COURSE CODE: FCE 525

COURSE TITLE: WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING I

Key Textbooks:

1. Water Resources Engineering by David A. Chin 2nd Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall;
2006.
2. Water Resources Engineering by Ray K. Linsley; Joseph B. Franzini; David L. Freyberg;
George Tchobanoglous, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1992.

Other Reading Books:

1. Hydrology and Water Resources Engineering by S.K. Carg; 11th Edition, Khana
Publishers; 2000.
2. Elements of Water Resources Engineering by K.N. Duggal and J.P. Soni; New Age
International Publishers; 2007.
3. Hydrology for Engineers by Ray K. Linsley JR.; Max A. Kohler; Joseph L.H. Paulhus; 3rd
Edition; McGraw-Hill International Book Co; 1984.

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1. INTRODUCTION TO WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

1.1 What is WRE?

 WRE may be defined as the conception, planning, design, construction and operation of facilities
to control and utilize water.

 Water resources problems are not only the concern of engineers but may also involve other
professionals e.g. Economists, political scientists, geologists, chemists, biologists etc.

 Each water development project is unique in its physical conditions hence standard designs which
lead to simple handbook solutions do not always apply.

 The special conditions of each water resources project should be met through an integrated
application of the fundamental knowledge of many disciplines.

1.2 Fields of WRE

 Water is controlled and regulated to serve a wide variety of purposes.

 Flood mitigation
 Land drainage
 Sewerage
 Highway culvert design.

 These are applications of water resources engineering to the control of water so that it will not
cause excessive damage to property, inconvenience to the public, or loss of life.
 Water supply
 Irrigation
 Hydroelectric power development
 Navigation improvements

 These constitute utilization alternatives for beneficial purposes.

 Water Quality Management is another field of WRE concerned with pollution control to preserve
the water sources for beneficial use.

1.3 Quantity of Water

The job of a water resources engineer may be reduced to a number of basic questions.

Since a water resources project is mainly concerned with the control or use of water the pertinent
questions the engineer is faced with are:
1. How much water is needed (use socio-economic aspects)?
2. How much water is available or expected (application of hydrology)?
3. Who may use the available water (application of water law)?

In answer to question No. 1:

- Social and economic aspects of use must be considered besides the engineering.

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 - On the basis of an economic analysis a decision must be made on the life span for which the
proposed engineering works must be adequate.
- In considering water use it is important to distinguish between several aspects.

o Diversion or withdrawal of water from a system.

o Introduction of water into a system.
o Consumption – water that is evaporated or combined in a product and is no longer
available for use.

In answer to question 2:

- All project designs depend on the amount of water available or can be expected to be available.
- Peak rates of flow are the basis of design of projects to control excess water.
- Volume of flow during long periods of time is the important factor in designing a project.
- Application of hydrology- (the study of occurrence and distribution of natural waters of the earth)
– provides the answer.

In answer to Question No. 3:

It is important to note that water flowing in a stream is not necessarily available for use by any person or
group desiring it at anytime.

- Where water is scarce the right to use water has considerable value.
- Like all other things of value, water rights are protected by law.
- The water law also controls;

 Diversion of stream flow which may cause damage to property.

 Alterations in natural flow conditions

Hence the legal implications should be taken into account in the planning of the project.

1.4 Water Quality

- Available water must meet the standards of quality for the intended utilization.
- Regulatory government agencies must always maintain surveillance on the water sources to
 Guard against pollution by careless discharge of wastes.

- Where quality does not meet the utility requirements the engineer has to provide the necessary
facilities to remove impurities from the water by physical, chemical, or biological methods.

1.5 Hydraulic Structures

Control, withdrawal and utilization of water resources involve the design and construction of major and
minor hydraulic structures which must be carefully planned.

Why?
- They cost a lot of money.
- They may have adverse environmental impacts.
- They may be a source of major disaster.

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2. PLANNING FOR WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

2.1 What is planning?

 The orderly consideration of project from the original statement of purpose (or objective) through
the evaluation of the alternatives to the final decision on a course of action.
 Includes all the work associated with the design of a project except the detailed engineering of
individual structures.
 Forms the basis for the decision to proceed with (or abandon) a proposed project.
 Each individual step toward the final decision should be supported by quantitative analysis rather
than estimates.
 Includes the evaluation of alternatives by the principles of engineering economy.

2.2 Levels of Planning

 National - Gives broad guidelines including all aspects of economic development but
may specify targets for water management.

 Agencies - e.g. River Valley Dev. Authorities, Ministry of Water Development – deal with
specific projects
 Provincial level
 District level
 Private Developers – Missions, other institutions

2.3 Phases of Planning

 Reconnaissance study – usually a coarse screen to identify those projects that need further study
and eliminate those that are obviously infeasible (usually based on evaluation of existing
information).

 Feasibility Study - may be one or more. There may be a pre-feasibility study to study
various aspects of proposal.
- Here a thorough evaluation of the proposed activity is undertaken in order to
formulate a description of the most desirable actions to be taken. E.g. for the Kerio
Valley–Lake Victoria inter-basin water transfer: the desirable features were
navigation, hydropower, irrigation, etc.
 Design of specific project – production of specifications and construction drawings.

2.4 Why so many phases of planning?

- Sequential studies reduce planning costs by testing the weakest aspects of the project first; e.g. if
the project is eliminated because of some aspect, the expense of studying all the other aspects will
have been avoided.

BUT: The series of studies should not be allowed to become a series of increasingly more
thorough reviews of all aspects of the project otherwise the cost will be increased because many
aspects will have been repeated several times.

2.5 Objectives of Planning

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 - Feasibility of a project e.g. water supply project, implies that it will effectively serve its intended
purpose without any serious negative impacts.
- To measure feasibility the project objectives or purposes need to be specified prior to planning.
The rules for measuring achievement or success must also be specified.

- At National level objectives are normally broad e.g.

1. Enhancement of national economic development
2. Enhancement of quality of environment
3. Increase national food production
4. Encourage regional development
5. Improve transportation etc.

- At project level (e.g. river basin authority level) objectives may be translated into more specific
goals, for example:-

Increase of food production by adopting irrigation farming; land drainage, flood protection and
other non-water related actions e.g. fertilizer application, education of farmers, improved seeds,
etc.

- Planning process will test all these alternatives or their appropriate combinations.

2.6 Data Requirements

- The problem at hand should be assessed as carefully as possible and the factors most likely to be
critical in shaping the plan should be identified.

Example:
In an arid area the availability of water will be a critical factor in the feasibility of an irrigation
project.

- Most data required will depend on the problem at hand but generally in water resources planning
these data are current data describing existing conditions of:

1. Land use must be available when needed or collected at any

2. Population time prior to need
3. Topography
4. Available water resources, hydropower potential, etc.

Also historical data including;

5. Hydrological and climatological data collected over a period of time. If this historical
data is inadequate, installation of new stations must be undertaken at inception of plan so
that some data will be available. This data includes:
- stream flows, water levels in lakes, etc.
- rainfall, humidity, rainfall days
- evaporation, sunshine days, solar radiation
- wind speeds and directions

6. Geological data to determine foundation conditions e.g. for dams, groundwater potentials,
artificial recharge of groundwater, etc.

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2.7 Project Formulation

- Begins when the necessary basic data and projections for future conditions are assembled.
- Starts with a listing of all the alternatives;
- First step is definition of boundary conditions which restrict the project: e.g.

o Physical limitations – e.g. no possibility of navigation on torrential mountain streams

o Locational limitations – flood control for an existing city whose boundary and location
cannot be changed.
o Maximum useable areas e.g. land area available
o Available water may be limited to only minor changes.
o Policy restricting certain land for specific purposes e.g. game reserve or park, or
recreational areas.
o Possible site for dam or storage may be defined and then limiting capacities evaluated
o Legal constraints
o Certain points of water use that exist, and which must be continued.

- Constraints may eliminate some alternatives from consideration

- The alternatives that might exist also include:

 Engineering alternatives – locations, heights, capacities

 Management alternatives – flood plain regulation
 Alternative objectives – what needs to be maximized?
 Institutional alternatives – who should manage?
 Timing alternatives – delay or speed up?

- Systems analysis: Involves the optimization methods to enable the planner to select the best of
all alternatives.

- There are 3 levels of optimization:

1. Optimization of individual features of a project e.g. by using the cost-diameter or
headloss – diameter functions for a pipeline to determine the least cost ( optimum)
solution;
2. Optimization of a single project; - e.g. by sub optimization of the various project units (or
components) an optimum of the total project is obtained.
3. Optimization of a system of projects e.g. multiple reservoirs, levees, canals, etc. This is
achieved successfully by simulation (or operational study) through a computer
programme into which many alternative combinations can be quickly worked out.

2.8 Multiple Purpose Projects

- Why consider multiple uses of water resources or project facilities?

 Because multiple uses of project facilities may increase benefits accruing to the project
without a proportional increase in costs hence economic justification for the project.

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  The multiple uses of a hydraulic multi-purpose project may include:-

o Water supply
o Irrigation
o Hydropower
o Navigation
o Recreation
o Flood mitigation
o Sanitation
o Conservation of wildlife

- What is a multi-purpose project?

Only those projects which are planned, designed and operated to serve two or more
purposes should be described as multiple-purpose.

- The basic factor in multipurpose design is compromise, i.e. there should be a reasonable
efficiency of operation of each purpose.

- Maximum efficiency is not necessarily attained for any single purpose.

- The physical elements of a multiple-purpose dam project, for example, may not differ from that
of a single – purpose project e.g. (dam, spillway, spillways, gates, power plant).

- BUT: the unique feature is the selection of the physical works and an operational plan which
forms an effective compromise among the various uses.

- For example:

In allocating reservoir storage in a multipurpose dam, it can be assumed that

1. No storage is jointly used

2. All storage is jointly used

o In case (1) storage requirements for all functions must be compounded to create a large
storage requirement. This can be economically attained only when unit cost of storage is
constant or decreases as total storage increases.
o In case (2) maximum economy is achieved since the required storage is not greater than that
necessary for any one of the several purposes.

HOWEVER:

Situation in case (2) is rare and the multipurpose dam project is designed to fall somewhere
between these extremes

2.9 Functional Requirements of a Multi-purpose Project

 Success obtained in achieving joint use of say storage space in a multipurpose dam project
depends on the extent to which the various purposes are compatible.

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  A review of the requirements of the various uses is therefore needed and also consideration be
taken of ways in which uses can be coordinated.

Examples:

Irrigation:
 Water requirements are seasonal with a maximum during the dry season and a minimum during
the wet season.
 Annual variations are minimal except during low-rainfall years, and also when project are is
increased.
 Irrigation storage is an insurance against drought; therefore it is desirable to maintain as much
storage as possible according to current demand.

Water Supply:
 Domestic requirements are constant throughout the year.
 Domestic demand increases slowly over the years, hence need to plan for this increase.
 Adequate reserve is needed to avoid water shortage especially during drought.
 Drinking water quality preservation may preclude the reservoir from some recreational uses.

Hydropower:
 Demand has seasonal fluctuation depending on area served and also connection to the grid
system. Hence there is flexibility in coordinating power needs with other uses.
 Hydropower production is a non-consumptive use of water hence it is quite compatible with other
uses.

Navigation:
 Reservoirs required to sustain downstream flows in navigation channels have marked seasonal
water requirements.
 Peak water requirements occur towards the end of the dry season when natural river flow tends to
be minimum.
 Reservoirs required to replenish slack-water flow in streams for navigation must have limited
height because of provision of locks to govern water depth in navigation channel.

Therefore: such reservoirs have limited storage for other water uses.

Flood Mitigation:
 Basic requirement is a sufficient empty space for storage to permit the withholding of flood water
during the rainy season; the reservoir must therefore be empty to receive the flood waters when
they occur.

Recreation:
 Recreational reservoirs should remain nearly full all the time during the recreational season to
permit boating, water games, etc.
 A reservoir subjected to large drawdown will be unsightly and present problems of dock or
landing maintenance, beach maintenance, etc.

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Fish and wildlife conservation:
 Main problems involve protection, change in habitat created by reservoir construction which may
eliminate some species of wildlife and increase presence of others.
 Provision of fish ladders may be necessary for migratory fish to go and breed upstream.
 Rapid and large fluctuations in reservoir level are harmful to fish, especially during the spawning
time because eggs are laid around the edges of the reservoir.
 Complete stoppage of flow downstream of the dam is also destructive to fish and wildlife.
 Dams should not flood spawning areas otherwise hatcheries should be provided, to maintain
economical fish runs.

Pollution Control:
 Reservoirs built mainly for low-flow augmentation i.e. the release of water during the low flow
season to provide dilution water to a stream receiving waste water discharges to help it to better
assimilate the wastewater.
 Release from reservoir may increase pollution if there are water quality changes in the reservoir
especially due to salt accumulation as a result of evaporation.
 Algae growth or decay of vegetative matter in the reservoir may depress dissolved oxygen in the
deeper levels of the reservoir.

2.10 Compatibility of Multi-purpose Use

Examples:
- Irrigation, water supply and navigation all require a volume of water which cannot be jointly
used; therefore a project combining these functions must provide a separate allocation of storage
space.
- Since hydropower production is a non-consumptive use, any water release for other uses can be
used for power generation.

BUT, a certain amount of storage should be provided in case the fluctuations in power release do not
appropriately coincide with the requirements of other uses. Also a regulating dam should be provided
downstream to smooth out the fluctuations.

- A reservoir creating a pool for slack water navigations may be used for power generation. Also if
the dams are made a little higher this might provide space for additional storage for flood
mitigation.
- Flood mitigation is least compatible of all uses because it requires empty space for storage. But
some space is always made above spillway level for flood mitigation; when there is no flood this
space may be used for something else so long as there is enough inflow to fill it.
- Recreation benefits are enjoyed as opportunity permits i.e. during the times when it is possible to
maintain full reservoir levels especially during the high tourist season. Alternatively, sub-
impoundments may be provided for swimming, etc.
- The same conditions apply to fish and wildlife production.

2.11 Environmental Considerations

- Necessity to recognize the interrelationships among water pollution, air pollution, and solid waste
disposal:
o The role of water supply in population dispersion;
o The consequences of water project construction on local ecologic relationships;

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 o The effect of water projects on water pollution;

- Necessity to ask or critically evaluate the NEED (real) for a project.

- Examples of environmental consequences of water resources projects may include the following.
 Degradation of downstream channel or coastal beaches by loss of sediment trapped in a
reservoir.
 Loss of unique geological, historical, archaeological or scenic sites flooded by a
reservoir.
 Flooding of spawning beds for migratory fish preventing their reproduction, or
destruction of spawning gravel by channel dredging or lining.
 Change in stream water temperature as a result of a reservoir leading to changes in
aquatic species (or biodiversity) in the streams.
 Release of reservoir bottom water which may be high in dissolved salts or low in oxygen
resulting in change of biodiversity.
 Drainage of swamps decreasing the opportunities for survival of aquatic species.
 Change in water quality as a result of drainage from an irrigation project which may
encourage growth of algae in the receiving stream or lead to change in biodiversity due to
increase in salinity of the receiving stream.
 Creation of a barrier to normal migration routes of land animals by a reservoir.

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3. RESERVOIRS

- Reservoirs are of 2 types:

1. Storage or conservation reservoirs

2. Distribution reservoirs – e.g. Elevated tanks in distribution networks

- The storage or conservation reservoirs e.g. dams built across rivers can also be used for flood
control, irrigation purposes, power generation, fish farming, etc.
- Reservoir can be multipurpose – i.e. used for the above purposes simultaneously or single
purpose designed to serve only one purpose.

3.1 Physical Characteristics of a Reservoir

(w.r.t. storage reservoirs only)

3.1.1 Storage Capacity

o For a regulator shaped reservoir any formula for volume of solids will give the storage
capacity of the reservoir.

o For natural reservoirs several methods are used for estimating the storage capacity (or
volume).

 Contour maps of the reservoir site

 Surveyed cross-sections of the reservoirs

o From the surveyed cross-sections of the reservoir one can plot the area elevation curve which
when integrated produces the elevation storage (or capacity) curve.

o The capacity curve of a reservoir defines the volume available for storage below a certain
elevation; the curve is the integral of the area-elevation curve.
o The increment of storage between 2 elevations is usually computed by multiplying the mean
of the areas at the 2 elevations by the elevation difference. The summation of these
increments below any level is the storage volume below that level.

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3.1.2 Normal Pool Level

o It is the maxim elevation to which the reservoir surface will rise during ordinary operating
conditions. For most reservoirs the normal pool level (or elevation) is determined by the
elevation of the spillway crest or top of spillway gates.

3.1.3 Minimum Pool Level

o It is the minimum level to which the pool is to be drawn under normal operating conditions.
This level may be fixed by the elevation of the lowest outlet in the body of the dam.
Alternatively, in the case of hydropower reservoirs, by the conditions of operating efficiency
of the turbines e.g. the minimum head required.

3.1.4 Useful Storage

o It is the storage volume between the minimum and the normal pool levels. In multipurpose
reservoirs the useful storage is divided into:

1. Conservation Storage
2. Flood control storage

o According to the plan of operation, during the floods, discharge over the spillway may cause
the water level to rise above the normal pool level. This is known as the surcharge storage
and it is normally uncontrolled. The water level will rise to the maximum pool level
determined by the design flood.

3.1.5 Dead Storage

o It is the volume below the minimum pool level. It is storage not available for any useful
purpose.

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 3.1.6 Bank Storage

o Reservoir banks are usually permeable and water enters the soil when the reservoir fills and
drains out as the water level is lowered.
o This bank storage effectively increases the capacity of the reservoir above that indicated by
the storage-elevation curve.
o The amount of bank storage depends upon the local geological conditions and may amount to
several percentages of reservoir volume.

3.1.7 Valley Storage

o When the flow in the stream increases, the depth of flow must also increase. As the depth
increases a quantity of water is stored temporarily until the run off weight decreases. This is
known as valley storage.

Thus considering a reach of channel in a time Δt:

Inflow volume into the reach = outflow volume from the + valley storage.

o Therefore over a period of time, the water in a natural stream channel occupies a variable
volume of valley storage.

o The net increase in the storage capacity resulting from the construction of the reservoir = total
capacity – natural valley storage.

o In flood control reservoirs, the effective storage = useful storage + surcharge storage – valley
storage corresponding to the rate of inflow into the reservoir.

3.2 Reservoir Yield

 The yield is the amount of water which can be supplied from the reservoir in a specified interval
of time e.g. 1 day for small distribution reservoirs, or a year or more for large storage reservoirs.

 The yield of the reservoir depends on the inflow and hence varies from year to year.

3.2.1 Safe or Firm yield (Draft)

- Is the maximum quantity of water which can be guaranteed during a critical dry period

3.2.2 Secondary Yield

- Is the water available in excess of safe yield during periods of high flow

- Power commitments to domestic or other essential uses must be made on the basis of firm yield
only unless a standby or supplementary unit e.g. a diesel or steam power plant is available.

- Power generated from the secondary yield may be used for irrigation and any other purposes.

- The average yield = ½ Firm + Secondary over a long period of time.

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 Yield Yield
3.3 Selection of Capacity of a Reservoir

 The process of selecting the capacity for a reservoir is also known as Operational Study. This can
be demonstrated by the following example.

- Given below are the monthly inflows during the critical low water period in a dry year at the site
of a proposed dam; the corresponding monthly pan evaporation and precipitation at a nearby
station; and the estimated demand for water. On consideration of water priorities it is essential to
release the full natural flow or 100,000m 3/month, whichever is less. Assuming that 80% of the
rainfall on the land area is to be flooded by the reservoir is immediately available and using an
average net increased pool area of 4km2 in your computations:

- What would be the required useful storage (capacity) of the reservoir for the period of 6 months
from October to March both inclusive? The pan coefficient is 0.7.

Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March

Inflow vol. m3 2*106 30,000 10,000 5,000 1,000 3,000
Pan evaporation 9 15 17 14 8 6.5
(cm) 12 3 5 2 0 14
Precipitation (cm) 40,00 80,000 130,000 140,000 130,00 30,000
Water demand m3 0 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Month Flow Pan Precip. Demand D/s Evap. Precip. Adjusted Req.
vol (m ) evap
3
cm (m3) priority Vol. (m3) Vol. (m3) flow vol. Capacity
cm Req. (m3) (m3) (m3)
Oct 20x103 9 12 40x103 100x103 252x103 384x103 2032x103 0
Nov 30x103 15 3 80x103 30x103 420x103 96x103 -324x103 404x103
Dec 10x103 17 5 130x103 10x103 466x103 160x103 -306x103 436x103
Jan 5x103 14 2 140x103 5x103 392x103 64x103 -328x103 468x103
Feb 1x10 3
8 0 130x103 1x103 224x103 0 -224x103 354x103
March 3x103 6.5 14 30x103 3x103 182x103 448x103 266x103 0
TOTAL 1662X103

Solution tips:
 Col (6): fill in the lesser of natural flow and 100 x 10 3m3 the downstream priority requirement.
 Col (7): given that the increased pool area is 4 km 2 (meaning that when the reservoir is full the
flooded are is 4 km2), therefore evaporation volume is calculated as:

Col(3) m x 0.7 x (4x 106) = evaporation vol. in m3

100
 Given that the proportion of precipitation available = 80%,

Col. (8) = Col(4) m x 0.8 x (4x 106) = precipitation vol. in m3

100
 Adjusted flow volume is given by:

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 Col. (9) = Col. (2) + Col. (8) - Col. (7) - Col. (6)

 The required storage capacity (useful storage) is calculated from:

Col. (10) = Col. (5) - Col. (9) when result is +ve; or = 0 if result is –ve.

 The determination of the required capacity of a reservoir is called an “operation study” and is a
simulation of the reservoir operation for a period of time following a set of rules.
 The operation study may analyze only a selected “critical” period of low flow; in this case the
study will define the capacity required during the selected drought.
 Alternatively the study may use a long period of synthetic data record to estimate the reliability of
reservoir of various capacities.
 Operation study can be performed with annual, monthly, or daily time intervals. For small
reservoirs, daily or weekly data are used because the sequence of flow within a month may be
critical.
 Monthly data are commonly used but for large reservoirs which carry-over storage for many
years, annual intervals are used.
 When lengthy synthetic data are analyzed, computers are employed using the sequent peak
algorithm. Here the cumulative sum of inflows less withdrawals (including evaporation and
seepage) are calculated.
 The first peak (local max. of cumulative net inflow) and the sequent peak (next following peak >
the first) are identified.
 Net storage for the interval is the difference between the initial peak and the lowest trough in the
interval.

Sequent
Peak
(+ve) Sequent Peak

Peak 1
∑ (Flow-Demand)

Maximum
Storage Storage

Time

(-ve) Sequent Peak Algorithm

3.4 Mass Curve Technique (or RIPL DIAGRAM)

 A cumulative plotting of net reservoir inflow (i.e. inflow adjusted for evaporation and required
releases for downstream users).
 The slope of the mass curve at any time is the measure of the inflow at that time.

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  Demand curves representing a uniform rate of demands are straight lines.
 If demand curves are drawn tangent to the high points of the mass curve they represent rates of
withdrawals from the reservoir.
 Assuming that the reservoir is full whenever a demand line intersects the mass curve, the
maximum departure between the demand line and the mass curve represents the reservoir
capacity required to satisfy that demand.
 The vertical distance between successive tangents represents water spilled over the spillway.
 If demand is not uniform the demand line becomes a curve known as a mass curve of demand but
the analysis in the same.

BUT
 The demand line for non-uniform flow must coincide chronologically with the mass curve i.e.
June demand must coincide with June inflow.

Capacity to satisfy demand

Year
Demand/

Capacity

1year
d

3 4

3.5 Reservoir Site Selection

 It is virtually impossible to locate a reservoir site having completely ideal characteristics

 General rules for choice of reservoir site are as follows:-
1. A suitable dam site must exist; the cost of dam construction is a controlling factor in site
selection;
2. The cost of relocation of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railway, cemetery, housing, schools,
market centres, cultural sites, etc) for the reservoir must also not be excessive;
3. Site must have adequate capacity for intended operation of the reservoir;

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 4. A deep reservoir is preferable to a shallow one because of lower land cost/unit of capacity; it
has less evaporation losses, and less weed growth.
3.6 Reservoir Sedimentation

 The ultimate destiny of all reservoirs is to be filled with sediment.

 If sediment inflow is large compared to the total capacity of a reservoir, the useful life of the
reservoir will be very short.
 Reservoir planning must include consideration of the probable rate of sedimentation in order to
determine the useful life of a reservoir before it is constructed.
 Sedimentation occurs as a result of 2 processes;
1. Erosion of soil
2. Transport of the eroded soil (sediment) by water.

1. Erosion of soil may be due to several causes but the major ones are
o Rain
o Flowing water
- For water flowing through a channel at depth D, the shear stress Г exerted on the channel bed due
to the motion of water is given by:

Г = γDs

Where γ is the unit weight of water

s is the longitudinal slope of the channel bed
D is the depth of channel

-
The shear stress Г is a function of the soil properties, cover on the channel bed and the
slope of the channel.
2. Transport of sediment by water;

- The concentration of soil sediment in moving water in a natural channel may be expressed at any
depth y as:

C
Ca
=
( D
× )
D− y a z
y ❑

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Where C = concentration of sediment of sediment in the water at a depth y
Ca = concentration at any finite depth a
D = depth of channel
w
z=
kU∗¿ ¿

Where w = fall velocity of the sediment particles in the sediment water mixture
k = von Karman’s constant
U* = shear velocity =
√ Г0
ρ

And Г 0 = shear stress at the channel bed

ρ = mass density of the sediment water mixture

Depending on the particle size the total sediment load is classified as:

1. Bed material load – the load scoured from the channel bed
2. Wash load – the sediment collected as the water flows along

 The transport of the bed material load is due to the fluid transmitted stresses, while the transport
of wash load is due to minor turbulence only.
 Depending on the mode of movement of sediment particles, the total sediment load can be
divided into:
1. Bed load which moves by:

o Sliding or rolling along the bed

o Saltation – hopping and rolling

2. Suspended load – always moving in suspension as the water flows along

 A state of equilibrium is always aimed at by the flow in a river.

 At a particular discharge Q, a river tends to maintain a channel slope s and will have a capacity to
transport a certain load W of sediment of a particular mean size d50.
 If any of these factors changes, the other factors are also affected.
 Therefore the equilibrium may be achieved after some interval of time in which case at any
particular time the river stays at a quasi – equilibrium state.
 The total amount of sediment that passes any section of a stream is known as the sediment yield
and is given by:

The total load = Bed load + suspended load

(100%) (5-20%) (80-95%)

3.6.1 Estimation of Amount of Sediment in a Channel

 This is done by establishing a sediment rating curve for the particular channel
 The relation between suspended sediment transport Qs and stream flow Q is represented by a
logarithmic plot:
Qs = kQn n = 2 to 3 and k is very small

18
  Continuous records of steam discharges are maintained by gauging stations and also sediment
load gauging stations can be installed.
 Flow synthesizing techniques are used to estimate future flows assuming this relationship will be
holding in future years.

 The relation between suspended sediment transport Qs and stream flow Q is represented by a
logarithmic plot:

Qs = kQn n = 2 to 3 and k is very small

 Continuous records of steam discharges are maintained by gauging stations and also sediment
load gauging stations can be installed.
 Flow synthesizing techniques are used to estimate future flows assuming this relationship will be
holding in future years.
 If Q increases Qs will increase but this relationship will not be maintained throughout i.e. Qs vs Q
is an average relationship.

 WHY? With the first rise of a flood in a river, most of the erosion occurs hence there will be a
large amount of sediment to be transported; as the flood continues the sediment content of the
water will decrease.
 For a channel of discharge Q, the power available in the water which is imparted to the soil to
cause erosion is given by: P = Q γ s

3.6.2 Measurement of Qs (sediment flow)

 Sub-divided into:
a) Bed – load measurements
b) Suspended load measurements
c) Total load measurements
 For measurement of bed-load samples are taken from bed–load flow region which is located 10–
20cm above the channel bed. For small rivers, samples are obtained by pumping from this
region.

R e g ion o f b e d lo a d flo w

1 0 -2 0 cm

19
  For larger rivers a scoop type of sample is used. The scoop is placed at the channel bed and left
there for some time interval for the sediment to collect inside; the scoop is then removed and the
accumulated sediment measured.
 The sediment load measured is expressed in parts per million (ppm) or mg/l.
 Due to discontinuous flow of sediment along the channel bed and the interaction between water
and channel bed, the sediment forms ripples on the channel bed. As flow changes further, the
ripples change to dunes i.e. with the increase in Froude No. of flow, i.e.

a) ripples are formed

b) dunes are formed
c) flat bed results (occasionally) then
d) anti dunes begin to form

 Because of the non-uniform flow or movement of dunes along the channel bed, there is usually a
difficulty in obtaining samples from the channel bed.

3.6.3 Suspended Load Measurements

a) Point integrating samplers – kept at a fixed depth

b) Depth integrating samplers – lowered and removed at a known constant velocity

 By keeping the sampler at different points of the channel depth the sediment concentration at
each depth can be obtained.
 The depth sampler is lowered into the water and then lifted up. The sampler is designed such that
whatever depth it is at, it will allow sediment inflow at a constant rate. The depth sampler gives
an average sediment concentration along the channel bed directly.
 The equi-transit-rate (ETR) method is a type of depth sampling in which the sampler is lowered
and removed at a uniform rate. Sediment sampling is fast and the average concentration is
obtained directly.

20
3.6.4 Errors inherent in sediment measurements

Reasons for errors in sediment sampling in streams are as follows:

1. The presence of the sampler itself is sufficient to disturb the flow pattern and as such the intensity of
sediment concentration is not correctly obtained.
2. Often it is difficult to give the sampler a correct vertical and horizontal alignment with respect to the
direction of motion of the sediment flow.
3. No bed-load sampler can collect all the sizes (i.e. from the coarsest to the finest) of the bed load. The
fraction of the actual bed load caught by a sampler is influenced by the type of sampler used and the
relation between the geometry of the sampler and the size and geometry of the bed form i.e. ripples,
dunes, etc.
4. The accuracy of bed-load measurements by using radio-active tracers is affected by the amount of
background concentration of the tracer in the stream and the degree of mixing of the tracer with the
sediments between the point of introduction and point of sampling.
5. Accuracy in suspended load measurements is affected by the following factors;

a) The suspended load samplers do not traverse a region of about 10 cm above the channel bed.
Since sediment concentration is maximum near the channel bed a significant proportion of
the suspended sediment may remain unmeasured.
b) Experimental evidence indicates that the standard deviation of the depth integrated suspended
load concentration at a vertical may be 10% or more of the mean.
c) The depth integrated concentrations between 2 verticals in the x-section measured on the
same day may differ by more than 100%.
d) Verticals having maximum and minimum concentrations in a x-section change position with
time.
e) In a cross-section the verticals for maximum concentration of different size ranges may not
coincide.

3.6.5 Sediment inflow into a reservoir

 As reservoir silts up, the already deposited silt gets consolidated and the density of this silt may
vary between 0.64 – 1.76 g/cm3
 Freshly deposited sediment has a density of 0.80 – 0.88 g/cm 3 whereas old deposits may have a
density of 1.04 – 1.12 g/cm3.

21
  The mean density for sediment is usually 0.96 g/cm3

 The ratio of sediment trapped in reservoir to the amount of sediment brought into the reservoir is
known as TRAP EFFICIENCY.

Trap eff. = amount of sediment trapped in the reservoir

amount of sediment brought into reservoir

 The efficiency depends on the capacity – inflow ratio of the reservoir

 Trap efficiency increases with residence time of the sediment – laden water in the reservoir.
 Most sediment enters a reservoir during periods of high inflow and most of it will be discharged
over the spillway if the capacity-inflow ratio is small.
 Although reservoirs of large capacity have higher trap efficiencies they have a longer life before
the useful capacity is silted up. Hence large reservoirs are more economical than small reservoirs
with small trap efficiency but short life-span.

3.6.6 Capacity Inflow ratio

- This is the ratio of reservoir capacity to the total inflow of water into it.
- It has been found that the trap efficiency is a function of capacity – inflow ratio

η=f ( Capacity
Inflow )

- From curve we can see that if capacity reduces (with constant inflow) trap efficiency reduces, and
hence lesser sediment is trapped.

22
 - Silting rate in the reservoir will be more in the beginning, and as its capacity reduces due to
silting, the silting rate will also reduce hence complete reservoir silting may take a longer period.

3.6.7 Reservoir Sedimentation Control

 In real life sedimentation of reservoir cannot be prevented; it may only be retarded. So the rules
of planning require that you:

1. Select site where sediment inflow is low naturally; some basins are more prolific sources of
sediment than others due to soil type, land slopes, soil cover, and rainfall characteristics.
Avoid these prolific sites if there is an alternative.
2. Provide a large enough capacity to create a useful life sufficient to warrant construction of the
reservoir.
3. Use soil conservation methods within the drainage or catchments basin

o Terracing
o Strip cropping
o Contour ploughing, etc. to reduce erosion
o Check dams in gullies to retain some sediment and reduce sediment flow into stream
o Vegetal cover to reduce impact force of raindrops and minimize erosion.

Note: if stream is denied its normal sediment load it will tend to scour its bed or cave its banks.
Therefore, stream bank protection by revetment, vegetation, etc, is necessary.

4. Prevent sediment accumulation in reservoir by providing means of discharge of some

sediment.

23
4 FLOOD ROUTING

4.1 Reservoir Routing

 A process that shows how a flood ware can be reduced in magnitude and lengthened in time
(alternated) by the use of storage in the reach between two points of a stream.
 Routing techniques are used to compute the hydrograph which will result from a specified pattern
of rainfall excess.

Inflow rises very fast

Discharge Q

out flow
(routed flow)

 The flood is caught up in the reservoir and then released at a shower rate and intensity. The effect
of the flood downstream is therefore reduced.
 In some instances this delayed flow of the flood waters into the downstream channel from the
reservoir can facilitate arrangements for evacuation before flooding occurs.
 Reservoir routing is based upon the continuity equation, which states that in time Δt:
 Total Inflow into = total outflow + change in
the reservoir from the reservoir reservoir storage

[ ] [ ]
I 1+ I
2
2
∆ t=
O1+O
2
2
∆ t +¿ i.e. ( I −Q )=
dS
dt
(1)

Where:
I1 = rate of inflow at the beginning of time Δt
Q1 = rate of outflow at the beginning of time Δt

I2 = rate of inflow at the end of time Δt

Q2 = rate of outflow at the end of time Δt

S1 = storage in the reservoir at beginning of Δt

S2 = storage at the end of time Δt

 Rearranging the equation (1)

24
 [ ] [
I 1+ I 2
2
O1
2 ][ O2
∆ t+ S 1− ∆ t = S2 + ∆ t
2 ] (2)

 To make use of this equation we need:

1. Reservoir characteristic curves

a) Capacity curve – storage-elevation curve
b) Outflow elevation curve (discharge curve)
2. Anticipated incoming flood – inflow hydrograph

 From curves 1 and 2 we plot the outflow-storage curve (choice of Δt depends on total time of
analysis).

25
Routing Procedure (PULS METHOD):

1. Find the out-flow rate at the beginning of 1st Δt; then mark the point on the ordinate of the out-flow-
storage graph;
2. Plot (I1 + I2) Δt parallel to the abscissa from the S – Q Δt curve;
2 2
3. Erect a vertical from this point up to the S + O Δt curve (call this point A);
2
4. From point A move backwards to the ordinate (// to the abscissa) and read off the outflow O 2 at B;
5. Using the elevation – discharge curve, find the water storage level in the reservoir at the end of Δt;
6. Move to the corresponding point on the S – O/2 Δt curve i.e. point C;
7. From point C, plot (I1 + I2) Δt for the next time interval;
2
8. Repeat the procedure from step (3), etc.

-Alternative method of Plotting the D – S curves

Suppose Δt = 6 hrs

Therefore: O Δt = O (6x60x60)

i.e. the distance between the S-O/2Δt and S + O/2Δt curves

= O(¼ x 24( (60 x 60)

= ¼O (24x60x60)
= O quarter cumec days.

- So the storage axis is plotted in quarter – cumec-days

- From the S – O curve, plot O/2 to the left to locate C and O/2 to the right to locate A

- If Δt = 12 hrs, we change the storage scale to ½ cumec-days

i.e. storage in m3 = ½ x 24 x 60 x 60

- If Δt = 24 hrs the storage scale is plotted in 1 cumec-day

26
4.2 Routing in Channels

 Routing in a natural river channel is complicated by the fact that storage is not a function of
outflow alone.
 There tends to be a greater storage for a given outflow during the rising stages of a flood than
during the falling stages.
 One of the most popular methods of routing is known as the Muskingum method.

The Muskingum’s Method of River Routing

 The method was advanced by McArthy of the U.S Corps of Engineers

 The same formula as the one used in Pul’s method is used i.e.

[ ] [ ]
I 1+ I
2
2
∆ t−
O1+O
2
2
∆ t=¿ (3)

 In Pul’s method it is assumed that:

O = f(S)
 But in Muskingum’s method of river routing:

O = f(S, I)
 i.e the outflow is a function of both storage and inflow.

 Considering a reach between two sections of a natural channel, the storage is found to be
expressed as:

[ ]
m m
b
 S= x I n + ( 1−x ) O n (4)
a

Where b, m = depend upon the stage – discharge characteristics of the two control sections at
the ends of the reach.

a, n = depend on the stage-volume characteristics of the two control sections

x = is a factor defining the weightage of the inflow/storage to the outflow. I.e. x is a constant
that expresses the relative importance of inflow and outflow in determining storage.

 For a simple reservoir x = 0 (inflow has no effect). If inflow and outflow are equally effective x
= 0.5. For most streams, x = 0 to 0.3; with a mean value of 0.2.

 In a uniform rectangular channel storage would vary with the first power of stage (S =bg m, where
m = 1) and the discharge would vary as the 5/3 power (Manning formula) q = ag n
 In the Muskingum method it is assumed that m/n = 1 and if we let b/a = K then equation (4)
becomes:

27
 S = K (xI + (1-x)O) (5)

K = storage constant ≈ time of travel of the flood ware through the reach.
x varies from 0 – 1.0 and for moderate size reaches x ≈ 0.2
 K and x are assumed to be constant throughout the routing period.
 To determine K and x for a river reach we need the following
o Inflow hydrograph
o Corresponding outflow hydrograph

 From S = K (xI + (1-x)O)

K= S in hrs (6)
(xI + (1-x)O)

 Computation steps:
a) During every routing interval Δt, compute the storage = cumulative inflow – cum. Outflow
b) Compute 5 from equation (4) for an assumed or estimated value of K and several assumed values
of x
c) Plot the 2 values of S obtained from (a) and (b) against storage; and draw the storage loops

WS

a
K=b
a

 Choose the loop which is closest to a straight line and take the corresponding value of x for the
river reach. The inverse slope of the line closest to the loop gives the value of K

d) Put the obtained value of x into equation (6) and compute K. Using this value of K find another
value of x by the graphical procedure; then calculate an average value of x.

28
 With the determined values of K and x for the river reach, an inflow hydrograph is routed by
rewriting equation (4) as follows:

S2 – S1 = K(x (I1 – I2) + (1 – x) (O2 – O1))

O2 = CoI2 + C1I1 + C2O1 (7)

Where;

Kx−0.5t
Co = (i)
K−Kx+ 0.5 t

Kx+0.5 t
C1 = (ii)
K−Kx+ 0.5 t

K−Kx−0.5 t
C2 = (iii)
K−Kx +0.5 t

 When equations (i), (ii) and (iii) are combined we obtain:

C0 + C1 + C2 = 1

 Δt is the routing period in the same units as K.

 All the 3 coefficients C0, C1 and C2 must be positive for equation (7) to give valid results.
 The routing procedure is simply a solution of equation (7) with the O 2 of one routing period
becoming the O1 for the succeeding period.

29
TUTORIAL EXAMPLES

1 The inflow hydrograph of a river reach is tabulated below. The storage constant K = 10hr and x
= 0 for the reach. Find graphically the outflow peak in time and magnitude. What would be the
effect of making x > 0? Assume that the outflow at hour 11 is 28.3m 3/s and is starting to rise.

TIME I Time I
(h) (m3/5 (h) (m3/5)
0 28.3 40 90.6
5 26.9 45 70.8
10 24.1 50 53.8
15 62.3 55 42.5
20 133.1 60 34.0
25 172.7 65 28.3
30 152.9 70 24.1
35 121.8

SOLUTION:

c) This assumption is nearly correct because the river is still at a low stage and the flow will
nearly steady.

d) The first equation to be solved is therefore

O2 = CoI2C1I1+C2OI

Kx−0.5t 0.5 x 5 2.5

Now Co = = = = 0.2
K−Kx+ 0.5 t 10+0.5 x 5 12.5

Kx+0.5 t 0.5 x 5 2.5

C1 = = = = 0.2
K−Kx+ 0.5 t 10+0.5 x 5 12.5

K−Kx−0.5 t 10−0.5 x 5 7.5

C2 = = = = 0.6
K−Kx +0.5 t 10+0.5 x 5 12.5

With first value of 01 = I1 = 28.3m3/s: O2 = 0.2x26.9+0.2x28.3+0.6x28.3 = 28.02 m 3/s

This value of O2 becomes O1 for the next calculation and the values are as tabulated.

Hrs 0.2 I2 0.2 I1 0.6 01 O2 I

m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s m3/s
0 - - - 28.3 28.3
5 5.38 5.66 16.98 28.02 26.9
10 4.82 5.38 16.81 27.01 24.1
15 12.46 4.82 16.21 33.49 62.3

30
20 26.62 12.46 20.09 59.17 133.1
25 34.4 26.62 35.5 96.52 172.7
30 30.58 34.4 57.91 122.89 152.9
35 24.36 30.58 73.73 128.67 121.8
40 18.12 24.36 77.20 119.68 90.6
45 14.16 18.12 71.81 104.09 70.8
50 10.76 14.16 62.45 87.37 53.8
55 8.50 10.76 52.42 71.68 42.5
60 6.80 8.50 43.01 58.31 34.0
65 5.66 6.80 34.99 47.45 28.3
70 4.82 5.66 28.47 38.95 24.1

If x>0; say x = 0.1

Kx+0.5 t −1−2.5
C0 = = = 0.13
K−Kx+ 0.5 t 11.5

Kx+0.5 t −1+ 2.5

C1 = = = 0.30
K−Kx+ 0.5 t 11.5

K−Kx−0.5 t −10−3.5
C2 = = = 0.57
K−Kx +0.5 t 11.5

Time 0.13I2 0.3I1 0.57O1 O2 I

0 28.3 - - - 28.3
5 26.9 3.5 8.5 16.13 28.12
10 24.1 3.13 8.07 16.03 27.23
15 62.3 8.10 7.23 15.52 30.85
20 133.1 17.30 18.69 17.58 53.58
25 172.7 22.45 39.93 30.54 92.92
30 152.9 19.88 51.81 52.96 124.65
35 121.8 15.83 45.87 71.05 132.75
40 90.6 11.78 36.54 75.67 123.99
45 70.8 9.20 27.18 70.67 107.06
50 53.8 6.99 21.24 61.02 89.26
55 42.5 5.53 16.14 50.88 72.54
60 34.0 4.42 12.75 41.35 58.52
65 28.3 3.68 10.20 33.36 47.24
70 24.1 3.13 8.49 26.92 38.55

The effect of increasing the value of x to x=0.1 is to reduce the peak of the outflow hydrograph and
delay the outflow time slightly.

31
EXAMPLE 2
The following table gives the spillway discharge reservoir storage relationship for a reservoir.

Spillway discharge Reservoir Storage

m3/s (1/4 cumec days)
0 10,000
100 10,200
200 10,400
300 10,600
400 10,800
500 11,000
600 11,240
700 11,500
800 11,800
900 12,080
1000 12,400

The water level in the reservoir is at the spillway crest level when the flood tabulated below inflows into
the reservoir.

Time Flood inflow

(Hrs) m3/s
0 0
6 80
12 200
18 500
24 900
30 800
36 600
42 400
48 200
54 100
60 0

Using Pul’s Method of reservoir routing with 6 hr-routing interval, find the flood hydrograph over the
spillway crest. Sketch the inflow & outflow hydrographs on the same axes.

What would be the maximum head over the spillway crest if the spillway is 10m long and has a co-
efficient of discharge = 4.0?

SOLUTION:
1. Construct the storage versus discharge graph i.e. the S-O curve and obtain the S-O/2 ∆t and the
S+0/2 ∆t curves. The routing graphs.

32
2. From the routing graphs the following values for discharge over the spillway are obtained.

Time O2
0-6 18
6-12 65
12-18 180
18-24 395
24-30 565
30-36 910
36-42 575
42-48 475
48-54 350
54-60 215

3. A plot of the following outflow hydrograph reveals that the maximum discharge = 610m m 3/s
4. The maximum head over the spillway crest occurs when the discharge over the spillway is a
maximum.

Qmax = Cd L Hmax3/2
Hmax = Qmax/(Cd. L)2/3

EXAMPLE 3

What reservoir capacity is required to assure a yield of 565x10 10 m3/year, for the inflows shown in the
table below?

Month 1990 1991 1992 1993

January 40x1010 1140x1010 2320x1010 2650x1010
February 80x1010 1150x1010 2400x1010 2760x1010
March 120x1010 1560x1010 2440x1010 3160x1010
April 200x1010 1760x1010 2445x1010 3280x1010
May 240x1010 2140x1010 2480x1010 3320x1010
June 400x1010 2200x1010 2520x1010 3760x1010
July 720x1010 2240x1010 2560x1010 4080x1010
August 880x1010 2260x1010 2570x1010 4240x1010
September 960x1010 2270x1010 2580x1010 4320x1010
October 1040x1010 2275x1010 2590x1010 4360x1010
November 1090x1010 2278x1010 2610x1010 4480x1010
December 1120x1010 2280x1010 2610x1010 4560x1010

33
5. SPILLWAYS, GATES AND OUTLET WORKS

Spillways: discharge floods downstream and protects the dam from being damaged by overtopping.

Gates & sluiceways: Provided on the spillway crest to permit outlet works the operator to control
the release of water downstream fro various purposes.

5.1 Spillways

 regarded as the safety valve for the dam

 Designed to have the capacity to discharge major foods at the same time as keeping the reservoir
level below same pre-determined maximum level.
 Of 2 types:

o Controlled – provided with crest gates or other facility so that the outflow rate can be
adjusted.
o Uncontrolled – free discharging once the water level rises above crest level.
 Selection of capacity is related to the degree of protection required to be provided to the dam.
 This in turn depends on:
o Type of dam
o Location of dam
o Consequences of failure of the dam

 E.g. a high dam storing a large volume of water, located above or upstream of an inhabited area
should have a much higher degree of protection as compared to a low dam storing a small
quantity of water and whose demonstration reach is uninhabited.

 The probable maximum flood is commonly used in design for the high dam while a smaller flood
based on frequency analysis is suitable for the low dam.
 Determination of the area which would be flooded if the dam were to fail assists in assessing the
acceptable risk.

TYPES OF SPILLWAYS

There are different types of spillways as follows:

- Overflow spillways
- Chute spillways
- Side channel spillways
- Shaft spillways
- Siphon spillways

5.1.1 Overflow Spillways

 A section of dam designed to permit water to pass over its crest;

 Widely used on gravity, arch and buttress dams;

34
 For earth dams, the overflow section is normally of concrete gravity construction designed to
serve as a spillway;
 It is important that the overflowing water is guided smoothly over the crest with minimum
turbulence;
 If the overflowing water breaks contact with the spillway surface, a vacuum will from at the point
of separation and cavitation may occur.
 Cavitation plus the vibration from the alternate making and breaking of contact between the water
and the face of the dam may result in serious damage to the dam structure.
 In order to reduce the occurrence of such cavitation the ideal spillway should take the form of the
underside of the nape of a sharp-crested weir when the flow rate corresponds to the maximum
design capacity of the spillway.

35
  The reverse curve on the downstream face of the spillway should be smooth and gradual.
 The discharge of an overflow spillway is given by the weir equation.

Q = CwLH3/2

Where: Q = discharge in m3/s

Cw = coefficient of discharge
L = Length of crest (m)
H = head on the spillway (equal to the vertical distance from the crest of the spillway to the
reservoir level.

 Cw varies with the design and head (1.4 – 2.3) but experimental models are often used to determine
the coefficient in any particular situation.
 If the x-sectional area of the reservoir just upstream from the spillway is less than 5 times the area of
flow over the spillway, the approach velocity may increase the discharge to noticeable extent. The
effect of approach velocity can be accounted for by the equation:

Q = Cw L (H + V02)3/2
2g

Where: V0 = approach velocity.

 End contractions on the spillway often reduce the effective length below the actual length L.
 Square cornered piers disturb the flow considerably and reduce the effective length by the width of
the piers plus about 0.2h for each pier.
 Streamlining the pier or flaring the spillway entrance minimizes the flow disturbance.

5.1.2 Chute Spillways

36
 Constructed of concrete slabs in the form of a steep-sloped open channel or trough
 The slabs are 250-500 mm thick.
 Adapted to earth or rock fill dams
 Normally located around the end of the dam as topography permits, such locations is preferred
especially for earth dams to prevent possible damage to the embankment.
 The Chute may be of constant width but is usually narrowed in some sections for economy and then
widened near the end to reduce discharge velocity.
 As far as possible the slope should be steep enough to maintain flow below critical depth so that
unstable flow conditions do not set in.
 Vertical curves should be gradual and designed to avoid separation of the flow from the channel
bottom.
 The side walls of the chute must be of adequate height to accommodate bulking of water caused by
entrainment of air in the high velocity flow.
 Expansion joints should be provided in chute spillways at intervals of 10m, and they should be as
watertight as possible to avoid percolation of water under the slab that may cause uplift forces under
the slab.
 As additional insurance against uplift, rockfill or perforated steel pipe drains should be provided
under the spillway.

5.1.3 Side Channel Spillway

 A spillway in which the flow, after passing over the crest, is carried away in a channel running
parallel to the crest
 The crest is usually a concrete gravity section, but it may consist of pavement laid on an earth
embankment or natural ground surface.
 Usually used in narrow canyons where sufficient crest length is not available for overflow or chute
spillways.
 After passing through the side channel, the water may be led out through a chute or tunnel.

5.1.4 Shaft Spillways (Morning Glory)

 The water drops through a vertical shaft to a horizontal conduit that conveys the water past the dam.
 Often used in cases where there is inadequate space for other types of spillways, it’s usually
undesirable to carry a spillway over or through an earth dam.
 However, if topography prevents the use of chute or side channel spillway around the end of the dam,
a shaft spillway through the foundation material provides the best alternative.
 For low dams where the shaft height is small, no special inlet design is necessary, but for high dams,
a flared inlet, referred to as a morning glory is used.
 May be constructed of metal, concrete pipe or clay tile for small spillways
 For large dams, the vertical shaft is constructed of reinforced concrete, while the horizontal conduit is
tunnel in rock.
 Frequent a diversion tunnel is provided so that it may be used for the spillway outlet.
 There are 3 possible conditions of flow in a shaft spillway.

37
(i) At low head, the outlet conduit flows partly full, the perimeter of the inlet serves as a weir and
the discharge of the spillway is given by;

Q α h13/2

(ii) As the water level rises, water level in the shaft rises, and the outlet may flow partly full ( weir
flow) or full (orifice flow), when the shaft is completely filled and the outlet submerged under
those conditions the discharge is given by;

Q α h21/2 where: h2 = hL + V2/2g = total head on the outlet.

-At this point, the increase in h2 results in only a very slight increase in discharge, and
therefore this poses a limit on the capacity of the shaft spillway.
-The graph with the solid line depicts the relation between the flow rate and the water surface
elevation for a properly designed shaft spillway.

(iii) When design is not proper there will be a throttling of the flow as flow changes to pipe flow.

 An abrupt transition between the shaft and outlet conduit may result into cavitations hence a smooth
transition should be planned especially for large structures.
 Complete hydraulic analysis of a shaft spillway is difficult and therefore models are employed to
simulate flows and to determine the coefficients needed.
 A serious problem with shaft spillways is their potential to clog with debris. Therefore, they should be
protected with trash racks, floating booms etc.

38
Flow conditions in a shaft spillway

39
5.1.5 Siphon Spillways

 Usually provided for cases where spillway location space is limited and where the discharge capacity
desired is not large.
 They have the advantage of automatically maintaining the water surface elevation within very close
limits.
 At higher flows, after the siphon has primed, the discharge is given by;

Q = CdA√2gh; where Cd = coefficient of discharge (≈ 0.9)

 If the outlet of the siphon is not submerged, the head h is the vertical distance from the water surface
in the reservoir to the end of the siphon barrel.
 When the siphon outlet is submerged then h is the difference in elevation between the headwater and
the tail water.
 If air is prevented from entering the outlet end of the siphon, the flow through the siphon will entrain
and remove air at the crown and prime the siphon.
 Entrance of air can be prevented by deflecting the flow across the barrel in such away as to seal it off,
or by submerging the outlet.
 The siphon action will continue until the water level in the reservoir drops to the elevation at the
upper lip of the siphon.
 As soon as a siphon is primed, a vacuum forms at the crown. In order to prevent cavitation, the siphon
should be designed so that this vacuum never exceeds three fourths of atmospheric pressure (3/4 atm).
 Hence at sea level, the vertical distance form the crown of the siphon down to the hydraulic grade line
should not exceed ¿ 7.5m.
 Trash racks can be provided to avoid clogging by debris.

Cross-section through a siphon spillway

40
5.2 Dynamic Forces on Spillways

 Newton’s 2nd Law of motion states that force equals the time rate of change of momentum.
 The resultant forces on an element of water are then given by;

∑ F=ρ Q ΔV (1)

Where ρ = density of water

Q = flow rate
ΔV= change in velocity

 In vector form equation (1) can be re-written as;

∑Fx = ρQ(V2x – V1x) and ∑Fy = ρQ(V2y – V1y) (2)

Where x and y represent any convenient system of coordinates

 Equation 2 can be used to calculate the dynamic forces exerted by water on spillways, deflectors,
turbine blades, pipes and bends, etc.

 The forces Fx and Fy are those acting on a significant free body of fluid and include gravity forces,
hydrostatic pressures, and the reaction of any object or surface in contact with the fluid body.

5.3 Hydraulics of Outlet Works

 The discharge through the dam outlet (Sluiceway) can be calculated from the equation:

Q = CdA√2gH (3)

Where A = area of the outlet sluice

Cd = coefficient of discharge whose value depends on the type of gate, trash rack,
conduit friction, transitions etc.
H = differential head causing flow (usually the difference in elevation
between u/s and d/s.

 The total headloss in the conduit include losses in

o trash racks
o conduit entrance
o conduit friction
o gates and valves
o transitions
o bends

41
 2
V
 Entrance loss is taken as 0.5 for square edged entrance. For a bell-mouthed entrance the loss
2g
V2
is taken as 0.04
2g
 Conduit friction loss is calculated from the standard pipe formulae e.g.

2
n2 lV 2
h L = fl V or h L = (4)
2 gd R 4 /3
2
V
 Gate loss for a fully open gate and butterfly value is taken as 0.2
2g
 Headloss through trash racks are found to follow the table below.

Velocity thro’ Head loss

Trash rack (m/s) (m)
0.15 0.006
0.20 0.01
0.30 0.03
0.40 0.05
0.45 0.09
0.50 0.09
0.60 0.13
0.62 0.15

 If discharge is calculated from the net effective head then;

Heff = Differential head H minus headloss

∴ Q = CdA√2g Heff (5)

5.4 Protection against Scour

 Water flowing over a spillway or through a sluiceway is capable of causing severe erosion of the
stream bed and banks below the dam.
 The type of protection against erosion that should be provided depends on the degree of damage
expected from this erosion.
 The time required to develop serious erosion depends not only on the character of the stream bed
material and the velocity distribution but also on the frequency with which scouring flows occur.
 Often model studies are conducted during the planning period to determine the relevant factors.
 Solid rock is often resistant to erosion although if the rock has bedding planes it may not resist
high velocity flow. Also if the rock has a rough, jagged surface, cavitation may assist in its
erosion.
 Loose earth and rock are vulnerable to the erosive action of flowing water, and may scour at
velocities as low as 0.6 - 1.0m/s

42
  Movable–bed model studies with gravel, sand, or powdered coal to simulate the river bed may be
used to predict velocity distributions.

Methods of Scour protection

Hydraulic jump

 For a horizontal rectangular channel the hydraulic jump is expressed as:

[
− y 1 y 1 2V 1 y 1 1
]
2 2
y 2= ± + 2 (6)
2 4 g
❑

Where y1, and y2 are the depths of flow before and after the jump.

 The approximate depth of flow at the toe of the spillway y 1 may be found by applying the energy
equation along a streamline between point A on the surface of the reservoir and point B at the toe
of the spillway.
 Neglecting friction and velocity of approach, the
energy equation is:

V 21
H d + h= y 1 +
2g
(7)

Q
 The average flow velocity V1 at the toe of the spillway is B
y1
 By substituting values of h, and Q in the energy equation, the corresponding values of y 1 and V1
can be found.
 The hydraulic jump equation can then be used to find the sequent depth y 2
 The energy dissipated in the jump is equal to the difference in specific energy before and after
2
V
the jump Δ( y + ¿
2g

43
 A fully developed hydraulic jump below an ogee spillway is particularly effective as an energy
dissipator in situations where h is small compared with the height of the spillway.
 For a jump to occur, the flow must be below critical depth, and this condition is satisfied in
almost al cases where there is potential for scour.

Typical scour protection works

44
 Appurtenances in a stilling basin

6. WATER LAW

6.1 Introduction

 Where there is inadequate water to meet the needs of potential users, water is a commodity of
considerable value.
 Hence a system of laws is necessary to determine who has the right to water abstraction and use.
 Water law can also play a major role in the economic aspects of water development since
limitation on who may develop water resources will also control how it is developed and utilized.
 Water rights also play an important role in determining the availability of water in parts of
country.
 This course is not intended to prepare you to argue a water-law case in court but rather to provide
a basic understanding of some of the legal problems which may be encountered in water
resources development.

6.2 Common Law

 Each country has its own legislation that governs the exploitation of water resources that are
appropriate to the country depending on the availability of water.
 However, there is a common law upon which the legislation is built. This common law hinges
upon rights.
 There are two distinct categories of rights viz; Riparian rights, and Appropriative rights.

Riparian Rights:

 Taken from French Civil law by two American jurists – Story and Kent
 English courts adopted it in early 19th century as part of its common law.
 Later accepted in the Americas which adopted the English Law
 Under the concept of riparian rights the owner of the land adjacent to a stream known as (riparian
land) is entitled to receive the full natural flow of the stream without change in quantity and
quality.
 Hence the riparian owner is protected against diversion of water upstream from his properly or
from diversion of excess floodwaters towards his property.
 No upstream owner may materially lessen or increase the natural flow of the stream to the
disadvantage of a downstream owner.
 In modern society riparian doctrine has serious defect because it does not provide for actual use
of water by the riparian owners fro irrigation and other intensive user.

45
  Riparian concept has therefore been modified to permit reasonable use of water – which allows
riparian owners to divert and use stream flow in reasonable amounts for beneficial purposes.
 No priority can exist between riparian owners i.e. all riparian owners have equal rights to their
reasonable share of water. No owner can exercise his rights to the detriment of other owners.
 Riparian rights inhere in the land and are not affected by use or lack of use. But it can be voided
by the process of law.
 Riparian rights can also be lost due to upstream adverse use.
 If riparian property is sold, the right is automatically transferred to the new owner.
 If the property is sub-divided, the portion not adjacent to the stream loses its riparian status unless
the rights are specifically preserved in the conveyance.
 Riparian rights do not attach to land outside the stream basin, even though this land is contiguous
to riparian land in the basin; thus riparian owners can not transport water from the riparian land
into the land outside the riparian area.

Appropriative Rights (Prior appropriation doctrine):

 Brought to the New World by the Spaniards who adopted it from the Roman Civil Law
 Profoundly influenced by the developments in the mining industry in USA (California) During
the Gold rush of 1849 appropriation of water became a very active system of water rights.
 Under the doctrine of appropriation, water is allocated or appropriated on the basis of declared
beneficial use on a first come first in rights “basis”.
 Under the exclusive system of appropriative rights, all water in natural water courses is subject to
appropriation. And an appropriator may store water in reservoir for use during periods of drought
but the amount stored is limited by the terms of storage appropriation.
 Usually direct use and storage appropriations are kept separate.

6.3 Water Act 2002

 Water Act 2002 was enacted to eliminate the inherent weaknesses in the previous Water
Act Cap 372. These include:

 Neglect of water resources management at the expense of water services owing to lack of
separation of the sub sectors.
 Weak apportionment and allocation practices for water resources.
 No centralized coordination of water use among different sectors: energy, industry,
environment, agriculture and others
 Lack of recognition of the role of communities in water management.
 Lack of standards for water services

 Water Act 2002 was therefore developed upon the following principles:

 State ownership of all surface and groundwater resources. Exploitation of such resources
requires authority granted through issuance of a water permit
 Stakeholder involvement in management of water resources
 Management of water resources on catchment basis and not administrative boundaries

46
  Equitable allocation of water for all Kenyans
 Recognition of the economic value of water
 Social objectives including supplying the poor with water be achieved by other means
including Government subsidy
 Accelerating supply and distribution of water in rural areas through special funding
 Ring-fencing of water service operations
 Development of water sector strategies for management and development of the sector
 Protection of the quality of water resources
 Cost recovery as a means of sustainable service provision

6.4 Issues and challenges

 Kenya with a current population of 35 million and a projected population of 43 million by 2015
faces enormous challenges in management of its limited water resources.
 The magnitude of the issues and challenges and severity of the water crisis, that currently face
Kenya cut across most sectors of the economy making water resources management a high
priority requiring urgent attention.

6.4.1 Water Scarcity

 Kenya is classified as a water-scare country. The natural endowment of renewable freshwater is

currently about 21 BCM (billion cubic meters) of 647m3 per capita per annum.
 A country is categorized “water-scarce” if its renewable freshwater potential is less than 1,000 m 3
per capita per annum.

6.4.2 Water resources underdeveloped

 About 40% the renewable freshwater has potential for development and this represents the safe
yield. The remaining 60% are required to sustain the flows in rivers so as to ensure ecological
biodiversity and act as reserve for development beyond the timeframes of the strategies.

 Kenya’s safe yield of surface water resources is 7.4 BCM per annum and the safe yield of
groundwater is about 1.0 BCM per annum. The current water abstractions are only a fraction
(13%-19%) of the assessed safe yield or potential for development, which in 1992 amounted to
1.1 BCM per annum and is currently 1.6 BCM/annum, thus indicating an extremely low level of
development.

 This extremely low level of development portrays a negative picture of the country’s commitment
of developing water resources. However Kenya, although water-scarce, has room for extensive
development towards achieving maximum utilization of the renewable fraction of the freshwater
resources.

6.4.3 Climate variability

 Rainfall patterns in Kenya are extremely variable not only spatially and temporally, but also in
rainfall intensities. This makes the natural flow of water in the watercourses highly variable in
space and in time.

47
  Major recent floods (3 year recurrence) which affected Kenya occurred in 1997-8 (El Nino) and
2003. Major drought periods have been recorded every 7-10 years with the severest occurring in
1981-1985 and 1998-2000.

 The high variability of rainfall patterns affects the annual safe yields that may be extracted and
could only be overcome by optimizing, providing and managing of water storage facilities.
However, the previous actors in the water sector (GoK and Development Partners) did not give
adequate priority to water storage mainly due to the high investment costs.

6.4.4 Catchment degradation

 Catchment degradation is causing increased runoff, flash flooding, reduced infiltration, erosion
and siltation and this is undermining the limited sustainable water resources base in the county.

 The main causes of catchment degradation are poor farming methods, population pressure (forest
excision for resettlement) and deforestation (for agricultural land and fuel wood). For example,
the sediment yields for the Ewaso Ng’iro and Tana Rivers have increased 15 times the level of
1970.

 Catchment degradation will invariably affect surface water availability as rivers and reservoirs
will dry up.

6.4.5 Water resources assessment and monitoring

 The hydrometric network and data recording and reporting system for monitoring and assessing
the river flows has deteriorated and can no longer support adequate assessment of the water
resources base of the country.

 The number of river gauging stations in Kenya has shrunk from over 900 in the early 1970’s to
less than 150 currently operational.

 Also the monitoring of groundwater resources and water resources quality has not been given the
attention it deserves.

 The data gaps in the present assessments need to be addressed.

6.4.6 Trans-boundary water resources

 Kenya’s neighbours share over half of Kenya’s water resources, mostly surface water. Through
the Lake Victoria Basin, Kenya provides about 45% of surface water inflows to Lake Victoria,
and hence to the upper river Nile.

 This inter-dependence between Kenya, its immediate neighbours, and downstream and upstream
Nile countries has considerable implications in the management of the country’s major water
resources. These resources must be jointly managed within agreed frameworks to ensure equity
and to avoid conflict.

 The challenge to the management of Kenya’s water resources must therefore offset negative
impacts from climatic variability, ensure fair utilization of trans-boundary waters and reverse the

48
 growing degradation of water resources thereby achieving a water secure Kenya. This has
become a daunting challenge that has not been adequately addressed during the last three
decades.

 There have been inadequate investments in hydraulic and storage structures for flood control,
energy generation, irrigation development, urban, industrial rural and livestock water supply.
There has also been extensive degradation of water resources due to weak catchment
management, pollution control and water allocation mechanisms.

6.4.7 Degradation of water resources

 Over-abstraction of surface water in some parts of the country, inappropriate land use changes,
soil erosion in catchments, and deterioration of riparian lads causing flash floods, turbidity, and
siltation of water courses and storage facilities have led to serious degradation in the quantity and
quality of the water resources.

 Poorly controlled discharge of effluent from industry and sewage outfalls, and excessive nutrient
and agrochemical pollution from rural sources has impacted negatively on the quality of water.

 The dramatic reduction in the depth of Lake Baringo, from over 15 metres in 1921 to an average
of 1.8 metres today is due not only to reduced inflows but also to the increased sediment load
from surrounding unprotected and degraded catchments.

6.4.8 HIV/AIDS

 HIV/AIDS is also causing untold suffering, particularly for those living in the rural areas. The
challenge for the GoK is to ensure access to water, among many other needs, by these vulnerable
members of the society so as reduce water related ailments and improve their standard of living.

6.5 Policy Direction

In recognition of these issues and challenges, the Government initiated a process of reform for the
entire water sector. The sector is being transformed in line with national policy as outlined in the
Water Policy – Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1999, which gave birth to the Water Act of 2002, and
subsequent strategies especially the National Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, and the Economic
Strategy for Wealth and Employment Creation.

6.5 1 National Water Resources Management Strategy

 The fundamental objectives for managing Kenya’s water resources are enshrined in the Water
Act (2002). Sections 11(1) define the National Water Resources Management Strategy in
accordance with which, the water resources of Kenya shall be managed, protected, used,
developed conserved and controlled.

 The strategy shall prescribe the principles, objectives, procedures and institutional arrangements
for the conservation and control of water resources including:

o Classifying water resources

o Determining the requirements of the reserve for each water resource

49
 o Identifying areas designated as protected and groundwater conservation areas

6.5.2 Water Policy – Sessional Paper No. 1 of 1999

 The Sessional Paper Number 1 of 1999 on National Water Policy on Water Resources
Management and Development provides the policy direction to address the challenges mentioned
above. The policy underpins the Water Act 2002. The policy directions include the following:

o Treat water as a social and economic good

o Preservation, conservation and protection of available water resource
o Supplying adequate amounts of water meeting acceptable standards for the various needs
o Ensuring safe wastewater disposal for environmental protection
o Developing a sound and sustainable financial system, for effective and efficient water
resources management, water supply and water borne sewage collection, treatment and
disposal

6.5 Institutional Framework

 Reforms in the water sector have been initiated to address weaknesses in the sector by
promoting integrated management of water resources and the development of water and
sewerage services.

 Emphasis is given to greater involvement by communities to enhance sustainability.

 Development of the sector has been constrained by among other factors:

 Water scarcity attributable to uneven distribution of water resources and variability in rainfall
patterns;
 Institutional weaknesses including inadequate management skills and inability to attract and
retain highly qualified personnel;
 Inadequate funds for management of existing water resources and development of water
supplies and sewerage;
 Inappropriate technologies and delivery systems for water and sewerage services;
 Weak coordination among institutions in the sector and limited cooperation with other
development sectors;
 Limited understanding and know-how by communities on sustainable operation and
management of water supplies.

 The reform reviewed the set up of water management created the following institutional
arrangement for water management.

50
  The roles and responsibilities of these institutions are summarised as follows.
No. INSTITUTION
1. Ministry of Water and
Irrigation (MWI)
2. Water Resources Management
Authority (WRMA)
3. Catchments Area Advisory
Committees (CAACs)
4. Water Resource Users
Associations (WRUAs)
5. Water Services Regulatory
Board (WSRB)
6. Water Services Boards
(WSBs)
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
 Development of legislation, policy formulation, sector
coordination and guidance, and monitoring and
evaluation.
 Planning, management, protection and conservation of
water resources.
 Planning, allocation, apportionment, assessment and
monitoring of water resources.
 Issuance of water permits.
 Water rights and enforcement of permit conditions.
 Regulation of conservation and abstraction structures.
 Catchment and water quality management.
 Regulation and control of water use.
 Coordination of the IWRM Plan.
 Advising WRMA on water resources issues at catchment
level.
 Involvement in decision making process to identify and
register water users.
 Collaboration in water allocation and catchments
management.
 Assisting in water monitoring and information gathering.
 Conflict resolution and co-operative management of water
resources.
 Regulation and monitoring of Water Services Boards.
 Issuance of licenses to Water Services Boards.
 Setting standards for provision of water services.
 Developing guidelines for water tariffs.
 Responsible for efficient and economical provision of
water services.
 Developing water facilities.
51

7. Water Service Providers
(WSPs)
8. Water Services Trust Fund
(WSTF)
9. The Water Appeals Board
(WAB)
10. National Water Conservation
and Pipeline Corporation
(NWCPC)
11. Kenya Water Institute (KEWI)
12. National Irrigation Board
(NIB)
 Applying regulations on water services and tariffs.
 Procuring and leasing water and sewerage facilities.
 Contracting Water Service Providers (WSPs).
 Provision of water and sewerage services
 Financing provision of water and sanitation to
disadvantaged groups.
 Arbitration of water related disputes and conflicts.
 Construction of dams and drilling of boreholes
 Training and Research
 Development of Irrigation Infrastructure
52
7 POWER SYSTEMS

7.1 Introduction

 Most modern power systems are either thermal or hydro plants. Selection of either depends on an
economic analysis of costs versus energy produced over a given life time. The least cost solution
is then selected.
 Initial cost of hydropower plants are usually much higher than for thermal plants.
 Cost of hydropower – plant includes,

 Dam
 Diversion work
 Conduits
 Land
 Water rights
 Relocation of rail road, highways and other utilities,
 Value of improvements flooded by reservoir (i.e. costs of environmental impact)
 The generating plant itself
 Planning process
 Associated costs are long transmission lines and inherent loss of energy.

 Costs of thermal plant include;

 Fossil fuels – oil, coal, nuclear minerals that cause green gas emissions (disadvantage)
 Limited amount of land for siting (advantage)
 Possible ecological impact because of cooling waters led back into water bodies
(disadvantage)
 Drilling of deep wells in case of geo-thermal systems

Other factors to consider

 Thermal plants have high operational costs in terms of fuel costs, maintenance, labour, repairs.
 Thermal plants require expensive air pollution control equipment
 Efficiency of thermal plants drops with age.
 Thermal plants can be located near to the consumer provided there is sufficient supply of cooling
water hence transmission costs are low.
 Thermal plants can be put up quickly because the required infrastructure is minimal.

7.2 Power Systems and Load

 Power systems may consist of a single plant serving the system (Supplemented by standby units)
or
 An array of plants interconnected to serve the system

 Whichever arrangement is available, the system should have enough capacity to supply the
expected peak load plus extra capacity to take care of breakdowns and necessary maintenance
shutdowns.

53
  It is advantageous to have a mixture of thermal and hydro power in a system in terms of economy
and reliability achievement.

Why?
 Hydropower plants on standby can be started in a few minutes (max. 3-4 min) in case of sudden
failure in another line. (Compare with at least 30-40mins for thermal plant), i.e. hydropower
plants are well adapted to provide reserve capacity at short notice.
 It is much more expensive to keep a thermal plant on standby, because of depreciation.
 A hydropower plant alone in a system may be disadvantageous if the carryover storage is
inadequate to meet demands during a severe drought.
 Even during a flood, power shortage is possible at low-head plants if high tail water at the power
house greatly reduces the net head.

 Planning of power systems require an estimate of future power requirements- taking into account
of business booms and slumps, technological changes. Etc HENCE forecast is made difficult.
 The required generating capacity is determined by the load for the peak day of the year.
 In thermal plants the requirements of the peak week or month dictates the amount of energy
storage required in the form of fuel or water.

Typical curve for

industrial area
80 load factor =0.8

KW 70
3 60
X10
50
40
30
Typical curve
20 for residential area
load factor =0.6
10

12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time of day
Typical peak-day load curves

Over a given period, the load factor = average load

Peak load

 Load factors for industrial areas vary from 50 – 80%

 Load factors for residential areas vary between 30-60%.
 High load factor means unit cost of energy will be comparatively low because under such
conditions the system is operating near capacity and near highest efficiency.
 At low load factor the system generating capacity is lying idle for a large part of the time.

54
  In a combined system, thermal plants are operated continuously to carry the base load during low
flow (drought) while the hydro-plants are used intermittently to generate power for peak loads.
 During high flows (floods) the operations of thermal and hydropower plants are sometimes
reversed.
 However, the optimum mode of operation results in the fullest utilization of available water and
minimum consumption of fuel.
Water
(ii) Low flow Power

Power Thermal power

Time of day

7.3 Types of hydro plants

- Storage – conventional
- Run-of- the river
- Pumped storage

 Storage type of plant has sufficient reservoir capacity to permit carry-over storage from wet to
dry season.
 Run-of-the river plants have no storage or just enough storage (also called pondage) to permit
storing water during off-peak hours for use during peak hours of the same day. Hence, they are
only suitable for streams with sustained flow during the dry season or if there are some reservoirs
upstream which release the necessary flow.
 Pumped – storage provides energy for peak load, but at off – peak hours the water is pumped
from the tailwater pool to the headwater pool for future use.

Some Definitions used in hydropower generation

1. Gross head = total difference in elevation between water surface in the reservoir or stream at the
diversion and the water surface at the tailrace.

2. Net (or effective) Head = head available for energy production after losses in friction at entrance,
unrecovered velocity head in the draft tube etc.

3. Hydraulic Efficiency = Net head/Gross head

4. Overall efficiency = hydraulic efficiency x efficiency of turbine and generator; at optimum
operation = 60-70%

55
 5. Capacity = maximum power which can be developed by the generators at normal head with full
flow.

6. Firm (or primary) Power = power which a plant can be expected to deliver 100% of the time.
 For a single plant it corresponds to the power developed when available water is a
minimum.
7. Surplus (or Secondary) Power = all power available in excess of firm power.
 Much of this secondary power may be sold at low rates but without guarantee as to
continuity of service.

7.4 Hydropower Project arrangement

Major components of hydro electric scheme are;

 Dam – diversion structure

- Penstock + associated gates
- Turbines + governing mechanisms
- Generators
- Control and switching mechanisms
- Housing
- Transformers
- Transmission lines to consumers
- Surge tanks for long penstocks
- Forebay – a regulating reservoir for temporary storage of water when load on the plant is
reduced; may require spillways for discharging excess water when necessary.

 The layout and type of plant suitable for a specific site depends on several factors:

- Topography of area
- Head
- Available flow

 Most low head installations have a concentrated head layout where the power house is located
next to the dam e.g. Masinga Dam;
 In divided fall layouts water is carried to the power house at a considerable distance from the dam
through;

- Canal
- Tunnel
- Penstock (steel pipes, reinforced concrete, wood stave).

 In the divided fall arrangement it may be possible to obtain a high head on the powerhouse even
if the dam is a low one e.g. Kiambere.

7.5 Operation of Power Plant

 Operational data to be recorded include:

56
 o Generator amperes and kilowatts
o Turbine gate openings
o Head and tail water levels
o Spillway gate openings
o Cost of operation and maintenance of equipment

 In addition, continuous hydrological data recording are needed.

o Rainfall
o River gauge readings

 Good communication is essential for successful operation between individual plants and the central
station. This facilitates maintenance of continuity of service as the load dispatcher designates the load
each plant is to carry depending on the changing conditions.

7.6 Planning of Hydropower Development

 Assembly and analysis of hydrologic data on stream flows; simulate if period of records is short;
 Make preliminary designs for all stations which appear competitive in costs; and determine the most
economic design at each site by comparing costs and revenues from anticipated power sales.
 Determine requirements to be satisfied;

o Minimum instantaneous load

o Total energy
o Variation in load with time

 Select feasible projects as close to load centre (consumer) as possible.

 Compare best designs from several sites and select site or combination of sites which gives the most
efficient system.
 Compare hydro – versus thermal alternatives
 If hydro is competitive with thermal proceed with detailed design of the hydro-installation.

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8. ENGINEERING ECONOMY IN WATER RESPOURCES PLANNING

8.1 Social Importance

 Once the project is completed major water control structures cannot be altered with ease; it may not
be possible to alter them at all.

 There are only a few suitable dam sites, once they are appropriated; the possibilities for the economic
multipurpose development are very limited.

 Once an irrigation project is developed it cannot be moved because unfavourable soil or climate
factors are discovered.

 I.e. there is such finality in the construction of a river basin development that it is extremely
important to be sure that the right thing is planned before we proceed.

 What the engineer might see as a minor problem may occur so frequently that its aggregate
importance becomes cumulative, and may result in a huge increase in total cost for the user.

8.2 Steps in an Engineering Economy Study

 Identify all alternatives that seem promising and define them clearly in physical terms.

 The physical estimates of each alternative should as far as possible be translated into monetary
estimates. Monetary estimates may include:

o Incomes to be accrued, and when

o Disbursements to be made and when
o Useful lives and salvage values, if any, of the structures and other assets required for each
alternative
o Length of study (or project useful life)

 Place the monetary estimates on a comparable base by appropriate conversions that utilize
mathematics of compound interest. The conversions should use the minimum attractive rate of return
appropriate for the particular circumstances e.g. the interest rate.

 Recommend a choice among the alternatives based on comparison in terms of money units and also
those items or matters that are not practicable to reduce to monetary terms (the intangibles or
irreducibles).

8.3 Selecting Interest Rates

 Choice of interest rate to be used in economy studies has a considerable influence on the design
selected.
 At a low interest rate most proposed projects may appear economical even though the same
projects may be quite costly.

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  IMPORTANT CRETERIA FOR CHOICE IS: That everything considered, the chosen rate must
be the minimum attractive rate of return on the capital investment.
 In private enterprises; the interest rate should not be less than the figure that reflects the overall
cost of capital.
 In public works; the interest rate reflects the fair return permitted by the regulatory authority that
controls utility rates e.g. Central Bank.
 In Private Enterprises, when there are many competitive projects to be considered in an
environment where there are limited funds for financing, it is sometimes possible to use a higher
interest rate to eliminate the least productive of the proposed investments and conserve the
limited funds to use in the most productive places.
 However in public works the practice is usually to use the interest rate equal to the bare cost of
borrowed money for the public body undertaking the investment.

8.4 Capital Recovery Factor (CRF):

 The capital recovery cost is referred to as interest plus depreciation (or amortization); it is usually
proportional to the investment made.
 Economy studies are simplified by combining the capital recovery costs with other costs or
charges proportional to investment e.g.

o For assets subject to general property taxes based on assessed valuation, the tax cost is an
investment charge which should be combined with the capital recovery cost.
o To determine the tax rate to use in an economy study the stated tax rate applied to
assessed valuation should be multiplied by the expected ratio of assessed valuation to
first cost.
o Also for public utilities income taxes may be treated as investment charges in economy
studies

 All these costs are combined into a capital recovery factor (CRF) that takes account of the cost
streams throughout the life of the project. It is expressed as:

i (1+i ) N
CRF= N
¿
( 1+i ) −1 ¿

Where i is the minimum attractive rate of return on investment and N is the study period or
useful life of project.

8.5 Cost Benefit Analysis

 Engineering economy study for a private enterprise is usually made from the view point of the
enterprises in an economically competitive industry.

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  The competition itself is hoped in turn to serve the public interest through its stimulus to
technological innovation and progress, cost reduction, and improvements in the standard of
living.
 BUT for public works engineering economy study should be made from the point of view of all
the persons affected.

Example:

o In a proposed water softening plant for a municipal water supply it is necessary to estimate
the benefits that will accrue to the public from supply of soft water instead of evaluating the
proposal from the point of view of costs and revenue of the municipality alone.
o In a flood mitigation project in a river basin it is necessary to investigate damages caused by
flood of various magnitudes and cost them. The benefits can be obtained by investigating
also the reduction in damages from each flood control proposal; and put monetary units to
the benefits.

Solution:

Annual damage from floods in a river basin is estimated to be $ 400,000. Alternative proposals are made
for flood control works as follows:

1. Channel improvement alone to increase the capacity of the stream to carry the flood: - $ 500,000
2. A dam and storage reservoir or either site A or B but site A is located inside the reservoir area for
B so either of those sites can be used but not both.
(i) Site A development alone $3,000,000
(ii) Site B development alone $ 4,000,000
3. Site A development with channel improvement $ 3,500,000
4. Site B development with channel improvement, $ 4,500,000
5. No flood mitigation at all, $400,000 annually

Perform a benefit – cost analysis to select the best flood control project to implement if the annual interest
= 3% over a 25year life for channel, 100yrs for dam.

Project Investment Av. annual Annual Annual ∑Annual

flood damages investment O&M damages and
charges project costs.
1. No flood mitigation 0 400,000 0 0 400,000
2. Channel imp. alone 500,000 250,000 28,715 100,000 378,720
3. Dev. At site A alone 3,000,000 190,000 94,950 60,000 344,950
4. Dev. At site B alone 4,000,000 125,000 126,600 80,000 331,600
5. Site A with channel
improvement 3,500,000 100,000 123,670 160,000 383,670
6. Site B with channel
improvement 4,500,000 60,000 155,320 180,000 395,320

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BENEFIT COST ANALYSIS

Project No. Annual benefits Annual costs Benefits-cost Benefits minus

ratio costs
1 0 400,000 0 -400,000
2 150,000 128,720 1.17 21,280
3 210,00 154,950 1.36 55,050
4 275,000 206,600 1.33 68,400
5 300,000 283,670 1.06 16,330
6 340,000 335,320 1.01 4,680

Looking at the above results, themselves, the benefit-cost ratios do not give sufficient information to
make an economic choice between the alternatives, hence additional calculations are necessary.

1. Calculate the additional benefits added by each separate increment of costs;

2. Calculate the ratios of increment of benefits to the corresponding increment of costs;
3. Confirm that the extra costs are justifiable whenever the resulting benefits exceed the extra costs;
otherwise the extra costs are not justified if the resulting benefits are less than the extra costs.
4. The most economical choice is the one that gives the greatest excess of benefits over costs.

Project No. Annual Annual costs Extra benefits Extra costs Extra benefits
benefits to extra costs
1 0 400,000 0 0 0
2 150,000 128,720 - - -
3 210,000 154,950 60,000 26,230 2.29
4 275,000 208,600 65,000 51,650 1.26
5 300,000 283,670 25,000 77,070 0.32
6 340,000 335,320 40,000 51,650 0.77

The additional benefits of project 4 lead to its choice over the other projects.

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9. RAINWATER HARVESTING

Planning for rainwater harvesting starts with determination of water requirements of the community or
individual;
- domestic
- livestock
- irrigation
- industrial

Domestic Requirements;

Depend on availability of water within a reasonable distance from the dwelling place. The following
observations have been made with respect to consumptions;

Availability within Consumption

15 km of water source 2-3 l/day
1 km of water source 3-3 l/day
Next to house 10-20 l/day
Tap in house + WC and slower 60-80 l/day
Full sanitary installation 150-250 l/day

Livestock Requirements;

Rates of consumption for livestock have been estimated as follows;

Type of livestock Consumption

Graded dairy cattle 100 l/day
Graded beef cattle 50 l/day
Local/traditional cattle 20 l/day
Sheep 5 l/day
Goat 3 l/day
Cattle dipping Poultry Add 3 litres/head/wk
1 l/day / bird

Water Harnessing from Rain

Rain catchments depend on two major factors;

(i) rainfall itself

(ii) The area on which the rain falls.

The areas are called catchments areas and may be divided into 3 types depending on the surface of the
catchments area.

Type 1 areas: Total run – off occurs in areas with hard surfaces such as roofs and rocks.

Type 2 areas: Half run-off comes from semi-hard surfaces eg roads, compounds around a house and rocky
slopes.
Type 3 areas: Quarter run-off may be collected from catchments areas with loose soil surfaces such as
fields and valleys.

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Type 1 areas provide potential for harnessing clean water for human consumption. Type 2 may provide
fairly clean water from livestock watering, fish farming, biogas generation etc; whereas Type 3 may
provide water for irrigation, construction of holding dams, ponds, or sinking of shallow wells.

Calculation of run-off from roof catchments

1. Measure out the area of the roof – sq.m

2. Obtain data of rainfall from the nearest weather station (mean annual rainfall in mm)

Run–off = Roof area x mean annual rainfall

Example: for Makindu area, a roof of say 60m 2 and mean annual rainfall of 619mm the expected run-off
yield will be:

Run off = 60x619x10-3 = 37.14 m3

Calculation of run-off from rock catchments

To calculate the average yield of an area of rock surface the following formulae may be used:
Yield = 4/5 AxR

where A = area of harvester in m2

R = average rainfall in mm.
4/5 = run-off co-efficient.

Artificial Harvesters

Where there is no roof or rock surface to harvest rainwater artificial harvesters can be constructed. These
may be in the form of;

1. A concrete paved area: This is done by use of chicken wire as reinforcement to prevent cracking
and an appropriate conduit is led from the paved area to the storage tank.

PAVED AREA

STORAGE
TANK

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 2. Sub-Surface harvester: This can be constructed following the procedure below.

a) Excavate and level out a reasonable area of the ground;

b) Spread a layer of sand to an appropriate depth and grade in the excavated area;
c) Spread a large sheet of plastic on the sand ensuring that the edges of the plastic are raised up
against the side walls of excavation;
d) Place a drainage system over the plastic consisting of clean river sand and gravel and a
slotted PVC pipe at the lowest point of the excavation. The pipe will collect the water and
lead it into the storage reservoir.
e) Raise the edges of the catchment with a rim of concrete work to keep off any mud and debris
from the surrounding and fence off the catchment area to prevent access by animals.

mixture of
rough river sand
gravel gravel
run-off pipe

WATER
plastic slotted
sand sheeting STORAGE
PVC

---
---
SAND BED ---
---
---
--
GRAVEL

3. Sub surface Dams:

In semi – arid areas, river beds often dry up during the dry season. However, these river beds can be used
as storage reservoirs for water by making appropriate constructions.

There are three ways of constructing subsurface dams;

a) The cheapest and easiest method is to construct clay or other non-porous barriers across the river
bed, which rests on the solid impervious bedrock of the riverbed.
b) Gravity concrete dam or weir across the watercourse. Protrudes above the river bed to catch more
water thus increasing the volume of the sub surface reservoir.
c) An arch weir built of blocks or concrete as a thin walled arch across the river bed. Fairly cheap to
build, but requires rock abutments on both river banks (suitable for narrow river courses).

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- The structures are designed and constructed in such a way as to allow overflow of excess run – off
without need for spillways.
- The structure allows coarse sand to silt up behind the dam and this acts as the water reservoir thus
reducing loss of water by evaporation.
- The water is protected from contamination because it is not exposed for access by animals. Also there
is no possibility for breeding of mosquitoes.
- The water is withdrawn from the reservoir through a shallow well located either downstream or
upstream of the dam.

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