Grouting

Grouting is the application of a mix of cement and sand along with other material (such as
epoxy) to fill the spaces that may result during some construction operation.
Grout is a dense fluid which is used to fill gaps or used as reinforcement in existing
structures. Grout is generally a mixture of water, cement, and sand, and is employed in
pressure grouting, embedding rebar in masonry walls, connecting sections of pre-cast
concrete, filling voids, and sealing joints such as those between tiles. Some common uses for
grout in the household include: filling in tiles of shower floors and kitchen tiles. It is often
colour tinted when it has to be kept visible, and sometimes includes fine gravel when being
used to fill large spaces (such as the cores of concrete blocks). Unlike other structural pastes
such as plaster or joint compound, correctly mixed and applied grout forms a waterproof seal.

Tunnelling
A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and
enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel,
though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than
traditional tunnel boring methods.
A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central
portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel. Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply
water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Utility tunnels are used for
routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as
connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment.

Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons,
contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife
to cross human-made barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks.

Geotechnical investigation and design

A major tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by
collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice
can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will
reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route, the
horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water
conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required,
in order to excavate through solid rock or other material that is easier to support during
construction.

Conventional desk and preliminary site studies may yield insufficient information to assess
such factors as the blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up
times of softer ground. This may be a particular concern in large-diameter tunnels. To give
more information, a pilot tunnel (or "drift tunnel") may be driven ahead of the main
excavation. This smaller tunnel is less likely to collapse catastrophically should unexpected
conditions be met, and it can be incorporated into the final tunnel or used as a backup or
emergency escape passage. Alternatively, horizontal boreholes may sometimes be drilled
ahead of the advancing tunnel face.

Other key geotechnical factors:

 Stand-up time is the amount of time a newly excavated cavity can support itself
without any added structures. Knowing this parameter allows the engineers to
determine how far an excavation can proceed before support is needed, which in turn
affects the speed, efficiency, and cost of construction. Generally, certain
 configurations of rock and clay will have the greatest stand-up time, while sand and
fine soils will have a much lower stand-up time.
 Groundwater control is very important in tunnel construction. Water leaking into a
tunnel or vertical shaft will greatly decrease stand-up time, causing the excavation to
become unstable and risking collapse. The most common way to control groundwater
is to install dewatering pipes into the ground and to simply pump the water out. A
very effective but expensive technology is ground freezing, using pipes which are
inserted into the ground surrounding the excavation, which are then cooled with
special refrigerant fluids. This freezes the ground around each pipe until the whole
space is surrounded with frozen soil, keeping water out until a permanent structure
can be built.
 Tunnel cross-sectional shape is also very important in determining stand-up time. If a
tunnel excavation is wider than it is high, it will have a harder time supporting itself,
decreasing its stand-up time. A square or rectangular excavation is more difficult to
make self-supporting, because of a concentration of stress at the corners.[5]

Choice of tunnels versus bridges

For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge. However,
navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridge spans
intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel. Bridges usually require a larger
footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, and urban, this is a
strong factor in favor of a tunnel.

Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with
tides, weather, and shipping during construction, aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-
ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity reasons (it may be more
feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge).

Construction
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method of
tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water
conditions, the length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of
supporting the tunnel excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk
management.

There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use. Cut-and-cover tunnels are
constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over. Bored tunnels are constructed in situ,
without removing the ground above. Finally a tube can be sunk into a body of water, which is
called an immersed tunnel.

Cut-and-cover

Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench is

excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load
of what is to be built above the tunnel.[9] Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling are
available:

 Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground support as necessary, and

the tunnel is constructed in it. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete,
precast arches, or corrugated steel arches; in early days brickwork was used. The
trench is then carefully back-filled and the surface is reinstated.
 Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed from
ground level by such methods as slurry walling or contiguous bored piling. Only a
shallow excavation is needed to construct the tunnel roof using precast beams or in
situ concrete sitting on the walls. The surface is then reinstated except for access
openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface
features. Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base
slab is constructed.

Tunnelling Route Studies

In a tunnel route study, the following issues should be considered:

• Subsurface, geological, and geo-hydraulic conditions
• Constructability.
• Long-term environmental impact
• Seismicity.
• Land use restrictions
• Potential air right developments
• Life expectancy.
• Economical benefits and life cycle cost
• Operation and maintenance
• Security.
• Sustainability.

Geotechnical Investigations for tunnelling:

1. Geotechnical investigations are critical for proper planning of a tunnel.
2. Selection of the alignment, cross section, and construction methods is influenced by the
geological and geotechnical conditions, as well as the site constraints. Good knowledge of
the expected geological conditions is essential. Tunnel alignment is sometimes changed
based on the results of the geotechnical to minimize construction cost or to reduce risks.
3. The type of the ground encountered along the alignment would affect the selection
of the tunnel type and its method of construction.
4. Study of the impact of geological features on the tunnel alignment in the presence of
active or inactive faults. During the planning phase, avoid crossing a fault zone. If it is un
avoidable then proper measures for crossing it should be implemented. Presence of faults
or potentially liquefiable materials would be of concern during the planning process.
5. Geotechnical issues such as the soil or rock properties, the ground water regime, the
ground cover over the tunnel should be analysed. The investigation should address not just
the soil and rock properties, but also their anticipated behaviors during excavation.
6. The investigation should also address groundwater. For example, in soft ground SEM
tunneling, the stability of the excavated face is greatly dependent on control of the
groundwater. Dewatering, pre-draining, grouting, or freezing are often used to stabilize the
excavation.
7. Analysing the ground behaviour during tunneling will affect potential settlements on the
Surface. Measures to minimize settlements by using suitable tunneling methods or by
preconditioning the ground to improve its characteristics would be required.
8. Risk assessment is an important factor in selecting a tunnel alignment. Construction
risks. Sensitive existing structures. Very Hard spots (rock, for example) beneath parts of a
tunnel

Geotechnical Investigations
To successfully plan, design and construct a road tunnel project requires various types of
investigative techniques to obtain a broad spectrum of pertinent topographic, geologic,
subsurface, geo-hydrological, and structure information and data. Although most of the
techniques and procedures are similar to those applied for roadway and bridge projects, the
specific scope, objectives and focuses of the investigations are considerably different for
tunnel and underground projects, and can vary significantly with subsurface conditions and
tunneling methods.
A geotechnical investigation program for a tunnel project must use appropriate means and
methods to obtain necessary characteristics and properties as basis for planning, design
and construction of the tunnel and related underground facilities, to identify the potential
construction risks, and to establish realistic cost estimate and schedule.
The extent of the investigation should be consistent with the project scope (i.e., location,
size, and budget), the project objectives (i.e., risk tolerance, long-term performance), and the
project constraints (i.e., geometry, constructability, third-party impacts, aesthetics, and
environmental impact).
It is important that the involved parties have a common understanding of the geotechnical
basis for design, and that they are aware of the inevitable risk of not being able to
Completely define existing subsurface conditions or to fully predict ground behaviour during
construction.
Investigation program
For planning and design of a road tunnel project may include the following components:
• Existing Information Collection and Study
• Surveys and Site Reconnaissance
• Geologic Mapping
• Subsurface Investigations
• Environmental Studies
• Seismicity
• Geospatial Data Management
Typical stages of a road tunnel project from conception to completion are:
• Planning
• Feasibility Study
• Corridor and Alignment Alternative Study
• Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) and Conceptual Design
• Preliminary Design
• Final Design
• Construction
Information Study

The first phase of an investigation program for a road tunnel project starts with collection
and review of available information to develop an overall understanding of the site
conditions and constraints at little cost.
Existing data can help identify existing conditions and features that may impact the design
and construction of the proposed tunnel, and can guide in planning the scope and details of
the subsurface investigation program to address these issues.
Published topographical, hydrological, geological, geotechnical, environmental, zoning, and
other information should be collected, organized and evaluated. In areas where seismic
condition may govern or influence the project, historical seismic records are used to assess
earthquake hazards.
Records of landslides caused by earthquakes, documented by the USGS and some State
Transportation Departments, can be useful to avoid locating tunnel portals and shafts at
these potentially unstable areas.
Topographical Data
Topographic maps and aerial photographs that today can be easily and economically
obtained, are useful in showing terrain and geologic features (i.e., faults, drainage channels,
sinkholes, etc.).
When overlapped with published geological maps they can often, by interpretation, show
geologic structures.
Aerial photographs taken on different dates may reveal the site history in terms of
earthwork, erosion and scouring, past construction, etc.
Surveys and Site Reconnaissance

Site Reconnaissance and Preliminary Surveys:

The lower-resolution contour maps are sufficient only for planning purposes.
However, a preliminary survey will be needed for concept development and preliminary
design to expand existing topographical data and include data from field surveys and an
initial site reconnaissance. Initial on-site studies should start with a careful reconnaissance
over the tunnel alignment, paying particular attention to the potential portal and shaft
locations. Features identified on maps and air photos should be verified. Rock outcrops, often
exposed in highway and railroad cuts, provide a source for information about rock mass
fracturing and bedding and the location of rock type boundaries, faults, dikes, and other
geologic features. Features identified during the site reconnaissance should be photographed,
documented and if feasible located by hand-held GPS equipment.