the
surface being checked.
 3.2

With increase in pore water pressure the shear stress

remains the same

Shear strength is reduced by the increase in the

pore water pressure

There is need to understand and taking care of the

changes in the pore water regime
A suitable FOS is applied in stability analyses
 Compaction
The more saturated the soil is the higher the likely
hood of developing high pore-water pressures.
To minimize the development of high pore-water
pressures it is compact the earthworks just dry of
optimum.
However for low dams it has been found
satisfactory to compact earthworks at MDD and
OMC.
At this moisture content the material is able to
conform to the shape of the foundation and the
abutments.
 Inspection of existing dams
General appearance
•Sagging crest and signs of slope failures
•Wet patches
•Slope protection measures such as Soil erosion –
gullies and looss of riprap etc
Spillway
•Recalculate the adequacy of the spillway. This topic
is covered separately under hydrology
•Check field indicators of adequacy of the spillway –
water marks, blockages etc
•Is the gear control working for mechanical spillway
gates
•Any structural failures in the concrete, or cracks
 Inspection of existing dams
Gauge house
•Are the instruments in good working order
•Have they been vandalized

Reservoir area
•Assess the siltation
•Assess the conservation measures being undertaken
in the neighborhood of the dam
•What is the state of the fence of the reservoir fence
for the fenced reservoirs?
AOB
 Ndakaini dam
Crest 2045 masl
11000
Full storage level 2041 masl
2030 masl 2.25
3000 1 2025 masl
Draw-off tower 4000
2015 masl 1
3
1.5
1 Downstream shoulder
3000 5
2.25
upstream shoulder 1 1 2005 masl
2000 masl Core

70000
3.5
4000
1
10000 Filter drain
2.75
1
Drainage layers
culvert 2.25
1 1985
intake Drainage blanket 5000 masl
2.2
1
outlet
Original Ground level

Draw-off pipe

70 m deep grout curtain

 Kwa Tabitha Dam, Kitui district Dam

Crest 1101 masl

Gross freeboard 5000 crest protection murram
1500
500

Normal water level ( 1100 masl)

Grassing
3
2300

1 Protective Core 2
gravel 300mm 1
10m stand off pipe Hand placed
Draw off riprap300mm sand filter
pipe Toe drain

5000 1000 Cattle

1000
trough
5000
 Birica Dam, Nyeri district Dam

Crest 2169 masl

Gross freeboard 5000

300mm Protective gravel

1500

Normal water level

2.5
1 2.5
300mm Hand placed riprap 1
5000

2m long stand-off pipe Original ground level

sand filter

7000 8000 15000 8000

 Kwa Kasenga Dam, Machakos district

Crest
7000
Gross freeboard
1500
500

Normal water level

300mm Protective gravel 2.5

7000
3 Homogeneous embankment 1
5000

1 300mm Hand placed riprap

1000
sand filter

4000

1000
5000