TUNNELING

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 DEFINITION
A tunnel is an underground
or underwater passageway,
dug through the surrounding
soil, earth or rock and
enclosed except for entrance
and exit, commonly at each
end. 

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 USES OF TUNNELS
A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or
for a canal.
The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel.
Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for
hydroelectric stations or are sewers.
Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical
power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings
for convenient passage of people and equipment.
Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for
smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people.
Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife
to cross human-made barriers safely.

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USES OF TUNNELS

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 CHOICE OF TUNNELS VS BRIDGES
 For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge.
 Navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridge
spans intersecting with shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel.
 Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. In areas
with expensive real estate have a strong factor in favor of a tunnel.
 Boston's Big Dig project replaced elevated roadways with a tunnel system to
increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite the
city with the waterfront.
 Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow the world's largest ships to
navigate under were considered higher than for a tunnel.
 Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding
difficulties with tides, weather, and shipping during construction, aesthetic
reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also
for weight capacity reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a
sufficiently strong bridge).
 There are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when
combustion gases can asphyxiate users.
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 COST ESTIMATES AND OVERRUNS
Government funds are a major factor in the creation of tunnels. When
a tunnel is in the process of being constructed, economics and politics
play a large factor in the decision making process.
Understanding the amount of time the project requires, the amount of
labors and materials needed is a crucial part of the project.
The amount of land that will need to be excavated and the proper
machinery that is needed is also very important.
Since infrastructures require millions, or even billions of dollars,
acquiring these funds can be challenging.
The current state of the economy reflects on the amount of money the
government can give for public projects. Since taxpayers money goes to
projects such as the creation of tunnels, or any other infrastructures,
increasing taxes may cause issues.

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 CONSTRUCTION OF TUNNELS
Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from
soft clay to hard rock.
The method of tunnel construction depends on the
following factors
 Ground conditions

 Ground water conditions

 Length and diameter of the tunnel drive

 Depth of the tunnel

 Logistics of supporting the tunnel excavation

 Final use

 Shape of the tunnel

 Appropriate risk management

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 TYPES OF TUNNEL CONSTRUCTION
There are three basic types of tunnel construction in
common use:
Cut-and-cover tunnels, constructed in a shallow trench
and then covered over.
Bored tunnels, constructed in situ, without removing
the ground above. They are usually of circular or
horseshoe cross-section.
Immersed tube tunnels, sunk into a body of water and
sit on, or are buried just under, its bed.

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 CUT-AND-COVER
Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for
shallow tunnels where a trench is excavated and roofed
over with an overhead support system strong enough to
carry the load of what is to be built above the tunnel.

Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunneling are

available:
Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground
support as necessary, and the tunnel is constructed in it.
The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete,
precast arches, or corrugated steel arches; in early days
brickwork was used. The trench is then carefully back-filled
and the surface is reinstated.

Top-down method: Side support walls and capping beams are constructed from ground level by such
methods as slurry walling, or contiguous bored piling. Then a shallow excavation allows making the
tunnel roof of precast beams or in situ concrete. The surface is then reinstated except for access
openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface features.
Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is constructed.

A major disadvantage of cut-and-cover is the widespread disruption generated at the surface

level during construction. 11
 BORED TUNNELS
In certain predominantly urban
applications, bored tunnels are
viewed as quick and cost effective
alternative to laying surface rails
and roads. Expensive compulsory
purchase of buildings and land,
with potentially lengthy planning
inquiries, is eliminated.
These tunnels are bored using
Tunnel Boring Machines or TBMs.

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 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE (TBM)
 Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and associated
back-up systems are used to highly automate the
entire tunneling process, reducing tunneling costs.
 There are a variety of TBM designs that can operate
in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft
water-bearing ground.
 Some types of TBMs, the bentonite slurry and
earth-pressure balance machines, have pressurized
compartments at the front end, allowing them to
be used in difficult conditions below the water
table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the
TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure.

 The operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurized compartment, but may occasionally have
to enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local
ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water.
 Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred over the older method of tunneling in compressed air,
with an air lock/decompression chamber some way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in
high pressure and go through decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like deep-sea
divers.
 Disadvantages of TBMs arise from their usually large size - the difficulty of transporting the large TBM to
the site of tunnel construction, or (alternatively) the high cost of assembling the TBM on-site, often within
the confines of the tunnel being constructed.
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Pakistan Water and Power Development
Authority (WAPDA) deployed two state-of-the-
art tunnel boring machines (TBMs) at a cost of
Rs8 billion on the strategically important 969
MW-Neelum Jhelum Hydropower Project.

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 CONSTRUCTING A TUNNEL
Drilling and blasting
Spoil handling
Tunnel lining
Thrust boring
Waterproofing
Temporary support
Stabilizing the strata

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 DRILLING AND BLASTING
The traditional scheme of advancing rock
tunnels has been by drilling and blasting and
this method continues to be generally
adopted for short tunnels, hard rock tunnels
and for tunnels in variable ground.
The principle behind blasting in a tunnel is
to obtain the greatest 'pull' for the minimum
explosive charge and for the minimum
damage of the rock around the tunnel.
Secondary objectives are:
 to fragment the rock adequately
 to form a compact stock pile against the
face.

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 DRILLING AND BLASTING
The pattern of drill holes is designed to suit the rock and
the explosive. Cut holes are arranged towards the center
of the face, usually inclined towards each other in order
to remove a cone or wedge.
One or more central unloaded holes of larger diameter
may be used to assist the cut. The remainder of the holes
are drilled parallel to the tunnel axis.
Delays of a few milliseconds are used between groups of
drill holes, from the cut outwards, so that the excavation
is enlarged with the travel of the shock wave.

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 SPOIL HANDLING
Mechanical shields and tunneling machines have built-in
chain or belt conveyors loading to a hopper or to another
conveyor.
The same operation is achieved in a drill-and-blast tunnel
by means of a mechanical loader, often with composite
face shovel and conveyor.
The general trend is to use rail wagons for transport for
tunnels up to about 7 m diameter and for tunnels worked
from vertical shafts and to use dump trucks for large
tunnels directly accessible from the surface or for tunnels
at a gradient of more than about 2.5%.
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SPOIL HANDLING

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 SPOIL HANDLING
Many solutions to the problem of loading rail cars at the face
have been adopted.
One currently used in relatively small tunnels (say 3 m
diameter) is to use a long transit car with an armored conveyor
floor so that spoil loaded at one end may be evenly distributed.
Another system for rather larger tunnels (say 4 to 5 m diameter)
uses an overhead conveyor capable of loading in turn each of a
train of six or more (or fewer) rail cars, preferably to contain the
spoil from a complete round.
An alternative uses a long sliding platform with rail track and
turnouts in consequence maintained close to the working face.

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 SPOIL HANDLING
Conveyors are also used for dry materials and where access is
by inclined shaft. The pulverizing of spoil and its discharge by
pipe as a slurry has been adopted for suitable soft rock.
Frequently the bottle-neck in materials handling is found to
occur at the foot of a working shaft and here mining practice
has introduced the use of automatic tipping of tunnel wagons
into large hoppers from which shaft skips are rapidly loaded.
The entire process of excavation and removal of spoil merits
considerable study at an early stage as to its adequacy, with
contingency plans to overcome foreseeable causes of
breakdown.

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 TUNNEL LINING
When a tunnel is excavated in all but
the most competent of ground
conditions it is an inevitable
consequence that some form of
support will be required if the tunnel
is to retain adequate stability and/or
maintain sufficient dimensions to
facilitate its use in the intended
manner.
This support system is obtained by
strengthening the inner periphery of
the tunnel; generally referred to as
Tunnel Lining.
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 TYPES OF TUNNEL LINING
The form and function of the support will vary according
to a wide range of factors apart from just geotechnical
considerations and it would seem that for every different
tunnel there is a different lining solution.
Tunnel linings are grouped into three main forms some
or all of which may be used in the construction of a
tunnel:
Temporary ground support
Primary lining
Secondary lining

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 TYPES OF TUNNEL LINING
Temporary ground support
In rock tunnels where the ground has insufficient stand-
up time to allow the construction of the primary lining
some distance behind the face, then some form of
temporary ground support applied at the- tunnel face is
required e.g rock bolts, shotcrete and steel sets.
Such support is not required in soft ground in
conjunction with a shield driven tunnel as temporary
ground support is provided by the body of the shield
itself.
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 TYPES OF TUNNEL LINING
Primary Lining
A primary lining is the main structural component of
the tunnel support system which is required to sustain
the loads and deformations that the ground may induce
during the tunnel's intended working life. A further
function performed by the primary lining is the control
of water egress (exit) and ingress (entrance).

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TYPES OF TUNNEL LINING
Secondary Lining
Various tunnels require smooth bore profiles for their
intended use, e.g sewer and water tunnels or aesthetic
finishes for public usage, e.g highway and pedestrian
tunnels. Erosion and corrosion protection for the
primary lining and further waterproofing may also be
required, all of which are provided by secondary linings.

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 THRUST BORING
Thrust boring of tunnels has developed from pipe jacking, whereby
lengths of steel pipe are pushed through the ground, from a jacking
pit, with the addition of a new length of pipe at the rearward end after
each extension of the jack.
Thrust-bored tunnels are frequently in the form of reinforced concrete
elements or layered materials incorporating fiber reinforced plastic.
The limiting distance of thrust boring depends upon the ground, the
geometry of the tunnel and the capacity of the jacks.
This may be extended by the use of an external lubricant such as
bentonite or by using intermediate jacking points to control the
maximum length to be advanced at a time. For small pipes excavation
is often by continuous-flight auger; for larger tunnels, excavation may
be by hand or by small mechanical excavator.

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THRUST BORING

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 THRUST BORING
For relatively short lengths of tunnel through soft ground thrust-boring
offers the benefit of erecting all lining at the thrust pit directly accessible
from the ground surface, in lengths of 2 m or more, thus reducing
manufacturing costs and the aggregate lengths of joints to be sealed.
Furthermore, in weak ground the pipe form provides improved
circumferential strength.
Tunnels may be jacked in continuous easy curves using tapered pipes (or
tapered packings) at the expense of increased thrust.
Experience shows that a well designed and engineered jacked tunnel, built
to fine tolerances, considerably reduces thrust loads and in consequence
extends the total length of tunnel, or spacing between intermediate jacks.
Measurement of the build up of thrusts in the initial period of jacking will
help to establish appropriate spacing between jacking stations.

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 WATERPROOFING
Most of the time, tunneling is encountered with the water pockets or
excavation has to be done under water table. In order to avoid flooding
of tunnels, the joints and cracks on the walls are sealed. This prevention
of water from entering excessively in a tunnel is referred to as Water
proofing.
The availability of new sealing materials provides a wide choice of
waterproofing systems for the joints between preformed tunnel
elements.
Selection will normally be on the basis of cost and durability, to meet
particular criteria concerning:
 Capacity to tolerate relative movement between elements.
 Hydraulic pressure.
 Application to wet surfaces and under pressure.

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 WATERPROOFING
The first barrier is normally provided by annular or
contact grouting. Thereafter there are fundamentally
three choices:
A sealant provided in a liquid or plastic state
A material caulked into the joint space
A preformed gasket compressed between elements.
The latter has found wide acceptance as a high-
performance seal used with segments cast to fine
dimensional tolerances.

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 TEMPORARY SUPPORT
The essence of good tunneling in jointed rock is to provide
adequate support to collapsing rock as soon as possible. The
means for achieving this end are directly related to the nature of
rock and its jointing.
The initial stability of the excavated ground depends not only
upon the inherent quality of the rock but also on the method
and quality of the excavation process.
Generally, mechanical excavation will not only provide a better
shaped arch around the tunnel but, more important, also much
less disturbance of the surrounding rock.
Recent studies have indicated that blasting may cause cracking
of the rock up to a diameter outside the tunnel.
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 TEMPORARY SUPPORT
Where the rock is highly shattered or with frequent open joints,
effective support may require the use of heavy arches.
These must be provided with adequate foot supports to avoid
punching into the invert and must be blocked off the rock sufficiently
frequently to avoid excessive bending stresses.
One means of achieving an even or virtually continuous blocking is by
the use of porous bolsters placed behind the arch into which a weak
element/fly ash grout is pumped.
Arches of the yielding type, designed originally for colliery support,
are now widely used in tunnels in recognition of their ease in erection
and the virtual equivalence of their major and minor second moments
of area, and hence greatly reduced tendency to distort, in conditions
in which their higher cost may be justified.

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 STABILIZING THE STRATA
The strata through which a tunnel is excavated
sometimes needs its stabilization apart from temporary
supports which include:
Shotcrete
Compressed air
Ground treatments
Freezing
Dewatering

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 SHOTCRETE
Shotcrete is concrete (or sometimes
mortar) conveyed through a hose and
pneumatically projected at high velocity
onto a surface, as a construction
technique. It is reinforced by conventional
steel rods, steel mesh, and/or fibers. Fiber
reinforcement (steel or synthetic) is also
used for stabilization in applications such
as slopes or tunneling
Shotcrete is placed and compacted at the
same time, due to the force with which it
leaves the nozzle. It can be sprayed onto
any type or shape of surface, including
vertical or overhead areas

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 COMPRESSED AIR
As a tunnel advances, relaxation of the ground in the vicinity of
the face will induce dilation. In fine-grained soils this can occur
only at the rate at which water can be drawn into the soil. As the
soil dilates, effective stress between the grains is reduced and the
soil may flow or ravel.
The period during which the face remains stable is known as the
stand-up time and, in any particular circumstances, the dominant
controlling features are the soil permeability and swelling
modulus.
A first aim of any one of the several aids to tunneling will be to
extend the stand-up time. This is done by using Compressed air
to keep the grains from raveling inwards the tunnel.
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 COMPRESSED AIR
In soft clays, compressed air will provide direct
support to the ground.
In silts and sands the compressed air displaces the
greater part of the pore water and causes cohesion
between grains of the soil by surface tension.
The effect allows running sands to be treated in
excavation as a soft rock.
Another side-effect of compressed air in the ground is
to reduce its permeability to the flow of water (by as
much as an order of magnitude for silts).
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 COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air has been used for many subaqueous
tunnels in soft ground.
The problem of balancing the external water pressure
increases with the depth, as well as the size, of the tunnel.
The depth below the water surface and the texture of the
ground will determine the quantity of air required.
Where the ground comprises clay interbedded with thin
layers of sand or silt it has frequently been found that a
relatively low ratio between the pressure of air and the
external head of water is adequate to provide greatly
improved stability to a tunnel face.
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 GROUND TREATMENTS
Ground treatment is usually done by application of a
grout. A wide choice of grouting media is now available
for consolidating weak or water-bearing ground:
Setting grouts containing cement, bentonite, fly ash and
other materials may be selected, at the lowest cost
compatible with adequate travelling capability for the
dimensions of pores and joints to be filled.
Chemical grouts are used in medium to fine sands.
For silty sands, resin grouts may be used.

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 FREEZING
Loose soil containing moisture is
stabilized by freezing it. This makes
the soil to act like a solid rock.
A new development has entailed the
use of liquid nitrogen as the freezing
agent. Since the operating
temperature may then be lowered to -
150°C the freezing operation occurs
rapidly and the process has frequently
been used for penetrating relatively
thin bands of water-bearing ground
during the sinking of shafts.
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 DEWATERING
Control of water for tunneling may be achieved by lowering the water table by
pumping or by diverting the water as a tunnel is lined. In certain circumstances
recharging wells may be used to control the extent of the depression of the water
table.
If the water is permitted to flow freely into a tunnel there may be a risk of ground
settlement but this is not generally an important consideration in rock tunnels.
Exceptions to this general rule occur in crushed or altered fault zones, where weak
joint filling may be softened or washed out or where the rock is incompetent in
relation to the pressure of groundwater. Particular care in controlling water is
demanded where weak, jointed, rock is associated with stronger rock serving as
aquifers.
Gypsiferous rocks in the presence of water may continue to swell over a long
period. Provisions may be made to permit continued swelling without excessive
pressure on the tunnel; another expedient may be to exclude water from the area
by sealing or drainage.

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