KUYA ALBERT ANYANGE

ENG-217-036/2018
ASSIGNMENT 3
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF DAMS
FOUNDATION CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT PROCESS OF A DAM
A dam is usually constructed across a river to create a reservoir in the valley behind by storing the
water that flows into it naturally. Sometimes, they are built across dry valleys, or valleys with small
streams, to create a storage area for water that is transported from elsewhere. Sometimes, dams are
built across wide rivers with large volumes of flowing water.
 Dams are usually built using concrete, or natural materials such as earth and rock, and in cases
such as the Hoover Dam and the Three Gorges, are major engineering projects with a construction
programme lasting many years.
Dam construction is often complex and requires a wide range of professionals from
different disciplines.
➢ Civil engineers are generally responsible for determining the best type of dam for the site,
and for producing technical drawings showing the construction process.

➢ They will consult with engineering geologists and hydrologists on the technical details of

the site and the required specifications dependent on the amount of water involved.

➢ Mechanical engineers will be contracted to design the necessary pipework, valves and

floodgates.

➢ Geotechnical engineers will determine whether the rock or soil below the proposed dam is

strong enough to accommodate the weight and for determining possible permeability.
Site Preparations
Prior to the design phase, reconnaissance and feasibility studies should be performed at the
proposed dam site to understand the regional geology and properly characterize the site conditions
as they relate to stability.
Water flowing in a river or stream is diverted to create a dry area in which
to construct the dam.Lower flows will be capable of diverting
through tunnels or channels built around the side of the dam area, excavated using explosives where
necessary.

Higher flows may be too difficult to divert using separate channels, so instead a dry pit is formed on
one side of the river, leaving the other side open for water to flow through.
The dam is constructed in sections, with dry areas built in sequence. Openings are provided in
the dam to allow the river to flow through.

A dam is built on a soil or rock foundation, depending on the type of dam. The foundation must be
strong enough to carry the weight of the dam, and the water pressures acting on the dam. The dam
foundation is below the original ground level. It is covered by weaker soils or rock that have to be
removed either by excavation or by blasting with explosives.

Sometimes, areas of weaker soils or rocks are found below the planned foundation level and these
have to be removed and replaced with stronger materials

Some rock foundations have cracks and fissures in them. These have to be filled with grout to stop
water leaking out from the reservoir through the cracks once the dam is completed. This is done by
drilling holes down into the rock, and by pumping grout into them, which spreads outwards to fill
the cracks.

Process of excavation
A protective layer (PL) is commonly reserved above foundation surface to protect the underlying
rock mass during dam foundation excavation.
 The dam foundation surface serves as the bearing surface, and it should be noted that water
pressure is acting on the bedrock where the weak interfaces between the dam and the bedrock are
observed. Therefore, the
st abilities of the reservoir-dam system and the bedrock are critically important during dam
foundation excavation by blasting. The following are methods used in the excavation process:
• Shallow-hole bench blasting with cushion at the bottom of hole
The stress state of the bedrock beneath the blasting hole can be effectively ameliorated by setting a
flexible cushion at the bottom of the blasting hole. Generally, the sonic impedance of cushion
material is smaller than that of explosive. When the detonation wave strikes the interface of
explosive and cushion materials, the reflection and transmission of detonation wave would occur on
the interface.
As a consequence, the stress wave acting on the bedrock under the borehole is reduced. When the
stress is reduced to a value less than the ultimate compressive strength and the ultimate tensile
strength of the bedrock, effective protection of the bedrock can be achieved.
Cushion design basically includes three parts, namely the cushion length, the cushion location and
the cushion materials. In general, the cushion should be set above the foundation surface, and the
cushion length should not be too large in order to avoid excessive blasting toes.
• Shallow-hole blasting
In shallow-hole blasting, the low bench and the small diameter boreholes are adopted, which is one
of the important means to reduce the charge per delay interval and blasting vibration. In engineering
practices, the bench height is usually less than 5 m, and the borehole diameter is usually less than 50
mm.

• Detonating hole by hole

Detonating hole by hole, namely millisecond delay blasting, which would transform a big charge of
blasting into a series of continuous small-dose blasting, can improve rock-breaking capacity of
explosive, and reduce blasting vibration
• Horizontal smooth blasting
Smooth blasting belongs to controlled contour blasting technology that is widely used in the
excavation work of hydro power projects. One of the characteristics of explosive detonating in a
borehole is that the energy of shock wave is transmitted from the borehole in a very non-
discriminating fashion, which means that the shock energy will propagate from the hole to the
surrounding rock mass independent of direction. Consequently, the fragmentation of targeted rock
mass and the blasting induced damage of the reserved rock mass will occur. With intensive drilling
on the designed contour line and other relative technical measures, energy will be guided to form
the crack between boreholes on the designed contour line in the process of smooth blasting. As a
result, the amount and the length of other cracks around the borehole will be reduced observably.
Thus, blasting-induced damage of the reserved rock mass will be reduced and a smooth excavation
surface will be achieved.
• Hydraulic-fill Method

In this method of construction, the dam body is constructed by excavating and transporting soils by
using water. Pipes called flumes, are laid along the outer edge of the embankment. The soil
materials are mixed with water and pumped into these flumes. The slush is discharged through the
outlets in the flumes at suitable intervals along their lengths.

The slush, flowing towards the centre of the bank, tends to settle down. The coarser particles get
deposited soon after the discharge near the outer edge, while the fines get carried and settle at the
centre, forming a zoned embankment having a relatively impervious central core.

Since the fill is saturated when placed, high pore pressures develop in the core material, and the
stability of the dam must be checked for these pressures. This type of embankment is susceptible to
settlement over long periods, because of slow drainage from the core.

Hydraulic-fill method is, therefore, seldom adopted these days. Rolled-fill method for constructing
earthen dams is, therefore, generally and universally adopted in these modern days.

• Rolled-fill Method

The embankment is constructed by placing suitable soil materials in thin layers (15 to 30 cm) and
compacting them with rollers. The soil is brought to the site from burrow pits and spread by
bulldozers, etc. In layers. These layers are thoroughly compacted by rollers of designed weights.
Ordinary road rollers can be used fro low embankments (such as for levees or bunds); while power-
operated rollers are to be used for dams. The moisture content of the soil fill must be properly
controlled. The best compaction can be obtained at a moisture content somewhere near the optimum
moisture content. (The optimum moisture content is the moisture required for obtaining optimum
density in the fill). Compaction of coarse gravels cannot be properly done by rolling and is best
done by vibrating equipment.

Excavation supports

Excavation support systems are used to minimize the excavation area, to keep the sides of deep
excavations stable, and to ensure that movements will not cause damage to neighboring structures
or to utilities in the surrounding ground.

In general, to construct a structure either above the ground or below the ground, excavation of soil
is necessary in the ground. The excavation may be shallow or deep based on our requirement.
But when deep cuts are made in soil, the soil from the sides of excavated area may collapse due to
low stability. To prevent this and to make the cut accurate vertical we need some temporary earth
retaining structures called excavation supports.

Generally, there are two most commonly adopted methods of providing excavation supports:

Soldier pile and lagging

Soil nailing

Soil Nailing Method of Excavation Support

Soil nailing is another technique of protecting excavated ground. It is economical and rapid process.
In this case, soil is reinforced in situ to make it stable. For soil nailing, firstly shallow cut is
excavated and then the cut is coated with shotcrete. Shotcrete is nothing but concrete which is
sprayed through pipes with some force. On the shotcrete area, soil nails are driller and grouted. The
group of nails installed on a grid holds the soil in a stable manner. The same process is repeated
until the required depth is reached. Soil nailing is more effective and easier if it is done with
subsequent layers of installation. Even though it is rapid in construction it needs skilled persons to
who are having knowledge on geo technology and craftsmanship. Soil nailing should be more
effective above the ground water table level.

The angle of inclination of anchors is decided based on the soil behavior and availability of hard
stratum but In General 10 to 20-degree inclination is provided for anchors.

Soldier Pile and Lagging

Soldier piles are nothing but I-sections which consists web between two flanges. These I-sections
are drilled into the ground around the periphery of an excavation. The piles are driven to the point
slightly below the required excavation depth. Weak concrete is used for grouting of piles. The
spacing between every two adjacent piles is limited to 10 feet. After that exaction is done and the
surrounded soil is well supported by the flanges of piles. In between the piles, wood lagging is used.
The lagging consists long timber sheets or planks placed behind the front flanges of piles to support
the soil between the piles. The timber is of 2 to 4 inches thickness, so, some manual excavation
behind the front flange is needed. To offer strong bond between horizontal wood sheets and front
flange, welded studs, clips etc. are used.

For narrow cuts which have limited width and more depth, excavation bracings are provided in the
form of struts. Struts are connecting member which connect the one side cut wall to another cut wall
horizontally. To install struts, horizontal member called waler is arranged in front of wooden
lagging. If the excavation is very wide, then inclined struts called rakers are used.

Foundation placement

As so much concrete is required in a concrete dam, it is mixed together in a special building called a
concrete batching plant, which is built on the construction site. For very large dams, there may be a
number of batching plants. The concrete can be placed in the dam by two different methods.

The traditional method is to pour a wet mixture of concrete into a mould made in the required shape
of the dam. The mould, called formwork, is usually made from sheets of timber. The mould is not
made to the full height of the dam, as the dam is built upwards in stages of about 1 to 2 meters at a
time. The concrete is left to dry before the next section is formed on top.

The concrete can be transferred from the batching plant to the dam by a number of methods.
Sometimes, a system of conveyor belts is used and sometimes the concrete is taken by trucks to the
bottom of the dam where it is poured into skips which are lifted to the top of the dam by cranes.

FOUNDATION FAILURE OF DAMS

Foundation defects cause approximately 30% of all documented dam failures in the world. Because
of inherent uncertainty associated with the properties of the foundation it is essential that the
regional geology and dam foundation geologic conditions be thoroughly investigated and
characterized in order to reduce the risk of failure.

Prior to the design phase, reconnaissance and feasibility studies should be performed at the
proposed dam site to understand the regional geology and properly characterize the site conditions
as they relate to stability. Such studies should be conducted by an experienced engineering geologist
with training in dam stability. A complete understanding of the geologic conditions is critical to the
evaluation of dam site selection, feasibility, and stability as well as selection of the dam type and
configuration. In addition, constructability and costs are directly related to the geologic conditions,
particularly the potential need for mitigation of seepage and/or stability concerns.

FOUNDATION FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS

Improper foundation preparation resulting from a lack of geologic consideration can lead to dam
failure by a variety of modes including differential settlement, slope instability, sliding, uplift
pressures, uncontrolled foundation seepage, internal erosion, shearing, and faulting.
Overtopping may not result in structural failure, but still presents a major flood hazard as happened
during the overtopping of the Vaiont Dam in Italy.

Similarly, rapid release of reservoir water in order to lower the water level within safe limits can be
a big concern in downstream areas.

Water penetrating through the dam’s interior body or its foundation might progressively erode soil
from the embankment or its foundation leading to the failure of the dam. Piping failure is defined as
a failure mode caused by water penetrating through the dam’s body, carrying with it small particles
of dam material, continuously widening the gap. If the initial piping can be detected before it
reaches the critical condition, remedy might be possible. Penetration of

water in the dam body can cause slope failure. To prevent this type of failure, appropriate
instrumentation is needed to estimate the rate of infiltration within an embankment.

The investigation procedures may include the dam is visited whereby visual inspection is done.
Here, cracks, fissures, settlement of the foundation of the dam are checked and appropriate
solutions suggested.

Experimental works. The experimental work consists of two tasks; field work and laboratory
testing. The Laboratory testing program is conducted to determine the physical and mechanical
properties of the soils encountered during the site exploration. From the laboratory experiments
conducted, the safe bearing pressure, bearing capacity and properties of the soil on which the dam is
constructed are known and if the given properties are found to be inadequate, suitable soil treatment
measures are put in place.

FOUNDATION TREATMENT IN PROBLEMATIC SOILS

During the construction phase of the dam, additional geotechnical investigations and pilot tests may
be conducted in order to finalize the foundation preparation specifications and foundation treatment
methods most compatible with the geologic conditions and dam design. Consideration of geologic
features through comprehensive geotechnical investigations conducted throughout several phases of
dam design will ensure the most appropriate means of foundation preparation and treatment at the
site.

Foundation treatment may include surficial measures such as excavation of low quality rock,
application of dental concrete, or contact grouting; deeper treatments such as the installation of a
cutoff wall, foundation grouting or a combination of the two, and the use of drains and filters at the
base of concrete dams or within an embankment. In seismically active regions, the construction of a
berm or buttress on the upstream or downstream slope may be required to increase the factor of
safety against seismically induced stability failures, sliding, and settlement due to strength
reductions from shaking and liquefaction.

JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT

For meaningful development of area, there is need to provide reliable water through construction of the dams
within the locality. For the dam to be feasible, it should be able to do the following.
· Providing reliable water supply for domestic use.
· Providing reliable water for irrigation;
· educing conflicts between the pastoral and farmers.
· Generating electricity;
· Enhancing fish farming.
· Boosting tourism.
· Reduce conflicts between the pastorals in the near River Basin.