Geology for Engineers

Planet Earth

TUNNELING
Merits
Tunnels prove to be more economical than the open
cuts beyond certain depths.
Tunnels avoid disturbing and interfering with surface life
and traffic during construction
Tunnels prove to be better protected than bridges
during war times and bombing operations.
Tunnels prove to be cheaper for carrying water, sewage, gas,
etc as compared to their being taken in open cuts.
Tunnels do not occupy any space on the surface.
demerits of tunnels
The construction of tunnels is a costly process
It requires skilled labour and technical supervision.
Tunneling requires specialized and sophisticated equipment.
The excavation of tunnels takes long period.

Definition Of Tunnels and

Tunnel Shapes
Tunnels may be defined as the underground routes
or passages, excavated through the rocks or soft
ground, without disturbing the overlying rocks or
soil covers. The subways below the ground by first
removing the overburden by making open cuts
and then laying roof slabs are therefore not
included in tunnels.
The tunnels may be constructed in different shapes
depending on the nature of soil/rock and other
practical considerations. The three types of
sections, which are commonly adopted, are:- i) Dshape ii) Circular shape iii) Horse shoe shape

D Shape Section
This is usually adopted in rocks, where unlined tunnels
are proposed to be constructed. Such a section has an
arch roof and straight vertical sides. The arch roof can
easily take vertical loads and transfer them to the
sides. The sides may be constructed in R.C.C (Roller
Compacted Concrete) in case of soft soils. This section
is suitable for subways and for navigation tunnels.
This section has a nearly flat invert, which provided
additional working floor space, helpful during driving
and a flat floor for moving equipment. These are the
principal advantages for this section and make it the
usually adopted section for highway and railway
tunnels (subways)

Figure 1 &2 showing the Dshaped and Circular shaped

tunnel scetions respectively

Fig 1: D- Shape
Fig 2: circular shape

Circular Shaped Tunnel CrossSection

This is usually lined and offers strong resistance to
external pressure from water bearing soils or soft
grounds; as well as to the internal pressure of
fluids, if passing through the tunnel. Such a shape
is most suitable to withstand internal and external
forces and provides the largest cross- sectional area
for the least perimeter. It is therefore, most suitable
for sewers, water conducts, etc. Circular section,
however, is not suitable for roads and railways, as
more filling will be required for obtaining a flat
base. This is best suitable for non-cohesive soils
and for tunnels driven by shield- method.

Horse Shoe Section

This is a popular shape, having a semi-circular roof
together with arched sides and a curved invert.
When lined, this cross section offers good
resistance external ground pressure and serves to
combine the advantages of both the D-shaped and
circular sections. It is the best shape suitable for
traffic tunnels, as the floor of the tunnel is nearly
flat, which also provides working space to the
contractor, for storing materials during
construction, besides providing flat base for
moving traffic. This section is found to be most
suitable for soft rocks and is also suitable for
carrying water or sewage. This shape is very
commonly used for highway and railway tunnels in
all countries of the world.

Figure showing the Horse shoe

section

Fig 3: Horse shoe section

Types of tunnels
Depending upon their use, the tunnels
may be classified into the following
groups;a) Traffic tunnels
b) Hydropower tunnels
c) Public utility tunnels

CONSTRUCTION METHODS OF TUNNELS

Classical methods

Mechanical drilling/cutting

Cut-and-cover

Drill and blast

Shields and tunnel boring machines (TBMs)

New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM)

Immersed tunnels

Special methods (Tunnel jacking, etc.)

Tunnel Construction Methods:

Cut And Cover
Cut and cover tunneling is a common and well-proven
technique for constructing shallow tunnels. The method
can accommodate changes in tunnel width and nonuniform shapes and is often adopted in construction of
stations. Several overlapping works are required to be
carried out in using this tunneling method. Trench
excavation, tunnel construction and soil covering of
excavated tunnels are three major integral parts of the
tunneling method.
Most of these works are similar to other road construction
except that the excavation levels involved are deeper.
Bulk excavation is often undertaken under a road deck
to minimize traffic disruption as well as environmental
impacts in terms of dust and noise emissions and visual
impact.

The choice of tunneling

method may be dictated by:

geological and hydrological conditions,

cross-section and length of continuous tunnel,
Time or costs,
limits of surface disturbance, and many others
factors.

CONVENTIONAL BOTTOMUP CONSTRUCTION

Fig 4 showing steps involved in the conventional bottom-up construction. This is a type of the

Drill and Blast

This tunneling method involves the use of explosives.
Drilling rigs are used to bore blast holes on the
proposed tunnel surface to a designated depth for
blasting. Explosives and timed detonators are then
placed in the blast holes. Once blasting is carried out,
waste rocks and soils are transported out of the tunnel
before further blasting. Most tunneling construction in
rock involves ground that is somewhere between two
extreme conditions of hard rock and soft ground.
Hence adequate structural support measures are
required when adopting this method for tunneling.
Compared with bored tunneling by Tunnel Boring
Machine (see below), blasting generally results in
higher but lesser duration of vibration levels. A
temporary magazine site is often needed for overnight
storage of explosives.

Bored Tunneling
Bored tunneling by using a Tunnel Boring Machine
(TBM) is often used for excavating long tunnels. An
effective TMB method requires the selection of
appropriate equipment for different rock mass and
geological conditions. The TBM may be suitable for
excavating tunnels which contain competent rocks
that can provide adequate geological stability for
boring a long section tunnel without structural
support.
However, extremely hard rock can cause significant
wear of the TBM rock cutter and may slow down
the progress of the tunneling works to the point
where TBM becomes inefficient and uneconomical
and may take longer time than the drill-and-blast
tunneling method.

Tunnel Boring Machine

Fig 5 showing a TBM

Sequential Excavation Method

(SEM)
This method is also known as the New Austrian
Tunneling Method (NATM). The excavation location of
a proposed tunnel is divided into segments first. The
segments are then mined sequentially with supports.
Some mining equipments such as road headers and
backhoes are commonly used for the tunnel
excavation. The ground for excavation must be fully
dry for applying the NATM and ground dewatering is
also an essential process before the excavation.
Another process relates to the ground modifications
such as grouting, and ground freezing is also
common with this method in order to stabilize the
soil for tunneling. This method is relatively slow but
is found useful in areas where existing structures
such as sewer or subway could not be relocated.

Environmental Disadvantages
of Cut and Cover Tunneling
More dust and noise impact may arise,
though these can be mitigated through
implementation of sufficient control
measures;
Temporary decks are often installed before
bulk excavation to minimize the associated
environment impacts;
Larger quantity of C&D (Construction and
Demolition) materials would be generated
from the excavation works, requiring
proper handling and disposal.

Environmental Benefits and Dis

-Benefits of Drill and Blast
BENEFITS

Potential environmental impacts in

terms of noise, dust and visual on
sensitive receives are significantly
reduced and are restricted to those
located near the tunnel portal;
Compared with the cut-and-cover
approach, quantity of C&D
materials generated would be
much reduced;
Compared with the cut-and-cover
approach, disturbance to local
traffic and associated
environmental impacts would be
much reduced;
Blasting would significantly reduce
the duration of vibration, though
the vibration level would be higher
compared with bored tunneling;

DIS- BENEFITS
Potential hazard
associated with
establishment of a
temporary magazine
site for overnight
storage of explosives
shall be addressed
through avoiding
populated areas in the
site selection process.

Environmental Benefits of
Bored Tunneling
Potential environmental impacts in terms of
noise, dust and visual on sensitive receives are
significantly reduced and are restricted to
those located near the launching and retrieval
shafts;
Compared with the cut-and-cover approach,
disturbance to local traffic and associated
environmental impacts would be much
reduced;
Compared with the cut-and-cover approach,
quantity of C&D materials generated would be
much reduced;

Environmental Benefits and Dis

-Benefits of SEM
BENEFITS
Similar to the drilland-blast and bored
tunneling methods,
only localized
potential
environmental
impacts would be
generated

DIS - BENEFITS
As the method is
relatively slow,
duration of potential
environmental
impacts would be
longer than that of the
other methods.

Site Investigation
Selection of the alignment, cross section and
construction methods is influenced by the geological and
geotechnical conditions, as well as site constraints. Thus,
good knowledge of the expected geological conditions is
essential.
Geotechnical issues such as the soil or rock properties,
ground water regime, ground cover over the tunnel, the
presence of contaminants along the alignment, presence
of underground utilities and obstructions such as
boulders or buried objects and the presence of sensitive
surface facilities should be taken into consideration when
evaluating tunnel alignment.
Tunnel alignment is sometimes changed based on the
results of the geotechnical in order to minimize
construction cost or reduce risk.