EECI 4241: Water & Wastewater Systems &Design

Design principles
Water supply systems
Design considerations for water supply systems include:
- Water demand
- Water source evaluation
- Water quality
- Evaluation of process options
- Plant sizing and layout
- Plant location

Water demand
Water demand is a key factor when determining the design capacity of water supply structures. In any
water supply design project, the design capacity is a fundamental prerequisite.
The determination of water demand consists of four parts:
1. selection of a design period
2. Estimation of the population, commercial, and industrial growth
3. Estimation of the unit water use, and
4. Estimation of the variability of the demand.
Table. Design periods for water works

aFull development (also called build-out) means that the land area being serviced is completely occupied by houses and/or commercial
and institutional facilities.

Design period
Is also called the design life.
The design period is the length of time it is estimated that the facility will be able to meet the demand,
that is, the design capacity.

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The design period is different from life expectancy in that life expectancy of a facility or piece of
equipment is determined by wear and tear. Typical life expectancies for equipment range from 10 to
20 years. Buildings, other structures, and pipelines are assumed to have a useful life of 50 years or
more.
New water works are generally made large enough to meet the demand for the future. The number
of years selected for the design period is based on the following:
- Regulatory constraints.
- The rate of population growth.
- The interest rate for bonds.
- The useful life of the structures and equipment.
- The ease or difficulty of expansion.
- Performance in early years of life under minimum hydraulic load.
Design periods that are commonly employed in practice and commonly experienced life expectancies
are shown in the previous table:
Estimation of the population, commercial, and industrial growth
Water supply systems are designed to last beyond the construction period. the design capacity must
be able to provide adequate water supply over the entire design period.
Population forecasting is done to estimate population of water consumers at the end of the design
period
Unit water use
Total water demand is usually estimated using per capita demand (in liters per capita per day, Lcpd).
This allows for the separation of population growth from the growth in unit consumption.
Water demand estimates are affected by:
- Climate
- Industrial activity
- Meterage
- System management
- Standard of living
The per capita water use in Kenya is given in the Practice Manual for Water Supply Services in Kenya
(2005)
Variability of demand
The unit demand estimates are usually averages.
Water consumption changes with the seasons, the days of the week, and the hours of the day.
Fluctuations are greater in small than in large communities, and during short rather than long periods
of time.

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The variation in demand is normally reported as a factor of the average day. E.g. For metered dwellings
the U. S. national average factors are as follows:
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 2.2 × 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦;
𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟 = 5.3 × 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦
The following figure provides an alternative method of estimating the variability. The sewerage flow
rates can provide a basis for adjustment of commercial and institutional users.
When the proposed project is in a community with an existing community supply, the community’s
historic records provide the best estimate of water use. This includes its variability. The demand for
water for firefighting is normally satisfied by providing storage.

Figure. Ratio of extreme flows to average daily flow

The Recommended Standards for Water Works (GLUMRB, 2003) stipulates that the design basis for
the water source and treatment facilities shall be for the maximum day demand at the design year.
Pumping facilities and distribution system piping are designed to carry the peak hour flow rate.
When municipalities provide water for fire protection, the maximum day demand plus fire demand is
used to estimate the peak hour flow rate.

Water source evaluation

The portion of the population of the developed countries supplied by surface water generally greater
than that supplied by groundwater. However, the number of communities supplied by groundwater is
more than a factor of 10 times that supplied by surface water in most parts of the world.
The reason for this pattern is that larger cities are supplied by large surface water bodies while many
small communities use groundwater.
Groundwater has many characteristics that make it preferable as a water supply:

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1. Groundwater is less subject to seasonal fluctuations and long-term droughts.

2. The aquifer provides natural storage that eliminates the need for an impoundment.
3. Because the groundwater source is frequently available near the point of demand, the cost of
transmission is reduced significantly.
4. Because natural geologic materials filter the water, groundwater is often more aesthetically
pleasing and to some extent protected from contamination.
Groundwater as a supply is not without drawbacks:
1. It dissolves naturally occurring minerals which may give the water undesirable characteristics
such as hardness, red color from iron oxidation, and toxic contaminants like arsenic.

Yield
One of the first considerations in selecting a water supply source is the ability of the source to provide
an adequate quantity of water. One measure of quantity is yield. Yield is the average flow available
over a long period of time

Surface water
When the proposed surface water supply is to be the sole source of water, the design basis is the
long-term or “safe” yield.
The components of the design are:
a. determination of the allowable withdrawal
b. Completion of a complete series analysis and, if the design drought duration exceeds the
recorded data interval, completion of a partial duration series analysis, and
c. Completion of an extreme-value analysis to determine the probable recurrence interval (return
period ) of a drought.
The allowable withdrawal is determined from regulatory constraints. the municipality desiring to use
the surface water for supply cannot withdraw all the available water.
a. Enough must be left for the ecological health of the river or stream as well as for downstream
users.
b. In case large water bodies are used as the source of water supply, the classic analysis of drought
conditions is not warranted. However, the fluctuation of the e.g. lake level does impact the
design of the intake structure, and it must be evaluated.

Groundwater
Unlike surface water supplies, groundwater is less subject to seasonal fluctuations and long-term
droughts.
The design basis is the long term or “safe” yield. The safe yield of a ground water basin is the amount
of water which can be withdrawn from it annually without producing an undesired result. (Todd, 1959)
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A yield analysis of the aquifer is performed because of the potential for over-pumping the well with
consequent failure to yield an adequate supply as well as the potential to cause dramatic ground
surface settlement, detrimental dewatering of nearby ponds or streams or, in wells near the ocean, to
cause salt water intrusion.

Water quality
The following four categories are used to describe drinking water quality:
1. Physical: Physical characteristics relate to the quality of water for domestic use. They include
color, turbidity, temperature, and taste and odor.
2. Chemical: Chemical characteristics of waters are sometimes evidenced by their observed
reactions, such as the comparative performance of hard and soft waters in laundering. Most
often, differences are not visible. However, in some cases, such as the oxidation of iron, the
reactions result in highly objectionable color.
3. Microbiological: Microbiological agents are very important in their relation to public health
and may also be significant in modifying the physical and chemical characteristics of water.
Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be made free from pathogens. These organisms
include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and helminths (worms).
Some organisms that cause disease in people originate with the fecal discharges of infected
individuals. Others are from the fecal discharge of animals.

The most widely used test estimates the number of microorganisms of the coliform group. This
grouping includes two genera: Escherichia coli and Aerobacter aerogenes. The name of the
group is derived from the word “colon”.
E. coli are common inhabitants of the intestinal tract, Aerobacter are common in the soil, on
leaves, and on grain; on occasion they cause urinary tract infections.
The test for these microorganisms, called the Total Coliform Test, was selected for the
following reasons:
a. The coliform group of organisms normally inhabits the intestinal tracts of humans and other
mammals. Thus, the presence of coliforms is an indication of fecal contamination of the
water.
b. Even in acutely ill individuals, the number of coliform organisms excreted in the feces
outnumber the disease-producing organisms by several orders of magnitude. The large
numbers of coliforms make them easier to culture than disease-producing organisms.
c. The coliform group of organisms survives in natural waters for relatively long periods of
time but does not reproduce effectively in this environment. Thus, the presence of
coliforms in water implies fecal contamination rather than growth of the organism because
of favorable environmental conditions. These organisms also survive better in water than
most of the bacterial pathogens. This means that the absence of coliforms is a reasonably
safe indicator that pathogens are not present.

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d. The coliform group of organisms is relatively easy to culture. Thus, laboratory technicians
can perform the test without expensive equipment. Current research indicates that testing
for Escherichia coli specifically may be warranted. Some agencies prefer the examination
for E. coli as a better indicator of biological contamination than total coliforms.
4. Radiological: Radiological factors must be considered in areas where there is a possibility that
the water may have come in contact with radioactive substances. The radioactivity of the water
is of public health concern in these cases.
The use of atomic energy as a power source and the mining of radioactive materials, as well as
naturally occurring radioactive materials, are sources of radioactive substances in drinking
water. Drinking water standards have been established for alpha particles, beta particles,
photons emitters, radium-226 and - 228, and uranium.
In practice, water for drinking water supply must meet the drinking water quality standards for the
particular jurisdiction. In many cases, some sort of treatment is applied to most water sources before
supply. Evaluation of process options

Evaluation of process options

In the design process, all outlined design considerations are sufficient to begin screening alternative
supply and treatment options.
In most cases several options will be available.

Plant sizing and layout

Once the preliminary selection of the water treatment unit operations and processes has been made,
rough calculations are made to determine
sizes to be used in examining feasibility of site locations and cost. The elements to be considered in
plant sizing include:
a. Number and size of process units
To ensure the provision of water to the public water supply, a minimum of two units is provided
for redundancy. When only two units are provided, each shall be capable of meeting the plant
design capacity.
The design capacity is set at the projected maximum daily demand for the end of the design period.
The size of the units is specified so that the plant can meet the design capacity with one unit out
of service (GLUMRB, 2003).
Consideration should also be given to the efficiency/effectiveness of the process units with the low
demand at start up of the facility.
b. Number and size of ancillary structures. The layout should include:
a. Provision for expansion,
b. Connection to the transportation net
c. Connection to the water distribution system

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d. Residuals handling system

The ancillary units include: administration building, laboratory space, storage tanks, mechanical
building for pumping facilities, roads, and parking.
The size of these facilities is a function of the size of the plant. In small to medium sized facilities,
particularly in cold climates and when land is expensive, administration, laboratory, pumping, and
storage are housed in one building.
The storage tanks include those for chemicals, treated water, and in some instances fuel. Space for
storage of chemical residuals must also be provided.
c. Plant layout
When space is not a constraint, a linear layout generally allows the maximum flexibility for
expansion.
Redundancy is enhanced if the units are interconnected in such a way that the flow through the
plant can be shuttled from one treatment train to another. Because chemicals must be delivered
to the plant, connection to the transportation net becomes an integral part of the layout.
Because residuals are generally transported off-site, the residuals handling system is an integral
part of the plant layout

Plant location
Ideally a site comparison study will be performed after alternatives have been screened and rough
sizing of the processes is complete. Many factors may preclude the ideal situation. For example:
1. In highly urbanized areas the availability of land may preclude all but one site.
2. In some cases, the availability of land may force the selection of processes that fit into the
available space.
Given that more than one site is available, there are several major issues to be considered:
1. Cost is a major element in the selection process.
2. The site should allow for expansion.
3. The location of the plant relative to the transportation net, raw water supply, and the service
area should be weighed carefully.
4. The physical characteristics of the site alternatives that must be evaluated include the potential
for flooding, foundation stability, groundwater intrusion, and the difficulty in preparing the
site. For example, the need for blasting of rock may make the cost prohibitive for an otherwise
ideal site.
5. Other issues to be considered include wetland infringement, the availability of alternate,
independent sources of power, waste disposal options, public acceptance, and security.

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Wastewater systems
The general wastewater collection and treatment design considerations include:
- Wastewater sources and flow rates
- Wastewater characteristics
- Wastewater treatment standards
- Sludge disposal regulations
- Plant sizing and layout
- Plant location

Wastewater sources and flow rates

Like with water supply design, a fundamental prerequisite to begin the design of wastewater facilities
is a determination of the design capacity. This, in turn, is a function of the wastewater flow rates. The
determination of wastewater flow rates consists of five parts:
a. Selection of a design period
See design period for water supply systems
Design periods that are commonly employed in
practice and commonly experienced life expectancies are shown in the following table:
Table. Design periods for wastewater works

b. Estimation of the population and commercial and industrial growth

c. Estimation of wastewater flows
Wastewater may be classified into the following components:
i. Domestic or sanitary wastewater. Wastewater discharged from residences, commercial (e.g.,
banks, restaurants, retail stores), and institutional facilities (e.g., schools and hospitals).
ii. Industrial wastewater. Wastewater discharged from industries (e.g., manufacturing and
chemical processes).
iii. Infiltration and inflow (I/I). Water that enters the sewer system from groundwater infiltration
and storm water that enters from roof drains, foundation drains, and submerged manholes.

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iv. Storm water. Runoff from rainfall and snow melt

Variability of wastewater flowrates
Wastewater flow rates vary over several time scales ranging from diurnal to the design period.
The use of these data in design and operation of the collection system and treatment plant are
outlined in the following table.
Table. Principal flow rate terms and their use in design and operation

a The ratio of the highest operating flow rate to the lowest operating flow rate. Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy, 2003.

When the proposed project is in a community with an existing community wastewater collection
and treatment system, the community’s historic records provide the best estimate of wastewater
production. This includes its variability.
Typical wastewater flow rates from institutional sources in the United States

aFlow rates are L/unit-school day. Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, 2003.
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Typical wastewater flow rates from commercial sources in the United States

Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, 2003.

d. Estimation of infiltration and inflow

e. Estimation of the variability of the wastewater flow rates.
Water consumption and wastewater production change with the seasons, the days of the week,
and the hours of the day. Fluctuations are greater in small communities than in large communities,
and during short rather than long periods of time.
The variation in wastewater flow rate is normally reported as a factor of the average day.
The following figures provide alternative methods of estimating the variability.

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Typical wastewater flow rates from recreational facilities in the US

Adapted from Metcalf and Eddy, 2003.

Figure. Ratio of extreme flows to average daily flow

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Figure. Ratio of extreme flows to average daily flow

Variation of Infiltration Flows
The amount of groundwater flowing from a given area varies from a negligible amount for a highly
impervious area to 25 to 30 percent of the rainfall for a pervious area with a sandy subsoil.
The infiltration of groundwater into the sewer may range from 0.01 to more than 1.0 m3/d.mm.km
(cubic meters per day per mm diameter of sewer per km length of sewer).
For existing sewer systems, flow measurement provides the best estimate of infiltration/inflow.
For new sewers, average rates from similar existing sewers, corrected for differences in materials,
construction methods, and anticipated future conditions provide another source of data.

Wastewater characteristics
Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater
Physical Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater.
Fresh, aerobic, domestic wastewater has been said to have the odor of kerosene or freshly turned
earth.
Aged, septic sewage is considerably more offensive to the olfactory nerves. The characteristic rotten-
egg odor of hydrogen sulfide and the mercaptans is indicative of septic sewage.
Fresh sewage is typically gray in color. Septic sewage is black.
Wastewater temperatures normally range between 10℃ and 20℃. In general, the temperature of the
wastewater will be higher than that of the water supply. This is because of the addition of warm water
from households and heating within the plumbing system of the structures.
One cubic meter of wastewater weighs approximately 1,000,000 grams. It will contain about 500
grams of solids. One-half of the solids will be dissolved solids such as calcium and sodium salts as well
as and soluble organic compounds. The remaining 250 grams will be insoluble. The insoluble fraction
consists of about 125 grams of material that will settle out of the liquid fraction in 30 minutes under
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quiescent conditions. The remaining 125 grams will remain in suspension for a very long time. The
result is that wastewater is highly turbid.
Summary of physical characteristics:
- colour - Dissolved solids
- Odour - Turbidity
- Temperature - Calcium
- Density - Solium
- Total suspended solids - pH
- Settleable solids - Etc.

Chemical Characteristics of Domestic Wastewater.

General classes of compounds are based on the name of the analytical procedure used to measure
them. Some include:
- The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5)
- The chemical oxygen demand (COD). The COD test is used to determine the oxygen equivalent
of the organic matter that can be oxidized by a strong chemical oxidizing agent (potassium
dichromate) in an acid medium.
The COD of a waste, in general, will be greater than the BOD 5 because more compounds can
be oxidized chemically than can be oxidized biologically and because BOD 5 does not equal
ultimate BOD.
The COD test can be conducted in about three hours. If it can be correlated with BOD 5, it can
be used to aid in the operation and control of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).
- Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) is a measure of the total organic and ammonia nitrogen in the
wastewater. * TKN gives a measure of the availability of nitrogen for building microbial cells,
as well as the potential nitrogenous oxygen demand that will have to be satisfied.
- Phosphorus may appear in many forms in wastewater. Among the forms found are the
orthophosphates, polyphosphates, and organic phosphate. Together, these are referred to as
“total phosphorus (as P)”.
The broad categories of BOD, COD, TKN, and suspended solids are divided into subcategories.
The current nomenclature used to characterize wastewater constituents used in the design of
biological wastewater treatment processes and their shorthand designations are shown in the
following table:

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Table. Definition of terms used to characterize important wastewater constituents used for the
analysis and design of biological wastewater treatment process

Three typical compositions of untreated domestic wastewater are summarized in the following table.
Because there is no “typical” wastewater, it should be emphasized that these data should only be
used as a guide.
The pH for all these wastes will be in the range of 6.5 to 8.5, with a majority being slightly on the
alkaline side of 7.0.
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Table: Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater

Characteristics of industrial wastewater

Industrial processes generate a wide variety of wastewater pollutants. The characteristics and levels
of pollutants vary significantly from industry to industry. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
has grouped the pollutants into three categories:
- conventional pollutants
- nonconventional pollutants,
- and priority pollutants.
See following tables:
Table. EPA’s conventional and nonconventional pollutant categories

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Because of the wide variety of industries and levels of pollutants, only a snapshot view of the
characteristics can be presented.
A sampling of a few industries for two conventional pollutants is shown in the following table. A similar
sampling for nonconventional pollutants is shown in the table below.
Table. Examples of industrial wastewater concentrations for BOD5 and suspended solids

Table. Examples of industrial wastewater concentrations for nonconventional pollutants

Wastewater treatment standards and sludge disposal regulations

Wastewater treatment standards and sludge disposal regulations are defined in relevant legislature.
The goal is to guide on the quality of treated water before it is discharged back into the environment.
Assignment: what are the wastewater treatment standards in Kenya?
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Plant sizing and layout

Once the preliminary selection of the wastewater treatment unit operations and processes has been
made (the screening process), rough calculations are made to determine sizes to be used in examining
feasibility of site locations and cost.
The elements to be considered in plant sizing include:
a. number and size of process units
b. number and size of ancillary structures. The layout should include:
- provision for expansion
- connection to the transportation net
- connection to the wastewater collection system
- effluent discharge location
- residuals handling system.

Plant location
Ideally a site comparison study will be performed after alternatives have been screened and rough
sizing of the processes is complete. Many factors may preclude the ideal situation:
1. in highly urbanized areas the availability of land may preclude all but one site. In such a case,
the availability of land may force the selection of processes that fit into the available space.
2. cost is a major element in the selection process.
3. The site should allow for expansion.
4. The location of the plant relative to the receiving water for disposal of the treated wastewater,
the service area, and the transportation net should be weighed carefully.
5. The physical characteristics of the site alternatives that must be evaluated include the potential
for flooding, foundation stability, groundwater intrusion, and the difficulty in preparing the
site.
6. Because the hydraulics of the collection system is primarily governed by the ground slope, the
treatment facility is often placed at the lowest possible elevation. The soils and groundwater
table at these sites should be examined carefully for foundation stability.
7. Other issues to be considered include:
a. wetland infringement
b. the availability of alternate
c. independent sources of power
d. waste disposal options
e. public acceptance (particular attention must be paid to odor control)
f. and security.

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