1.

INTRODUCTION

Tunnel

FIG: 1
A tunnel is an underground passageway, completely enclosed except for openings for
egress, commonly at each end.

A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some
tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are sewers. Other uses
include routing power or telecommunication cables, some are to permit wildlife such as European badgers to
cross highways. Secret tunnels have given entrance to or escape from an area, such as the Cu Chi Tunnels or
the smuggling tunnels in the Gaza Strip which connect it to Egypt. Some tunnels are not for transport at all
but rather, are fortifications, for example Mittelwerk and Cheyenne Mountain.

In the United Kingdom, a pedestrian tunnel or other underpass beneath a road is called a
underpass subway. In the United States that term now means an underground rapid transit system.

The central part of a rapid transit network is usually built in tunnels. Rail station
platforms may be connected by pedestrian tunnels or by foot bridges.

Railroads

The work on a high-speed line (ligne à grande vitesse, or LGV) begins with earth
moving. The trackbed is carved into the landscape, using scrapers, graders, bulldozers and other heavy
machinery. All fixed structures are built; these include bridges, flyovers, culverts, game tunnels, and the
like. Drainage facilities, most notably the large ditches on either side of the trackbed, are constructed.
Supply bases are established near the end of the high-speed tracks, where crews will form work trains to
carry rail, sleepers and other supplies to

Department of Civil Engineering

the work site.

FIG: 2

Next, a layer of compact gravel is spread on the trackbed. This, after being compacted by
rollers, provides an adequate surface for vehicles with tyres. TGV tracklaying then proceeds. The
tracklaying process is not particularly specialized to high-speed lines; the same general technique is
applicable to any track that uses continuous welded rail. The steps outlined below are used around the world
in modern tracklaying. TGV track, however, answers to stringent requirements that dictate materials,
dimensions and tolerances.

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 Chapter 1:

1.1 Construction

FIG: 1.1
Cut-and-cover constructions of the Paris Métro in France

Tunnels are dug in types of materials varying from soft clay to hard rock. The method
of tunnel construction depends on such factors as the ground conditions, the ground water conditions, the
length and diameter of the tunnel drive, the depth of the tunnel, the logistics of supporting the tunnel
excavation, the final use and shape of the tunnel and appropriate risk management.

There are three basic types of tunnel construction in common use:

 Cut and cover tunnels, constructed in a shallow trench and then covered over.
 Bored tunnels, constructed in situ, without removing the ground above. They are usually of circular
or horseshoe cross-section.
 Immersed tube tunnels, sunk into a body of water and sit on, or are buried just under, its bed.

1.1.1Usage limitations

A tunnel is relatively long and narrow; in general the length is more (usually much more)
than twice the diameter. Some hold a tunnel to be at least 0.160 kilometres (0.10 mi) long and call shorter
passageways by such terms as an "underpass" or a "chute". For example, the underpass beneath Yahata
Station in Kitakyushu, Japan is 0.130 km long (0.081 mi) and so might not be considered a tunnel.

1.1.2 Geotechnical investigation

A tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by

collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice can then be
made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of

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encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route the horizontal and vertical alignments will
make use of the best ground and water conditions.

In some cases conventional desk and site studies yield insufficient information to assess
such factors as the blocky nature of rocks, the exact location of fault zones, or the stand-up times of softer
ground. This may be a particular concern in large diameter tunnels. To give more information a pilot tunnel,
or drift, may be driven ahead of the main drive. This smaller diameter tunnel will be easier to support should
unexpected conditions be met, and will be incorporated in the final tunnel. Alternatively, horizontal
boreholes may sometimes be drilled ahead of the advancing tunnel face.

Chapter 2: Techniques

2.1 Cut-and-cover

Cut-and-cover is a simple method of construction for shallow tunnels where a trench

is excavated and roofed over with an overhead support system strong enough to carry the load of what is to
be built above the tunnel. Two basic forms of cut-and-cover tunnelling are available:

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  Bottom-up method: A trench is excavated, with ground support as necessary, and the tunnel is
constructed in it. The tunnel may be of in situ concrete, precast concrete, precast arches,or corrugated
steel arches; in early days brickwork was used. The trench is then carefully back-filled and the
surface is reinstated.
 Top-down method: Here side support walls and capping beams are constructed from ground level by
such methods as slurry walling, or contiguous bored piling. Then a shallow excavation allows
making the tunnel roof of precast beams or in situ concrete. The surface is then reinstated except for
access openings. This allows early reinstatement of roadways, services and other surface features.
Excavation then takes place under the permanent tunnel roof, and the base slab is constructed.

Shallow tunnels are often of the cut-and-cover type (if under water, of the immersed-
tube type), while deep tunnels are excavated, often using a tunnelling shield. For intermediate levels, both
methods are possible.

Large cut-and-cover boxes are often used for underground metro stations, such as
Canary Wharf tube station in London. This construction form generally has two levels, which allows
economical arrangements for ticket hall, station platforms, passenger access and emergency egress,
ventilation and smoke control, staff rooms, and equipment rooms. The interior of Canary Wharf station has
been likened to an underground cathedral, owing to the sheer size of the excavation. This contrasts with
most traditional stations on London Underground, where bored tunnels were used for stations and passenger
access.

2.2 Clay-kicking

Clay-kicking is a specialised method developed in the United Kingdom, of manually

digging tunnels in strong clay-based soil structures. Unlike previous manual methods of using mattocks
which relied on the soil structure to be hard, clay-kicking was relatively silent and hence did not harm soft
clay based structures.

The clay-kicker lies on a plank at a 45degree angle away from the working face, and
inserts a tool with a cup-like rounded end with his feet. Turning the tool with his hands, he extracts a section
of soil, which is then placed on the waste extract.

Regularly used in Victorian civil engineering, the methods found favour in the renewal
of the United Kingdom's then ancient sewerage systems, by not having to remove all property or
infrastructure to create an effective small tunnel system. During the First World War, the system was

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successfully deployed by the Royal Engineer tunnelling companies to deploy large military mines beneath
enemy German Empire lines. The method was virtually silent not susceptible to listening methods of
detection.

2.3 Boring machines

Tunnel boring machine

FIG: 2.1
A tunnel boring machine that was used at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, United States

Tunnel boring machines (TBMs) and associated back-up systems are used to highly
automate the entire tunneling process, reducing tunneling costs.

Tunnel boring in certain predominantly urban applications, is viewed as quick and cost
effective alternative to laying surface rails and roads. Expensive compulsory purchase of buildings and land
with potentially lengthy planning inquiries is eliminated.

There are a variety of TBMs that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock
to soft water-bearing ground. Some types of TBMs, bentonite slurry and earth-pressure balance machines,
have pressurised compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult conditions below the
water table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The
operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurised compartment, but may occasionally have to
enter that compartment to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local ground
treatment or halting the TBM at a position free from water. Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now
preferred to the older method of tunneling in compressed air, with an air lock/decompression chamber some
way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go through decompression
procedures at the end of their shifts, much like divers.

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 In February 2010, Aker Wirth delivered a TBM to Switzerland, for the expansion of
Linth Limmern Power Plant in Switzerland. The borehole has a diameter of 8.03 metres (26.3 ft).[2] The
TBM used for digging the 57-kilometre (35 mi) Gotthard Base Tunnel, in Switzerland, has a diameter of
about 9 metres (30 ft). A larger TBM was built to bore the Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart)
as part of the HSL-Zuid in the Netherlands, with a diameter of 14.87 metres (48.8 ft).[3] This in turn was
superseded by the Madrid M30 ringroad, Spain, and the Chong Ming tunnels in Shanghai, China. All of
these machines were built at least partly by Herrenknecht.

2.4 Shafts

A shaft is sometimes necessary for a tunnel project. They are usually circular and go
straight down until they reach the level at which the tunnel is going to be built. A shaft normally has
concrete walls and is built just like it is going to be permanent. Once they are built the Tunnel Boring
Machines are lowered to the bottom and excavation can start. Shafts are the main entrance in and out of the
tunnel until the project is completed. Sometimes if a tunnel is going to be long there will be multiple shafts
at various locations so that entrance into the tunnel is closer to the unexcavated area.

2.4.1 Other key factors

 Stand-up time is the amount of time a tunnel will support itself without any added structures.
Knowing this time allows the engineers to determine how much can be excavated before support is
needed. The longer the stand-up time is the faster the excavating will go. Generally certain
configurations of rock and clay will have the greatest stand-up time, and sand and fine soils will have
a much lower stand-up time.
 Groundwater control is very important in tunnel construction. If there is water leaking into the tunnel
stand-up time will be greatly decreased. If there is water leaking into the shaft it will become
unstable and will not be safe to work in. To stop this from happening there are a few common
methods. One of the most effective is ground freezing. To do this pipes are inserted into the ground
surrounding the shaft and are cooled until they freeze. This freezes the ground around each pipe until
the whole shaft is surrounded frozen soil, keeping water out. The most common method is to install
pipes into the ground and to simply pump the water out. This works for tunnels and shafts.
 Tunnel shape is very important in determining stand-up time. The force from gravity is straight down
on a tunnel, so if the tunnel is wider than it is high it will have a harder time supporting itself
decreasing its stand-up time. If a tunnel is higher than it is wide the stand up time will increase
making the project easier. The hardest shape to support itself is a square or rectangular tunnel. The

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 forces have a harder time being redirected around the tunnel making it extremely hard to support
itself. This of course all depends what the material of the ground is.

2.5 Sprayed concrete techniques

The New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) was developed in the 1960s, and is the best
known of a number of engineering solutions that use calculated and empirical real-time measurements to
provide optimised safe support to the tunnel lining. The main idea of this method is to use the geological
stress of the surrounding rock mass to stabilize the tunnel itself, by allowing a measured relaxation and
stress reassignment into the surrounding rock to prevent full loads becoming imposed on the introduced
support measures. Based on geotechnical measurements, an optimal cross section is computed. The
excavation is immediately protected by a layer of sprayed concrete, commonly referred to as shotcrete, after
excavation. Other support measures could include steel arches, rockbolts and mesh. Technological
developments in sprayed concrete technology have resulted in steel and polypropylene fibres being added to
the concrete mix to improve lining strength. This creates a natural load-bearing ring, which minimizes the
rock's deformation.

FIG: 2.2
Illowra Battery utility tunnel, Port Kembla. One of many bunkers south of Sydney.

By special monitoring the NATM method is very flexible, even at surprising changes of
the geomechanical rock consistency during the tunneling work. The measured rock properties lead to
appropriate tools for tunnel strengthening. In the last decades also soft ground excavations up to
10 kilometres (6.2 mi) became usual.

2.6 Pipe jacking

Pipe Jacking, also known as pipejacking or pipe-jacking, is a method of tunnel construction

where hydraulic jacks are used to push specially made pipes through the ground behind a tunnel boring
machine or shield. This technique is commonly used to create tunnels under existing structures, such as
roads or railways. Tunnels constructed by pipe jacking are normally small diameter tunnels with a maximum
size of around 2.4m.

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2.7 Box jacking

Box jacking is similar to pipe jacking, but instead of jacking tubes, a box shaped tunnel is
used. Jacked boxes can be a much larger span than a pipe jack with the span of some box jacks in excess of
20m. A cutting head is normally used at the front of the box being jacked and excavation is normally by
excavator from within the box.

2.8 Underwater tunnels

There are also several approaches to underwater tunnels, the two most common being bored
tunnels or immersed tubes. Submerged floating tunnels are another approach that has not been constructed.

Other

2.8.1 Other tunneling methods include:

 Drilling and blasting

 Slurry-shield machine
 Wall-cover construction method.

2.8.2 Costs and cost overruns of tunnels

Tunnels are costly and generally more costly than bridges. Large cost overruns are
common in tunnel construction.

2.9 Choice of tunnels vs. bridges

For water crossings, a tunnel is generally more costly to construct than a bridge.
Navigational considerations may limit the use of high bridges or drawbridge spans intersecting with
shipping channels, necessitating a tunnel.

Bridges usually require a larger footprint on each shore than tunnels. There are actually
more codes to follow with bridges than with tunnels. In areas with expensive real estate, such as Manhattan
and urban Hong Kong, this is a strong factor in tunnels' favor. Boston's Big Dig project replaced elevated
roadways with a tunnel system to increase traffic capacity, hide traffic, reclaim land, redecorate, and reunite
the city with the waterfront.

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 The 1934 Queensway Road Tunnel under the River Mersey at Liverpool, was chosen
over a massively high bridge for defence reasons. It was feared aircraft could destroy a bridge in times of
war. Maintenance costs of a massive bridge to allow the world's largest ships navigate under was considered
higher than a tunnel. Similar conclusions were met for the 1971 Kingsway Tunnel under the River Mersey.

FIG: 2.3
The Queens–Midtown Tunnel in New York City serves as an example of a water-crossing tunnel built
instead of a bridge.

Examples of water-crossing tunnels built instead of bridges include the Holland Tunnel,
Queens-Midtown Tunnel and Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and Manhattan in New York City, and
the Elizabeth River tunnels between Norfolk and Portsmouth, Virginia, the 1934 River Mersey road
Queensway Tunnel and the Western Scheldt Tunnel, Zeeland, Netherlands.

Other reasons for choosing a tunnel instead of a bridge include avoiding difficulties with
tides, weather and shipping during construction (as in the 51.5-kilometre or 32.0 mi Channel Tunnel),
aesthetic reasons (preserving the above-ground view, landscape, and scenery), and also for weight capacity
reasons (it may be more feasible to build a tunnel than a sufficiently strong bridge). Some water crossings
are a mixture of bridges and tunnels, such as the Denmark to Sweden link and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-
Tunnel in the eastern United States.

There are particular hazards with tunnels, especially from vehicle fires when combustion
gases can asphyxiate users, as happened at the Gotthard Road Tunnel in Switzerland in 2001. One of the
worst railway disasters ever, the Balvano train disaster, was caused by a train stalling in the Armi tunnel in
Italy in 1944, killing 426 passengers.

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 Chapter 3: Variant tunnel types

3.1 Double-deck tunnel

Some tunnels are double-deck, for example the two major segments of the San Francisco
– Oakland Bay Bridge (completed in 1936) are linked by a double-deck tunnel, once the largest diameter
tunnel in the world. At construction this was a combination bidirectional rail and truck pathway on the lower
deck with automobiles above, now converted to one-way road vehicle traffic on each deck.

A recent double-decker tunnel with both decks for motor vehicles is the Fuxing Road Tunnel in Shanghai,
China. Cars travel on the two-lane upper deck and heavier vehicles on the single-lane lower.

Multipurpose tunnel are tunnels that have more than one purpose. The SMART Tunnel in Malaysia is the
first multipurpose tunnel in the world, as it is used both to control traffic and flood in Kuala Lumpur.

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3.2 Artificial tunnels

FIG: 3.1
The 19th century Dark Gate in Esztergom, Hungary.

Overbridges can sometimes be built by covering a road or river or railway with brick or still
arches, and then levelling the surface with earth. In railway parlance, a surface-level track which has been
built or covered over is normally called a covered way.

Snow sheds are a kind of artificial tunnel built to protect a railway from avalanches of snow. Similarly the
Stanwell Park, New South Wales steel tunnel, on the South Coast railway line, protects the line from
rockfalls.

Common utility ducts are man-made tunnels created to carry two or more utility lines underground. Through
co-location of different utilities in one tunnel, organizations are able to reduce the costs of building and
maintaining utilities.

3.3 Hazards

Owing to the enclosed space of a tunnel, fires can have very serious effects on users. The
main dangers are gas and smoke production, with low concentrations of carbon monoxide being highly
toxic. Fires killed 11 people in the Gotthard tunnel fire of 2001 for example, all of the victims succumbing
to smoke and gas inhalation. Over 400 passengers died in the Balvano train disaster in Italy in 1944, when
the locomotive halted in a long tunnel. Carbon monoxide poisoning was the main cause of the horrifying
death rate.

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3.4 Examples of tunnels

In history

FIG: 3.2
A short section remains of the 1836 Edge Hill to Lime Street tunnel in Liverpool. This is the oldest used rail
tunnel in the world. A tilting train passes through the tunnel.

FIG: 3.3
The World's oldest underwater tunnel is rumored to be the Terelek
kaya tüneli under Kızıl River, a little south of the towns of Boyabat and Duragan in Turkey. Estimated to
have been built more than 2000 years ago (possibly 5000), it is assumed to have had a defence purpose.

 The qanat or kareez of Persia is a water management system used to provide a reliable supply of
water to human settlements or for irrigation in hot, arid and semi-arid climates. The oldest and
largest known qanat is in the Iranian city of Gonabad, which after 2700 years, still provides drinking
and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people. Its main well depth is more than 360 m (1,180 ft), and
its length is 45 km (28 mi).
 The Eupalinian aqueduct on the island of Samos (North Aegean, Greece). Built in 520 BC by the
ancient Greek engineer Eupalinos of Megara. Eupalinos organised the work so that the tunnel was
begun from both sides of mount Kastro. The two teams advanced simultaneously and met in the

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 middle with excellent accuracy, something that was extremely difficult in that time. The aqueduct
was of utmost defensive importance, since it ran underground, and it was not easily found by an
enemy who could otherwise cut off the water supply to Pythagoreion, the ancient capital of Samos.
The tunnel's existence was recorded by Herodotus (as was the mole and harbour, and the third
wonder of the island, the great temple to Hera, thought by many to be the largest in the Greek world).
The precise location of the tunnel was only re-established in the 19th century by German
archaeologists. The tunnel proper is 1,030 m long (3,380 ft) and visitors can still enter it Eupalinos
tunnel.
 The Via Flaminia, an important Roman road, penetrated the Furlo pass in the Apennines through a
tunnel which emperor Vespasian had ordered built in 76-77. A modern road, the SS 3 Flaminia, still
uses this tunnel, which had a precursor dating back to the 3rd century BC; remnants of this earlier
tunnel (one of the first road tunnels) are also still visible.
 Sapperton Canal Tunnel on the Thames and Severn Canal in England, dug through hills, which
opened in 1789, was 3.5 km (2.2 mi) long and allowed boat transport of coal and other goods. Above
it runs the Sapperton Long Tunnel which carries the "Golden Valley" railway line between Swindon
and Gloucester.
 The 1796 Stoddart Tunnel in Chapel-en-le-Frith in Derbyshire is reputed to be the oldest rail tunnel
in the world. Rail wagons were horse-drawn.
 The tunnel was created for the first true steam locomotive, from Penydarren to Abercynon. The
Penydarren locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick. The locomotive made the historic journey
from Penydarren to Abercynon in 1804. Part of this tunnel can still be seen at Pentrebach, Merthyr
Tydfil, Wales. This is arguably the oldest railway tunnel in the world, for self-propelled steam
engines on rails.
 The Montgomery Bell Tunnel in Tennessee, a 88 m (289 ft), high water diversion tunnel, 4.50-×-
2.45 m high (15-×-8.0 ft), to power a water wheel, was built by slave labour in 1819, being the first
full-scale tunnel in North America.
 Crown Street Station, Liverpool, 1829. Built by George Stephenson, a single track tunnel 291 yd
long (266 m) was bored from Edge Hill to Crown Street to serve the world's first passenger railway
station. The station was abandoned in 1836 being too far from Liverpool city centre, with the area
converted for freight use. Closed down in 1972, the tunnel is disused. However it is the oldest rail
tunnel running under streets in the world. [1]
 The 1.26 mile (2.03 km) 1829 Wapping Tunnel in Liverpool, England, was the first rail tunnel bored
under a metropolis. Currently disused since 1972. Having two tracks, the tunnel runs from Edge Hill
in the east of the city to the south end Liverpool docks being used only for freight. The tunnel is still

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 in excellent condition and is being considered for reuse by Merseyrail rapid transit rail system, with
maybe an underground station cut into the tunnel. The river portal is opposite the new Liverpool
Arena being ideal for a serving station. If reused it will be the oldest used underground rail tunnel in
the world and oldest part of any underground metro system.
 1836, Lime St Station tunnel, Liverpool. A two track rail tunnel, 1.13 miles (1,811 m) long was
bored under a metropolis from Edge Hill in the east of the city to Lime Street. In the 1880s the tunnel
was converted to a deep cutting four tracks wide. The only occurrence of a tunnel being removed. A
very short section of the original tunnel still exists at Edge Hill station making this the oldest rail
tunnel in the world still in use, and the oldest in use under a street, albeit only one street and one
building.
 Box Tunnel in England, which opened in 1841, was the longest railway tunnel in the world at the
time of construction. It was dug and has a length of 2.9 km (1.8 mi).
 The 0.75 mile long 1842 Prince of Wales Tunnel, in Shildon near Darlington, England, is the oldest
sizable tunnel in the world still in use under a settlement.
 The Thames Tunnel, built by Marc Isambard Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel and
opened in 1843, was the first underwater tunnel and the first to use a tunnelling shield. Originally
used as a foot-tunnel, it was a part of the East London Line of the London Underground until 2007,
being the oldest section of the system. From 2010 the tunnel becomes a part of the London
Overground system.
 The 2.07 miles (3.34 km) Victoria Tunnel in Liverpool, opened in 1848, was bored under a
metropolis. Initially used only for rail freight and later freight and passengers serving the Liverpool
ship liner terminal, the tunnel runs from Edge Hill in the east of the city to the north end Liverpool
docks. Used until 1972 it is still in excellent condition, being considered for reuse by the Merseyrail
rapid transit rail system. Stations being cut into the tunnel are being considered. Also, reuse by a
monorail system from the proposed Liverpool Waters redevelopment of Liverpool's Central Docks
has been proposed.
 The oldest underground sections of the London Underground were built using the cut-and-cover
method in the 1860s. The Metropolitan, Hammersmith & City, Circle and District lines were the first
to prove the success of a metro or subway system. Dating from 1863, Baker Street station is the
oldest underground station in the world.
 The 1882 Col de Tende Road Tunnel, at 3182 metres long, was one of the first long road tunnels
under a pass, running between France and Italy.
 The Mersey Railway tunnel opened in 1886 running from Liverpool to Birkenhead under the River
Mersey. The Mersey Railway was the world's first deep-level underground railway. By 1892 the

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 extensions on land from Birkenhead Park station to Liverpool Central Low level station gave a
tunnel 3.12 miles (5029 m) in length. The under river section is 0.75 miles in length, being the
longest underwater tunnel in world in January 1886.
 The rail Severn Tunnel was opened in late 1886, at 4 miles 624 yd (7,008 m) long, although only 2¼
miles (3.62 km) of the tunnel is actually under the river. The tunnel replaced the Mersey Railway
tunnel's longest under water record, which it held for less than a year.
 James Greathead, in constructing the City & South London Railway tunnel beneath the Thames,
opened in 1890, brought together three key elements of tunnel construction under water: 1) shield
method of excavation; 2) permanent cast iron tunnel lining; 3) construction in a compressed air
environment to inhibit water flowing through soft ground material into the tunnel heading.[9]
 St. Clair Tunnel, also opened later in 1890, linked the elements of the Greathead tunnels on a larger
scale.[9]
 The 1927 Holland Tunnel was the first underwater tunnel designed for automobiles. This fact
required a novel ventilation system.

Longest

 The Delaware Aqueduct in New York USA is the longest tunnel, of any type, in the world at 137 km
(85 mi). It is drilled through solid rock.
 The Gotthard Base Tunnel is the longest rail tunnel in the world at 57 km (35 mi). It will be totally
completed in 2017.
 The Seikan Tunnel in Japan was the longest rail tunnel in the world at 53.9 km (33.5 mi), of which
23.3 km (14.5 mi) is under the sea.
 The Channel Tunnel between France and the United Kingdom under the English Channel is the
second-longest, with a total length of 50 km (31 mi), of which 39 km (24 mi) is under the sea.
 The Lötschberg Base Tunnel opened in June 2007 in Switzerland was the longest land rail tunnel,
with a total of 34.5 km (21.4 mi).
 The Lærdal Tunnel in Norway from Lærdal to Aurland is the world's longest road tunnel, intended
for cars and similar vehicles, at 24.5 km (15.2 mi).
 The Zhongnanshan Tunnel in People's Republic of China opened in January 2007 is the world's
second longest highway tunnel and the longest road tunnel in Asia, at 18 km (11 mi).
 The longest canal tunnel is the Rove Tunnel in France, over 7.12 km (4.42 mi) long.

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Notable

 The Lincoln Tunnel between New Jersey and New York is one of the busiest vehicular tunnels in the
United States, at 120,000 vehicles/day.
 The Central Artery Tunnel in Boston carries approximately 200,000 vehicles/day.
 The Fredhälls Tunnel in Stockholm, Sweden, and the New Elbe Tunnel in Hamburg, Germany, both
with around 150,000 vehicles a day, two of the most trafficked tunnels in the world.
 Gerrards Cross tunnel in Britain is notable in that it is being built over a railway cutting that was dug
in the early part of the 20th Century. Thus, arguably, making it the tunnel longest in construction by
the cut and cover method. When complete a branch of the Tesco supermarket chain will occupy the
space above the railway tunnel.
 Williamson's tunnels in Liverpool, built by a wealthy eccentric are probably the largest underground
folly in the world.
 New York City Water Tunnel No. 3[2], started in 1970, has an expected completion date of 2020.
 The Chicago Deep Tunnel Project is a network of 175 km (109 mi) of tunnels designed to reduce
flooding in the Chicago area. Started in the mid 1970s, the project is due to be completed in 2019.
 Moffat Tunnel in Colorado straddles the Continental Divide. The tunnel is 6.2 mi (10.0 km) long and
at 9,239 ft (2,816 m) above sea level is the highest railroad tunnel in the United States.
 The Fenghuoshan tunnel on Qinghai-Tibet railway is the world's highest railway tunnel, about
4,905 m (16,093 ft) above sea level.
 The La Linea Tunnel in Colombia, will be (2013) the longest, 8.58 km (5.33 mi), mountain tunnel in
South America. It crosses beneath a mountain at 2,500 m (8,202.1 ft) above sea level with six lanes
and it has a parallel emergency tunnel. The tunnel is subject to serious groundwater pressure. The
tunnel, which is currently under construction, will link Bogotá and its urban area with the coffee-
growing region and with the main port on the Colombian Pacific coast.
 The Honningsvåg Tunnel (4.443 km (2.76 mi) long) on European route E69 in Norway is the world's
northernmost road tunnel, except for mines (which exist on Svalbard).
 The Eiksund Tunnel [3] on national road Rv 653 in Norway is the world's deepest subsea road tunnel
(7,776 m long, with deepest point at -287 metres below the sea level, opened in feb. 2008)

Other uses

Excavation techniques, as well as the construction of underground bunkers and other

habitable areas, are often associated with military use during armed conflict, or civilian responses to threat

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of attack. The use of tunnels for mining is called drift mining. One of the strangest uses of a tunnel was for
the storage of chemical weapons.

3.5 Natural tunnels

 Lava tubes are partially empty, cave-like conduits underground, formed during volcanic eruptions by
flowing and cooling lava.
 Natural Tunnel State Park (Virginia, USA) features an 850-foot (259 m) natural tunnel, really a
limestone cave, that has been used as a railroad tunnel since 1890.
 Punarjani Guha Kerala, India. Hindus believe that crawling through the tunnel (which they believe
was created by a Hindu god) from one end to the other will wash away all of one’s sins and thus
attain rebirth, although only men are permitted to crawl through the cave.
 Small "snow tunnels" are created by voles, chipmunks and other rodents for protection and access to
food sources. For more information regarding tunnels built by animals, see Burrow

3.6 Temporary way

During construction of a tunnel it is often convenient to install a temporary railway

particularly to remove spoil. This temporary railway is often narrow gauge so that it can be double track,
which facilitates the operation of empty and loaded trains at the same time. The temporary way is replaced
by the permanent way at completion, thus explaining the term Perway.

3.7 Enlargement

The vehicles using a tunnel can outgrow it, requiring replacement or enlargement. The
original single line Gib Tunnel near Mittagong was replaced with a double line tunnel, with the original
tunnel used for growing mushrooms.[citation needed]
The Rhyndaston Tunnel was enlarged using a borrowed
Tunnel Boring Machine so as to be able to take ISO containers.

The 1836 Lime Street two track 1 mile tunnel from Edge Hill to Lime Street in Liverpool
was totally removed, apart from a short 50 metre section at Edge Hill. Four tracks were required. The tunnel
was converted into a very deep 4 track open cutting. However, short larger 4 track tunnels were left in some
parts of the run. Train services were not interrupted as the work progressed. Photos of the work in progress:
There are other occurrences of tunnels being replaced by open cuts, for example, the Auburn Tunnel.

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3.8 Location

Most of the tunnels listed below are located in the Western Ghats, the only mountain range
in the country that has good railway connectivity. There are longer tunnels that are under construction in the
Himalayas in Jammu and Kashmir, as part of the USBRL Project.`

Name
Zonal Year of
(number Length Between stations State Coordinates
Railway commissioning
on route)

Karbude 6,506 metres Maharashtr Konkan

Ukshi Bhoke 1997
(T-35) (21,345 ft) a Railway

Nathuwadi 4,389 metres Diwan Maharashtr Konkan

Karanjadi 1997
(T-6) (14,400 ft) Khavati a Railway

Tike (T- 4,077 metres Maharashtr Konkan

Ratnagiri Nivasar 1997
39) (13,376 ft) a Railway

Berdewadi 4,000 metres Maharashtr Konkan

Adavali Vilawade 1997
(T-49) (13,000 ft) a Railway

Savarde 3,429 metres Maharashtr Konkan

Kamathe Savarde 1997
(T-17) (11,250 ft) a Railway

Sangar (T- 2,445 metres Jammu and Northern

Sangar Manwal 2005
4) (8,022 ft) Kashmir Railway

Monkey
2,156 metres Maharashtr Central
Hill (T- Karjat Khandala 1982
(7,073 ft) a Railway
25C)

Aravali 2,100 metres Maharashtr Konkan

Aravali Sangameshwar 1997
(T-21) (6,900 ft) a Railway

Chiplun 2,033 metres Maharashtr Konkan 17°29′45″

Chiplun Kamathe 1997
(T-16) (6,670 ft) a Railway N 73°31′50″E

TABLE: 1

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 Chapter 4:

4.1 Railroad Construction

4.1.1 LGV construction is the process by which the land on which TGV trains are to run is prepared for
their use, involving carving the trackbed and laying the track. It is similar to the building of standard railway
lines, but there are differences. In particular, construction process is more precise in order for the track to be
suitable for regular use at 300 km/h (186 mph). The quality of construction was put to the test in particular
during the TGV world speed record runs on the LGV Atlantique; the track was used at over 500 km/h
(310 mph) without suffering significant damage. This contrasts with previous French world rail speed record
attempts which resulted in severe deformation of the track.

4.1.2 Preparing the trackbed

The work on a high-speed line (ligne à grande vitesse, or LGV) begins with earth
moving. The trackbed is carved into the landscape, using scrapers, graders, bulldozers and other heavy
machinery. All fixed structures are built; these include bridges, flyovers, culverts, game tunnels, and the
like. Drainage facilities, most notably the large ditches on either side of the trackbed, are constructed.
Supply bases are established near the end of the high-speed tracks, where crews will form work trains to
carry rail, sleepers and other supplies to the work site.

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 Next, a layer of compact gravel is spread on the trackbed. This, after being
compacted by rollers, provides an adequate surface for vehicles with tyres. TGV tracklaying then proceeds.
The tracklaying process is not particularly specialized to high-speed lines; the same general technique is
applicable to any track that uses continuous welded rail. The steps outlined below are used around the world
in modern tracklaying. TGV track, however, answers to stringent requirements that dictate materials,
dimensions and tolerances.

4.1.3 Laying the track

To begin laying track, a gantry crane that rides on rubber tires is used to lay down
panels of prefabricated track. These are laid roughly in the location where one of the tracks will be built (all
LGVs have two tracks). Each panel is 18 metres (60 feet) long, and rests on wooden sleepers. No ballast is
used at this stage, since the panel track is temporary.

Once the panel track is laid, a work train (pulled by diesel locomotives) can bring in
the sections of continuous welded rail that will be used for the permanent way of this first track. The rail
comes from the factory in lengths varying from 200 m (660 ft) to 400 m (1310 ft). Such long pieces of rail
are just laid across several flatcars; they are very flexible, so this does not pose a problem. A special crane
unloads the rail sections and places them on each side of the temporary track, approximately 3.5 m (12 ft)
apart. This operation is usually carried out at night, for thermal reasons. The rail itself is standard UIC
section, 60 kg/m (40 lb/ft), with a tensile strength of 800 newtons per square millimetre or megapascals
(116,000 psi).

For the next step, a gantry crane is used again. This time, however, the crane rides on
the two rails that were just laid alongside the temporary track. A train of flatcars, half loaded with LGV
sleepers, arrives at the site. It is pushed by a special diesel locomotive, which is low enough to fit underneath
the gantry cranes. The cranes remove the panels of temporary track, and stack them onto the empty half of
the sleeper train. Next, they pick up sets of 30 LGV sleepers, pre-arranged with the proper spacing (60 cm,
or 24 in), using a special fixture. The sleepers are laid on the gravel bed where the panel track was. The
sleeper train leaves the worksite loaded with sections of panel track.

The sleepers, sometimes known as bi-bloc sleepers, are U41 twin block reinforced
concrete, 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in.) wide, and weigh 245 kg (540 lb) each. They are equipped with hardware for
Nabla RNTC spring fasteners, and a 9 mm (3/8 in.) rubber pad. (Rubber pads are always used under the rail
on concrete sleepers, to avoid cracking). Next, a rail threader is used to lift the rails onto their final position
on the sleepers. This machine rides on the rails just like the gantry cranes, but can also support itself directly

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
on a sleeper. By doing this, it can lift the rails, and shift them inwards over the ends of the sleepers, to the
proper gauge (standard gauge). It then lowers them onto the rubber sleeper cushions, and workers use a
pneumatically operated machine to bolt down the Nabla clips with a predetermined torque. The rails are
canted inward at a slope of 1 in 20.

4.4.4 Joining track sections

The sections of rail are welded together using thermite. Conventional welding (using
some type of flame) does not work well on large metal pieces such as rails, since the heat is conducted away
too quickly. Thermite is better suited to this job. It is a mix of aluminium powder and rust (iron oxide)
powder, which reacts to produce iron, aluminum oxide, and a great deal of heat, making it ideal to weld rail.

Before the rail is joined, its length must be adjusted very accurately. This ensures that
the thermal stresses in the rail after it is joined into one continuous piece do not exceed certain limits,
resulting in lateral kinks (in hot weather) or fractures (in cold weather). The joining operation is performed
by an aluminothermic welding machine which is equipped with a rail saw, a weld shear and a grinder. When
the thermite welding process is complete, the weld is ground to the profile of the rail, resulting in a seamless
join between rail sections. Stress in the rail due to temperature variations is absorbed without longitudinal
strain, except near bridges where an expansion joint is sometimes used.

4.4.5 Adding ballast

The next step consists of stuffing a deep bed of ballast underneath the new track. The
ballast arrives in a train of hopper cars pulled by diesel locomotives. Handling this train is challenging, since
the ballast must be spread evenly. If the train stops, ballast can pile over the rails and derail it.

A first layer of ballast is dumped directly onto the track, and a tamping-lining-
levelling machine, riding on the rails, forces the stones underneath the sleepers. Each pass of this machine
can raise the level of the track by 8 cm (3 in), so several passes of ballasting and of the machine are needed
to build up a layer of ballast at least 32 cm (1 ft) thick under the sleepers. The ballast is also piled on each
side of the track for lateral stability. The machine performs the initial alignment of the track. Next, a ballast
regulator distributes the ballast evenly. Finally, a dynamic vibrator machine shakes the track to perform the
final tamping, effectively simulating the passing of 2500 axles.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
4.4.6 Finishing construction

Now that the first track is almost complete, work begins on the adjacent track. This
time, however, it is not necessary to lay a temporary track. Trains running on the first track bring the
sleepers, and then the rail, which is unloaded directly onto the sleepers by dispensing arms that swing out to
the proper alignment. The Nabla fasteners are secured, and the ballast is stuffed under the track as before.

The two tracks are now essentially complete, but the work on the line is not finished.
The catenary masts need to be erected, and the wire strung on them. Catenary installation is not complicated;
it will suffice to give a brief summary of specifications. The steel masts are I-beams, placed in a concrete
foundation up to 63 m (206 ft) apart. The supports are mounted on glass insulators. The carrier wire is
bronze, 65 mm² cross section, 14 kN (3100 lbf) tension. The stitch wire is bronze, 15 m (49.21 ft) long,
35 mm² cross-section. The droppers are 5 mm stranded copper cable. The contact wire is hard drawn copper,
120 mm², flat section on the contact side, 14 kN tension. The maximum depth of the catenary (distance
between carrier and contact wires) is 1.4 m (4.59 ft). The contact wire can rise a maximum of 240 mm
(9.44 inches) but the normal vertical displacement does not exceed 120 mm (4.72 inches).

Now that the catenary is complete, the track is given final alignment adjustments down to millimeter
tolerances. The ballast is then blown to remove smaller gravel fragments and dust, which might be kicked up
by trains. This step is especially important on high-speed tracks, since the blast of a passing train is strong.
Finally, TGV trains are tested on the line at gradually increasing speeds. The track is qualified at speeds
slightly higher than will be used in everyday operations (typically 350 km/h, or 210 mph), before being
opened to commercial service.

4.5 Stations and lines

The London Underground's 11 lines are divided into two classes: the subsurface routes and the deep-tube
routes. The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines make up the subsurface class. The
Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines make up the deep-tube
routes.

There was a twelfth line, a fifth subsurface route, the East London line, until 2007, when it closed for
rebuilding work. It reopened as part of London Overground in April 2010.[38]

The Underground serves 270 stations by rail. Fourteen Underground stations are outside
Greater London, of which five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the
Metropolitan Line, and Epping on the Central Line) are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by
the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street and Manor House only just inside its boundaries.

FIG: 4.1
Zone 1 (central zone) of the Underground (and DLR) network in a geographically more
accurate layout than the usual Tube map, using the same style.

FIG: 4.2
Underground trains come in two sizes, larger subsurface trains and smaller tube trains. A
Metropolitan line A Stock train (left) passes a Piccadilly line 1973 Stock train (right) in the siding at
Rayners Lane

Lines on the Underground can be classified into two types: subsurface and deep-level.
The subsurface lines were dug by the cut-and-cover method, with the tracks running about 5 m (16 ft 5 in)
below the surface. The deep-level or tube lines, bored using a tunnelling shield, run about 20 m (65 ft 7 in)
below the surface (although this varies considerably), with each track in a separate tunnel. These tunnels can

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
have a diameter as small as 3.56 m (11 ft 8 in), and the loading gauge is thus considerably smaller than on
the subsurface lines. Lines of both types usually emerge on to the surface outside the central area.

While the tube lines are for the most part self-contained with a few exceptions, the
subsurface lines are part of an interconnected network: each shares track with at least two other lines. The
subsurface arrangement is similar to the New York City Subway, which also runs separate "lines" over
shared tracks.

4.6 Rolling stock and electrification

London Underground rolling stock

FIG: 4.3
1996 Stock trains at Stratford Market Depot

The Underground uses rolling stock built between 1960 and the present. Stock on
subsurface lines is identified by a letter (such as A Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is
identified by the year in which it was designed (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line). All lines
are worked by a single type of stock except the District line, which uses both C and D Stock. Two types of
stock are currently being developed — 2009 Stock for the Victoria line and S stock for the subsurface lines,
with the Metropolitan line A Stock due to be replaced first. Rollout of both began in 2009. In addition to the

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
electric multiple units described above, there is engineering stock, such as ballast trains and brake vans,
identified by a 1–3 letter prefix then a number.

The Underground is one of the few networks in the world that uses a four-rail system.
The additional rail carries the electrical return that on third-rail and overhead networks is provided by the
running rails. The reason for this is that the return current, if allowed to flow through the running rails,
would also tend to flow through the cast-iron tunnel segments. These were never designed to carry electrical
currents and would suffer from galvanic corrosion if significant currents were allowed to flow through the
joints. On the Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energised at +420 V DC and a top-
contact fourth rail is centrally between the running rails, at −210 V DC, which combine to provide a traction
voltage of 630 V DC.

In cases where the lines are shared with mainline trains which use a three-rail system (usually above ground
and not within cast iron tunnel segments), the third rail is set at +630 V and the fourth rail at 0 V DC.[40]

4.7 Planned improvements and expansions

The Crossrail line will provide a new east-west link and will be integrated with the
tube network, but will not be part of it.

Each line is being upgraded to improve capacity and reliability, with new
computerised signalling, automatic train operation (ATO), track replacement, station refurbishment and,
where needed, new rolling stock. A trial of mobile phone coverage on the Waterloo & City line determined
that coverage would be appropriate for the entire network, with aims to have the service installed in time for
the 2012 Olympics. Mayor of London Boris Johnson revealed the plans would be funded through investment
from the five main UK mobile networks; Vodafone, Orange, T-Mobile, 3 and O2.

In summer, temperatures on parts of the Underground can become very uncomfortable

due to its deep and poorly ventilated tube tunnels; temperatures as high as 47 °C (117 °F) were reported in
the 2006 European heat wave. A trial programme for a groundwater cooling system in Victoria station took
place in 2006 and 2007; it aimed to determine whether such a system would be feasible and effective if in
widespread use for cooling the Underground. Posters may be observed on the Underground network
advising passengers to carry a bottle of water to help keep cool. The new S Stock trains will have air
conditioning.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Although not part of London Underground, the Crossrail scheme will provide a new
route across central London by 2018, integrated with the tube network but not part of it. The long proposed
Chelsea-Hackney Line, which would not be built until after Crossrail, may become part of the London
Underground. It would give the network a new Northeast to South cross-London line to provide more
interchanges with other lines and relieve overcrowding on other lines. However, it is still on the drawing-
board and may be either part of the London Underground network or the National Rail network. The
Croxley Rail Link proposal envisages diverting the Metropolitan line Watford branch to Watford Junction
station along a disused railway track. The project awaits funding from the Department for Transport and
remains at the proposal stage.

Boris Johnson has suggested extending the Bakerloo Line to Lewisham, Catford and
Hayes as South London lacks Underground lines (instead having a suburban rail network).

Proposals have also been made to reorganise the sub-surface lines and split the Northern
line and extend the Charing Cross branch to Battersea, although both of these are dependent upon other
upgrades being completed first. The plan to extend the Northern line to Battersea has been given planning
permission by the London Borough of Wandsworth and could be open by 2015. In early 2011 the London
Mayor also suggested extended the Northern Line to better accommodate workers in Greater London. Mr
Johnson said that following recent office developments in Vauxhall and Battersea, the council are now
thinking about extending the Northern Line west from Kennington - such an extension would create two
new stops along the Northern Line.

4.8 History
History of the London Underground

Railway construction in the United Kingdom began in the early 19th century. By 1854 six railway terminals
had been built just outside the centre of London: London Bridge, Euston, Paddington, London King's Cross,
Bishopsgate and Waterloo. At this point, only Fenchurch Street station was located in the actual City of
London. Traffic congestion in the city and the surrounding areas had increased significantly in this period,
partly due to the need for rail travellers to complete their journeys into the city centre by road. The idea of
building an underground railway to link the City of London with the mainline terminals had first been
proposed in the 1830s, but it was not until the 1850s that the idea was taken seriously as a solution to traffic
congestion.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
The first underground railways

FIG: 4.4
Construction of the Metropolitan Railway near King's Cross station, 1861

In 1855 an Act of Parliament was passed approving the construction of an

underground railway between Paddington Station and Farringdon Street via King's Cross which was to be
called the Metropolitan Railway. The Great Western Railway (GWR) gave financial backing to the project
when it was agreed that a junction would be built linking the underground railway with their mainline
terminus at Paddington. GWR also agreed to design special trains for the new subterranean railway.

A shortage of funds delayed construction for several years. The fact that this project
got under way at all was largely due to the lobbying of Charles Pearson, who was Solicitor to the City of
London Corporation at the time. Pearson had supported the idea of an underground railway in London for
several years. He advocated plans for the demolition of the unhygienic slums which would be replaced by
new accommodation for their inhabitants in the suburbs, with the new railway providing transportation to
their places of work in the city centre. Although he was never directly involved in the running of the
Metropolitan Railway, he is widely credited as being one of the first true visionaries behind the concept of
underground railways. And in 1859 it was Pearson who persuaded the City of London Corporation to help
fund the scheme. Work finally began in February 1860, under the guidance of chief engineer John Fowler.
Pearson died before the work was completed.

The Metropolitan Railway opened on 10 January 1863. Within a few months of opening
it was carrying over 26,001 passengers a day. The Hammersmith and City Railway was opened on 13 June
1864 between Hammersmith and Paddington. Services were initially operated by GWR between
Hammersmith and Farringdon Street. By April 1865 the Metropolitan had taken over the service. On 23
December 1865 the Metropolitan's eastern extension to Moorgate Street opened. Later in the decade other
branches were opened to Swiss Cottage, South Kensington and Addison Road, Kensington (now known as

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Kensington Olympia). The railway had initially been dual gauge, allowing for the use of GWR's signature
broad gauge rolling stock and the more widely used standard gauge stock. Disagreements with GWR had
forced the Metropolitan to switch to standard gauge in 1863 after GWR withdrew all its stock from the
railway. These differences were later patched up, however broad gauge was totally withdrawn from the
railway in March 1869.

On 24 December 1868, the Metropolitan District Railway began operating services

between South Kensington and Westminster using Metropolitan Railway trains and carriages. The company,
which soon became known as "the District", was first incorporated in 1864 to complete an Inner Circle
railway around London in conjunction with the Metropolitan. This was part of a plan to build both an Inner
Circle line and Outer Circle line around London.

A fierce rivalry soon developed between the District and the Metropolitan. This
severely delayed the completion of the Inner Circle project as the two companies competed to build far more
financially lucrative railways in the suburbs of London. The London and North Western Railway (LNWR)
began running their Outer Circle service from Broad Street via Willesden Junction, Addison Road and Earl's
Court to Mansion House in 1872. The Inner Circle was not completed until 1884, with the Metropolitan and
the District jointly running services. In the meantime, the District had finished its route between West
Brompton and Blackfriars in 1870, with an interchange with the Metropolitan at South Kensington. In 1877,
it began running its own services from Hammersmith to Richmond, on a line originally opened by the
London & South Western Railway (LSWR) in 1869. The District then opened a new line from Turnham
Green to Ealing in 1879 and extended its West Brompton branch to Fulham in 1880. Over the same decade
the Metropolitan was extended to Harrow-on-the-Hill station in the north-west.

The early tunnels were dug mainly using cut-and-cover construction methods. This
caused widespread disruption and required the demolition of several properties on the surface. The first
trains were steam-hauled, which required effective ventilation to the surface. Ventilation shafts at various
points on the route allowed the engines to expel steam and bring fresh air into the tunnels. One such vent is
at Leinster Gardens, W2. In order to preserve the visual characteristics in what is still a well-to-do street, a
five-foot-thick (1.5 m) concrete façade was constructed to resemble a genuine house frontage.

On 7 December 1869 the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LB&SCR)
started operating a service between Wapping and New Cross Gate on the East London Railway (ELR) using
the Thames Tunnel designed by Marc Brunel, who designed the revolutionary tunnelling shield method
which made its construction not only possible, but safer, and completed by his son Isambard Kingdom
Brunel. This had opened in 1843 as a pedestrian tunnel, but in 1865 it was purchased by the ELR (a

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
consortium of six railway companies: the Great Eastern Railway (GER); London, Brighton and South Coast
Railway (LB&SCR); London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR); South Eastern Railway (SER);
Metropolitan Railway; and the Metropolitan District Railway) and converted into a railway tunnel. In 1884
the District and the Metropolitan began to operate services on the line.

By the end of the 1880s, underground railways reached Chesham on the

Metropolitan, Hounslow, Wimbledon and Whitechapel on the District and New Cross on the East London
Railway. By the end of the 19th century, the Metropolitan had extended its lines far outside of London to
Aylesbury, Verney Junction and Brill, creating new suburbs along the route, later publicised by the company
as Metro-land. Right up until the 1930s the company maintained ambitions to be considered as a main line
rather than an urban railway, ambitions that are still continued somewhat today.

4.9 First tube lines

FIG: 4.5
The nickname "the Tube" comes from the circular tube-like tunnels through which the trains travel.
Northern Line train leaving a tunnel mouth just north of Hendon Central station.

Following advances in the use of tunnelling shields, electric traction and deep-level
tunnel designs, later railways were built even further underground. This caused much less disruption at
ground level and it was therefore cheaper and preferable to the cut-and-cover construction method.

The City & South London Railway (C&SLR, now part of the Northern Line) opened
in 1890, between Stockwell and the now closed original terminus at King William Street. It was the first
"deep-level" electrically operated railway in the world. By 1900 it had been extended at both ends, to
Clapham Common in the south and Moorgate Street (via a diversion) in the north. The second such railway,
the Waterloo and City Railway (W&CR), opened in 1898. It was built and run by the London and South
Western Railway.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 On 30 July 1900, the Central London Railway (now known as the Central Line) was
opened, operating services from Bank to Shepherd's Bush. It was nicknamed the "Twopenny Tube" for its
flat fare and cylindrical tunnels; the "tube" nickname was eventually transferred to the Underground system
as a whole. An interchange with the C&SLR and the W&CR was provided at Bank. Construction had also
begun in August 1898 on the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway, however work came to a halt after 18
months when funds ran out.

4.10 Integration

In the early 20th century the presence of six independent operators running different
Underground lines caused passengers substantial inconvenience; in many places passengers had to walk
some distance above ground to change between lines. The costs associated with running such a system were
also heavy, and as a result many companies looked to financiers who could give them the money they
needed to expand into the lucrative suburbs as well as electrify the earlier steam operated lines. The most
prominent of these was Charles Yerkes, an American tycoon who secured the right to build the Charing
Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (CCE&HR) on 1 October 1900, today also part of the Northern Line.
In March 1901, he effectively took control of the District and this enabled him to form the Metropolitan
District Electric Traction Company (MDET) on 15 July. Through this he acquired the Great Northern and
Strand Railway and the Brompton and Piccadilly Circus Railway in September 1901, the construction of
which had already been authorised by Parliament, together with the moribund Baker Street & Waterloo
Railway in March 1902. The GN&SR and the B&PCR evolved into the present-day Piccadilly Line. On 9
April the MDET evolved into the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL). The UERL
also owned three tramway companies and went on to buy the London General Omnibus Company, creating
an organisation colloquially known as "the Combine" which went on to dominate underground railway
construction in London until the 1930s.

FIG: 4.6
The Circle Line and District Line platforms at Embankment station

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 With the financial backing of Yerkes, the District opened its South Harrow branch in
1903 and completed its link to the Metropolitan's Uxbridge branch at Rayners Lane in 1904—although
services to Uxbridge on the District did not begin until 1910 due to yet another disagreement with the
Metropolitan. Today, District Line services to Uxbridge have been replaced by the Piccadilly Line. By the
end of 1905, all District Railway and Inner Circle services were run by electric trains.

The Baker Street & Waterloo Railway opened in 1906, soon branding itself the
Bakerloo and, by 1907, it had been extended to Edgware Road in the north and Elephant & Castle in the
south. The newly named Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, combining the two projects
acquired by MDET in September 1901, also opened in 1906. With tunnels at an impressive depth of 200 feet
(61 m) below the surface, it ran from Finsbury Park to Hammersmith; a single station branch to Strand (later
renamed Aldwych) was added in 1907. In the same year the CCE&HR opened from Charing Cross to
Camden Town, with two northward branches, one to Golders Green and one to Highgate (now Archway).

Independent ventures did continue in the early part of the 20th century. The
independent Great Northern & City Railway opened in 1904 between Finsbury Park and Moorgate. It was
the only tube line of sufficient diameter to be capable of handling main line stock, and it was originally
intended to be part of a main line railway. However money soon ran out and the route remained separate
from the main line network until the 1970s. The C&SLR was also extended northwards to Euston by 1907.

In early 1908, in an effort to increase passenger numbers, the underground railway

operators agreed to promote their services jointly as "the Underground", publishing new adverts and creating
a free publicity map of the network for the purpose. The map featured a key labelling the Bakerloo Railway,
the Central London Railway, the City & South London Railway, the District Railway, the Great Northern &
City Railway, the Hampstead Railway (the shortened name of the CCE&HR), the Metropolitan Railway and
the Piccadilly Railway. Other railways appeared on the map but with much less prominence; these included
the Waterloo & City Railway and part of the ELR, which were both owned by main line railway companies
at the time. As part of the process, "The Underground" name appeared on stations for the first time and
electric ticket-issuing machines were also introduced. This was followed in 1913 by the first appearance of
the famous circle and horizontal bar symbol, known as "the roundel", designed by Edward Johnston. In
January 1933 the UERL experimented with a new diagrammatic map of the Underground, designed by
Harry Beck and first issued in pocket-size form. It was an immediate success with the public and is now
commonly regarded as a design classic; an updated version is still in use today.

Meanwhile, on 1 January 1913 the UERL absorbed two other independent tube lines,
the C&SLR and the Central London Railway. As the Combine expanded, only the Metropolitan stayed away

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from this process of integration, retaining its ambition to be considered as a main line railway. Proposals
were put forward for a merger between the two companies in 1913 but the plan was rejected by the
Metropolitan. In the same year the company asserted its independence by buying out the cash strapped Great
Northern and City Railway, a predecessor to the Piccadilly Line. It also sought a character of its own. The
Metropolitan Surplus Lands Committee had been formed in 1887 to develop accommodation alongside the
railway and in 1919 Metropolitan Railway Country Estates Ltd. was founded to capitalise on the post-World
War One demand for housing. This ensured that the Metropolitan would retain an independent image until
the creation of London Transport in 1933.

The Metropolitan also sought to electrify its lines. The District and the Metropolitan
had agreed to use the low voltage DC system for the Inner Circle, comprising two electric rails to power the
trains, back in 1901. At the start of 1905 electric trains began to work the Uxbridge branch and from 1
November 1906 electric locomotives took trains as far as Wembley Park where steam trains took over. This
changeover point was moved to Harrow-on-the-Hill on 19 July 1908. The Hammersmith & City branch had
also been upgraded to electric working on 5 November 1906. The electrification of the ELR followed on 31
March 1913, the same year as the opening of its extension to Whitechapel and Shoreditch. Following the
Grouping Act of 1921, which merged all the cash strapped main line railways into four companies (thus
obliterating the original consortium that had built the ELR), the Metropolitan agreed to run passenger
services on the line.

The Bakerloo Line extension to Queen's Park was completed in 1915, and the service
extended to Watford Junction via the London and North Western Railway tracks in 1917. The extension of
the Central Line's branch to Ealing Broadway was delayed by the war until 1920.

The major development of the 1920s was the integration of the CCE&HR and the
C&SLR and extensions to form what was to become the Northern line. This necessitated enlargement of the
older parts of the C&SLR, which had been built on a modest scale. The integration required temporary
closures during 1922—24. The Golders Green branch was extended to Edgware in 1924, and the southern
end was extended from Clapham Common to Morden in 1926 with new stations designed by Charles
Holden.[21] Through Holden's work as consulting architect, designing new stations during the 1920s and
1930s, London Underground was modernised and every aspect of design carefully integrated.

The Watford branch of the Metropolitan opened in 1925 and in the same year
electrification was extended to Rickmansworth. The last major work completed by the Metropolitan was the
branch to Stanmore which opened in 1932 and which is now part of the Jubilee Line.

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 By 1933 the Combine had completed the Cockfosters branch of the Piccadilly Line,
with through services running (via realigned tracks between Hammersmith and Acton Town) to Hounslow
West and Uxbridge. The extension of the Piccadilly line was heavily promoted by London Underground.

CASE STUDY

London Transport

In 1933 the Combine, the Metropolitan and all the municipal and independent bus and
tram undertakings were merged into the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB), a self-supporting and
unsubsidised public corporation which came into being on 1 July 1933. The LPTB soon became known as
London Transport (LT).

Shortly after it was created, LT began the process of integrating the underground
railways of London into one network. All the separate railways were renamed as "lines" within the system:
the first LT version of Beck's map featured the District Line, the Bakerloo Line, the Piccadilly Line, the
Edgware, Highgate and Morden Line, the Metropolitan Line, the Metropolitan Line (Great Northern & City
Section), the East London Line, and the Central London Line. The shorter names Central Line and Northern
Line were adopted for two lines in 1937. The Waterloo & City line was not originally included in this map
as it was still owned by a main line railway and not part of LT, but was added in a less prominent style, also
in 1937.

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 FIG: 4.7
Londoners sheltering from The Blitz in a tube station

LT announced a scheme for the expansion and modernisation of the network entitled
the New Works Programme, which had followed the announcement of improvement proposals for the
Metropolitan Line. This consisted of plans to extend some lines, to take over the operation of others from
main-line railway companies, and to electrify the entire network. During the 1930s and 1940s, several
sections of main-line railways were converted into surface lines of the Underground system. The oldest part
of today's Underground network is the Central line between Leyton and Loughton, which opened as a
railway seven years before the Underground itself.

LT also sought to abandon routes which made a significant financial loss. Soon after the
LPTB started operating, services to Verney Junction and Brill on the Metropolitan Railway were stopped.
The renamed Metropolitan Line terminus was moved to Aylesbury.

The outbreak of World War II delayed all the expansion schemes. From mid-1940, the
Blitz led to the use of many Underground stations as shelters during air raids and overnight. The
Underground helped over 200,000 children escape to the countryside and sheltered another 177,500 people.
The authorities initially tried to discourage and prevent people from sleeping in the tube, but later supplied
22,000 bunks, latrines, and catering facilities. After a time there were even special stations with libraries and
classrooms for night classes. Later in the war, eight London deep-level shelters were constructed under
stations, ostensibly to be used as shelters (each deep-level shelter could hold 8,000 people) though plans
were in place to convert them for a new express line parallel to the Northern line after the war. Some
stations (now mostly disused) were converted into government offices: for example, Down Street was used
for the headquarters of the Railway Executive Committee and was also used for meetings of the War
Cabinet before the Cabinet War Rooms were completed; Brompton Road was used as a control room for
anti-aircraft guns and the remains of the surface building are still used by London's University Royal Naval
Unit (URNU) and University London Air Squadron (ULAS).

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 After the war one of the last acts of the LPTB was to give the go-ahead for the
completion of the postponed Central Line extensions. The western extension to West Ruislip was completed
in 1948, and the eastern extension to Epping in 1949; the single-line branch from Epping to Ongar was taken
over and electrified in 1957.

GLC Control

On 1 January 1970, the Greater London Council (GLC) took over responsibility for
London Transport, again under the formal title London Transport Executive. This period is perhaps the most
controversial in London's transport history, characterised by staff shortages and a severe lack of funding
from central government. In 1980 the Labour-led GLC began the 'Fares Fair' project, which increased local
taxation in order to lower ticket prices. The campaign was initially successful and usage of the Tube
significantly increased. But serious objections to the policy came from the London Borough of Bromley, an
area of London which has no Underground stations. The Council resented the subsidy as it would be of little
benefit to its residents. The council took the GLC to the Law Lords who ruled that the policy was illegal
based on their interpretation of the Transport (London) Act 1969. They ruled that the Act stipulated that
London Transport must plan, as far as was possible, to break even. In line with this judgement, 'Fares Fair'
was therefore reversed, leading to a 100% increase in fares in 1982 and a subsequent decline in passenger
numbers. The scandal prompted Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Government to remove London
Transport from the GLC's control in 1984, a development that turned out to be a prelude to the abolition of
the GLC in 1986.

However the period saw the first real postwar investment in the network with the
opening of the carefully planned Victoria line, which was built on a diagonal northeast-southwest alignment
beneath central London, incorporating centralised signalling control and automatically driven trains. It
opened in stages between 1968 and 1971. The Piccadilly line was extended to Heathrow Airport in 1977,
and the Jubilee Line was opened in 1979, taking over the Stanmore branch of the Bakerloo line, with new
tunnels between Baker Street and Charing Cross. There was also one important legacy from the 'Fares Fair'
scheme: the introduction of ticket zones, which remain in use today.

London Regional Transport

In 1984 Margaret Thatcher's Conservative Government removed London Transport from

the GLC's control, replacing it with London Regional Transport (LRT) on 19 June 1984 – a statutory
corporation for which the Secretary of State for Transport was directly responsible. The Government
planned to modernise the system while slashing its subsidy from taxpayers and ratepayers. As part of this

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
strategy London Underground Limited was set up on 1 April 1985 as a wholly owned subsidiary of LRT to
run the network.

The prognosis for LRT was good. Oliver Green, the then Curator of the London
Transport Museum, wrote in 1987:

In its first annual report, London Underground Ltd was able to announce that more
passengers had used the system than ever before. In 1985–86 the Underground carried 762 million
passengers – well above its previous record total of 720 million in 1948. At the same time costs have been
significantly reduced with a new system of train overhaul and the introduction of more driver-only
operation. Work is well in hand on the conversion of station booking offices to take the new Underground
Ticketing System (UTS)...and prototype trials for the next generation of tube trains (1990) stock started in
late 1986. As the London Underground celebrates its 125th anniversary in 1988, the future looks promising.

However, cost-cutting did not come without critics. At 19:30 on 18 November 1987, a
massive fire swept through the King's Cross St Pancras tube station, the busiest station on the network,
killing 31 people. It later turned out that the fire had started in an escalator shaft to the Piccadilly Line,
which was burnt out along with the top level (entrances and ticket hall) of the deep-level tube station. The
escalator on which the fire started had been built just before World War II. The steps and sides of the
escalator were partly made of wood, meaning that they burned quickly and easily. Although smoking was
banned on the subsurface sections of the London Underground in February 1985 as a consequence of the
Oxford Circus fire, the fire was most probably caused by a commuter discarding a burning match, which fell
down the side of the escalator onto the running track (Fennell 1988, p. 111). The running track had not been
cleaned in some time and was covered in grease and fibrous detritus. The Member of Parliament for the
area, Frank Dobson, informed the House of Commons that the number of transportation employees at the
station, which handled 200,000 passengers every day at the time, had been cut from 16 to ten, and the
cleaning staff from 14 to two. The tragic event led to the abolition of all wooden escalators at all
Underground stations and pledges of greater investment.

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Conclusion

References

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING