Geo Mechanics Module Users Guide

Geomechanics Module
User´s Guide
VERSION 4.3
Geomechanics Module User’s Guide
 1998–2012 COMSOL
Protected by U.S. Patents 7,519,518; 7,596,474; and 7,623,991. Patents pending.
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Part No. CM021801

C o n t e n t s
Chapter 1: Introduction
Geomechanics Module Overview 6

Show More Physics Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library? . . . . . . 8
Typographical Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Chapter 2: Geomechanics Theory
General Geomechanics Theory 14

Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Defining the Stress Invariants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Defining the Yield Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Defining Perfectly Plastic Materials 19

Von Mises Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Tresca Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Plasticity Models for Soils 22

Mohr-Coulomb Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Drucker-Prager Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Lade-Duncan Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Tension Cut-Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Theory for the Cam-Clay Material 30

About the Cam-Clay Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Volumetric Elastic Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Hardening and Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Including Pore Fluid Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
CONTENTS |3
Failure Criteria for Concrete, Rocks, and Other Brittle Materials 35
Bresler-Pister Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Willam-Warnke Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Ottosen Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Original Hoek-Brown Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Elastoplastic Material Theory 42

Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Plastic Flow for Small Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Isotropic Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Yield Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Hardening Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Plastic Flow for Large Strains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . 53
References for Elastoplastic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Creep and Viscoplasticity 54

About Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Creep Material Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
References for the Geomechanics Module 60
Chapter 3: The Geomechanics Materials
Working with the Geomechanics Materials 64

Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics Interface . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Soil Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Cam-Clay Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Geomechanics Materials 74
The Output Materials Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4 | CONTENTS
1
Introduction
Welcome to the Geomechanics Module User’s Guide. This chapter provides a

Geomechanics Module Overview and the type of modeling you can achieve with
its extensive set of material models for geomechanics and soil mechanics. In
addition, it includes some general information about documentation and models.
The Geomechanics Module extends the capabilities of the Structural Mechanics

Module. For general information about structural analysis, see the Structural
Mechanics Module User’s Guide.
5
Geomechanics Module Overview
The Geomechanics Module is an optional package that extends the Structural
Mechanics Module to the quantitative investigation of geotechnical processes. It is
designed for researchers, engineers, developers, teachers, and students, and suits both
single-physics and interdisciplinary studies within geomechanics and soil mechanics.
The module includes an extensive set of fundamental material models, such as the
Drucker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb criteria and the Cam-Clay model in soil
mechanics. These material models can also couple to any new equations created, and
to physics interfaces (for example, heat transfer, fluid flow, and solute transport in
porous media) already built into COMSOL Multiphysics and its other specialized
modules.
The Geomechanics Module requires a Structural Mechanics Module

license.
Note
In this section:
• Show More Physics Options

• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?
• Typographical Conventions
Show More Physics Options

There are several features available on many physics interfaces or individual nodes. This
section is a short overview of the options and includes links to the COMSOL
Multiphysics User’s Guide or COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide where
additional information is available.
The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s

Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Guide do not work in the
Important PDF, only from within the online help.
6 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
To locate and search all the documentation for this information, in
COMSOL, select Help>Documentation from the main menu and either
enter a search term or look under a specific module in the documentation
Tip
tree.
To display additional features for the physics interfaces and feature nodes, click the
Show button ( ) on the Model Builder and then select the applicable option.
After clicking the Show button ( ), some sections display on the settings window
when a node is clicked and other features are available from the context menu when a
node is right-clicked. For each, the additional sections that can be displayed include
Equation, Advanced Settings, Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent
Stabilization.
You can also click the Expand Sections button ( ) in the Model Builder to always show
some sections or click the Show button ( ) and select Reset to Default to reset to
display only the Equation and Override and Contribution sections.
For most physics nodes, both the Equation and Override and Contribution sections are
always available. Click the Show button ( ) and then select Equation View to display
the Equation View node under all physics nodes in the Model Builder.
Availability of each feature, and whether it is described for a particular physics node, is
based on the individual physics selected. For example, the Discretization, Advanced
Settings, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization sections are often
described individually throughout the documentation as there are unique settings.
SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN

COMSOL
MULTIPHYSICS USER
GUIDE OR
REFERENCE GUIDE
Show More Options and • Showing and Expanding Advanced User’s Guide
Expand Sections Physics Sections
• The Model Builder Window
Discretization • Show Discretization User’s Guide
• Element Types and Discretization
• Finite Elements Reference Guide
• Discretization of the Equations
Discretization - Splitting Compile Equations Reference Guide
of complex variables
GEOMECHANICS MODULE OVERVIEW | 7

SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN
COMSOL
MULTIPHYSICS USER
GUIDE OR
REFERENCE GUIDE
Pair Selection • Identity and Contact Pairs User’s Guide

• Specifying Boundary Conditions for
Identity Pairs
Consistent and Show Stabilization User’s Guide
Inconsistent Stabilization
• Stabilization Techniques Reference Guide
• Numerical Stabilization
Geometry Working with Geometry User’s Guide
Constraint Settings Using Weak Constraints User’s Guide
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

A number of Internet resources provide more information about COMSOL
Multiphysics, including licensing and technical information. The electronic
documentation, Dynamic Help, and the Model Library are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.
If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer, the
blue links do not work to open a model or content referenced in a
different user’s guide. However, if you are using the online help in
Important COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to other modules, model
examples, and documentation sets.
THE DOCUMENTATION
The COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide and COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Guide describe all interfaces and functionality included with the basic COMSOL
Multiphysics license. These guides also have instructions about how to use COMSOL
Multiphysics and how to access the documentation electronically through the
COMSOL Multiphysics help desk.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:
• Press F1 for Dynamic Help,
• Click the buttons on the toolbar, or
• Select Help>Documentation ( ) or Help>Dynamic Help ( ) from the main menu
and then either enter a search term or look under a specific module in the
documentation tree.
THE MODEL LIBRARY

Each model comes with documentation that includes a theoretical background and
step-by-step instructions to create the model. The models are available in COMSOL
as MPH-files that you can open for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step
instructions and the actual models as a template for your own modeling and
applications.
SI units are used to describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions in
most examples, but other unit systems are available.
To open the Model Library, select View>Model Library ( ) from the main menu, and
then search by model name or browse under a module folder name. Click to highlight
any model of interest, and select Open Model and PDF to open both the model and the
documentation explaining how to build the model. Alternatively, click the Dynamic
Help button ( ) or select Help>Documentation in COMSOL to search by name or
browse by module.
The model libraries are updated on a regular basis by COMSOL in order to add new
models and to improve existing models. Choose View>Model Library Update ( ) to
update your model library to include the latest versions of the model examples.
If you have any feedback or suggestions for additional models for the library (including
those developed by you), feel free to contact us at info@comsol.com.
CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

For general product information, contact COMSOL at info@comsol.com.
To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
support@comsol.com. An automatic notification and case number is sent to you by
email.

COMSOL WEB SITES
Main Corporate web site www.comsol.com

Worldwide contact information www.comsol.com/contact
Technical Support main page www.comsol.com/support
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase
Product updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL User Community www.comsol.com/community
Typographical Conventions
All COMSOL user’s guides use a set of consistent typographical conventions that make
it easier to follow the discussion, understand what you can expect to see on the
graphical user interface (GUI), and know which data must be entered into various
data-entry fields.
In particular, these conventions are used throughout the documentation:
CONVENTION EXAMPLE
text highlighted in blue Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information

in the PDF. When you are using the online help desk in
COMSOL Multiphysics, these links also work to other
modules, model examples, and documentation sets.
boldface font A boldface font indicates that the given word(s) appear
exactly that way on the COMSOL Desktop (or, for toolbar
buttons, in the corresponding tooltip). For example, the
Model Builder window ( ) is often referred to and this is
the window that contains the model tree. As another
example, the instructions might say to click the Zoom
Extents button ( ), and this means that when you hover
over the button with your mouse, the same label displays
on the COMSOL Desktop.
Forward arrow symbol > The forward arrow symbol > is instructing you to select a
series of menu items in a specific order. For example,
Options>Preferences is equivalent to: From the Options
menu, choose Preferences.
CONVENTION EXAMPLE
Code (monospace) font A Code (monospace) font indicates you are to make a
keyboard entry in the user interface. You might see an
instruction such as “Enter (or type) 1.25 in the Current
density field.” The monospace font also is an indication of
programming code. or a variable name.
Italic Code (monospace) An italic Code (monospace) font indicates user inputs and
font parts of names that can vary or be defined by the user.
KEY TO THE GRAPHICS

Throughout the documentation, additional icons are used to help navigate the
information. These categories are used to draw your attention to the information
based on the level of importance, although it is always recommended that you read
these text boxes.
ICON NAME DESCRIPTION
Caution A Caution icon is used to indicate that the user should proceed
carefully and consider the next steps. It might mean that an
action is required, or if the instructions are not followed, that
there will be problems with the model solution.
Important An Important icon is used to indicate that the information
provided is key to the model building, design, or solution. The
information is of higher importance than a note or tip, and the
user should endeavor to follow the instructions.
Note A Note icon is used to indicate that the information may be of
use to the user. It is recommended that the user read the text.
Tip A Tip icon is used to provide information, reminders, short
cuts, suggestions of how to improve model design, and other
information that may or may not be useful to the user.
See Also The See Also icon indicates that other useful information is
located in the named section. If you are working on line, click
the hyperlink to go to the information directly. When the link is
outside of the current PDF document, the text indicates this,
for example See The Laminar Flow Interface in the
COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide. Note that if you are in
COMSOL Multiphysic’s online help, the link works.

ICON NAME DESCRIPTION
Model The Model icon is used in the documentation as well as in

COMSOL Multiphysics from the View>Model Library menu. If
you are working online, click the link to go to the PDF version
of the step-by-step instructions. In some cases, a model is only
available if you have a license for a specific module. These
examples occur in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide.
The Model Library path describes how to find the actual model
in COMSOL Multiphysics, for example
If you have the RF Module, see Radar Cross Section: Model
Library path RF_Module/Tutorial_Models/radar_cross_section
Space Dimension Another set of icons are also used in the Model Builder—the
model space dimension is indicated by 0D , 1D , 1D
axial symmetry , 2D , 2D axial symmetry , and 3D
icons. These icons are also used in the documentation to
clearly list the differences to an interface, feature node, or
theory section, which are based on space dimension.
2
Geomechanics Theory
The Geomechanics Module contains new materials which are used in combination
with the Structural Mechanics Module to account for the plasticity of soils and
failure criteria in rocks, concrete and other brittle materials.
In this chapter:
• General Geomechanics Theory

• Defining Perfectly Plastic Materials
• Plasticity Models for Soils
• Theory for the Cam-Clay Material
• Failure Criteria for Concrete, Rocks, and Other Brittle Materials
• Elastoplastic Material Theory
• Creep and Viscoplasticity
• References for the Geomechanics Module
13
General Geomechanics Theory
In this section:
• Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis

• Defining the Stress Invariants
• Defining the Yield Surface
Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface in the Structural Mechanics

User’s Guide
See Also
The links to the features described in the Structural Mechanics User’s

Guide do not work in the PDF, only from the online help in COMSOL
Important Multiphysics.
Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis

The theory of plasticity was initially developed in continuum mechanics where tensile
stresses are usually considered to be positive quantities and compressive stresses are
negative quantities. Under this convention, force and displacement components are
considered positive if directed in the positive directions of the coordinate axes. Tensile
normal strains and tensile normal stresses are treated as positive (Ref. 11).
Engineering analysis and design for soil and rock structures, however, are in most cases
concerned with compressive stresses (Ref. 1). Therefore, in geotechnical applications
the opposite sign convention is usually adopted because compressive normal stresses
are more common than tensile ones (Ref. 5).
The Geomechanics Module follows the sign convention of continuum mechanics as

stated in Ref. 1 (positive tensile stresses). This is consistent with the notation used in
the Structural Mechanics Module. This means the principal stresses often have a
negative sign, and are sorted as 123.
The convention used in Ref. 1 refers to the hydrostatic pressure (trace of the stress
Cauchy tensor) with a positive sign. The use of the first invariant of Cauchy stress
tensor I1() is preferred through this document, in order to avoid misunderstandings
14 | CHAPTER 2: GEOMECHANICS THEORY

with the convention in the Structural Mechanics Module (where pressure is positive
under compression, or equivalently, it has the opposite sign of the Cauchy stress
tensor’s trace).
Defining the Stress Invariants

The starting point for defining the theory of plastic deformation of soils is the
definition of the first, second, and third invariants for the Cauchy stress tensor . These
invariants are defined as follows:
I 1    = trace   
1 2 (2-1)
I 2    = ---  I 1 – : 
2
I 3    = det   
The first invariant I1 is the trace of the tensor, the second invariant I2 is the sum of the
principal two-rowed minors of the determinant of , and the third invariant I3 is the
determinant of . (Ref. 1).
When 1, 2, and 3, represent the principal components of the stress tensor, these
invariants can be written as
I1    = 1 + 2 + 3
I2    = 1 2 + 2 3 + 1 3
I3    = 1  2  3
The principal components of the stress tensor are the roots of the characteristic
equation (Cayley–Hamilton theorem)
3 2
 – I1  + I2  – I3 = 0
which comes from calculating the roots for the equation
det  – I = 0
The invariants I1, I2, and I3 can be called in user-defined yield criteria by
referencing the corresponding variables solid.I1s, solid.I2s, and
Tip solid.I3s.
GENERAL GEOMECHANICS THEORY | 15

Defining the deviatoric stress as the traceless tensor
1
dev    =  – --- I 1 I
3
introduces us to the first, second, and third deviatoric stress invariants
J 1    = trace  dev     = 0
1 (2-2)
J 2    = --- dev   :dev   
2
J 3    = det  dev    
As defined above J20. In soil plasticity, the most relevant invariants are I1, J2, and
J3. I1 represents the effect of mean stress, J2 represents the magnitude of shear stress,
and J3 is the direction of the shear stress.
The invariants J2 and J3 can be called in user-defined yield criteria by

referencing the variables solid.II2s and solid.II3s.
Tip
OTHER INVARIANTS
It is possible to define other invariants in terms of the primary invariants. One common
auxiliary invariant is the Lode angle 
3 3 J3 -
cos 3 = -----------  ----------- (2-3)
2 J3  2
2
The Lode angle is bounded to 03 when the principal stresses are sorted as
123 (Ref. 1).
Following this convention, =corresponds to the tensile meridian, and =3

corresponds to the compressive meridian. The Lode angle is part of a cylindrical
coordinate system (the Haigh–Westergaard coordinates) with height (hydrostatic axis)

 = I 1 / 3 and radius r = 2J 2 .
The Lode angle is undefined at the hydrostatic axis, where all three
principal stresses are equal (1=2=3=I1/3) and J2=0. To avoid
division by zero, the Lode angle is computed from the inverse tangent
Note
function atan2, instead of the inverse cosine, as stated in Equation 2-3.
The Lode angle and the effective (von Mises) stress can be called in
user-defined yield criteria by referencing the variables solid.thetaL and
Tip solid.mises.
The octahedral plane (also called -plane) is defined perpendicular to the hydrostatic
axis in the Haigh–Westergaard coordinate system. The stress normal to this plane is
oct=I1/3, and the shear stress on that plane is defined by
 oct = 2/3J 2
The functions described in Equation 2-1 and Equation 2-2 enter into expressions that
define various kind of yield and failure surfaces. A yield surface is a surface in the 3D
space of principal stresses which circumscribe an elastic state of stress.
PRINCIPAL STRESSES
The principal stresses 1, 2, and 3) are the eigenvalues of the stress tensor, and when
sorted as 123 they can be written by using the invariants I1 and J2 and the
Lode angle 03 (Ref. 1):
1 4J
 1 = --- I 1 + ---------2- cos 
3 3
4J
 2 = --- I 1 + ---------2- cos   – ------
1 2
3 3  3
4J
 3 = --- I 1 + ---------2- cos   + ------
1 2
3 3  3
GENERAL GEOMECHANICS THEORY | 17

here, i0 means tensile stress, and i0 means compressive stress.
The principal stresses can be called in user-defined yield criteria by

referencing the variables solid.sp1, solid.sp2 and solid.sp3.
Tip
Defining the Yield Surface

A yield criterion serves to define the stress condition under which plastic deformation
occurs. Stress paths within the yield surface result in purely recoverable deformations
(elastic behavior), while paths intersecting the yield surface produces both recoverable
and permanent deformations (plastic strains).
In general, the yield surface can be described as
F = f    – fc = 0
where fc can be a constant value (for perfectly plastic materials), or a variable for
strain-hardening materials. The yield surface F is a surface in the space of principal
stresses, for which the elastic regime (F<0) is enclosed.
For brittle materials, the yield surface represents a failure surface, which is a stress
level at which the material collapses instead of deforms plastically.
Some authors define the yield criterion as f ()= fc, while the yield surface
is a isosurface in the space of principal stresses F=0, which can be chosen
2 2
Note for numerical purposes as F = f    – f c = 0 .

Defining Perfectly Plastic Materials
For perfect elastoplastic materials, the yield surface is fixed in the 3D space of principal
stress, and therefore, plastic deformations occur only when the stress path moves on
the yield surface (the regime inside the yield surface is elastic, and stress paths beyond
the yield surface are not allowed).
In general, the yield criterion depends on various parameters. Most of the plasticity
models are based on isotropic assumptions, which require the yield function to be
independent of the chosen coordinate system. This introduces the concept of using the
stress invariants previously defined in Equation 2-1, Equation 2-2, and Equation 2-3.
In this section:
• Von Mises Criterion

• Tresca Criterion
Von Mises Criterion

The von Mises criterion suggests that the yielding of the material begins when the
second deviatoric stress invariant J2 reaches a critical value. This criterion can be
written in terms of the elements of Cauchy’s stress tensor (Ref. 1)
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
J 2 = ---    11 –  22  +   22 –  33  +   33 –  11   +  12 +  23 +  13 = k 2
6
or equivalently J2 = k .
The von Mises criterion is implemented in the Structural Mechanics Module as
F = 3J 2 –  ys = 0
where ys is the yield stress level (yield stress in uniaxial tension).
The effective or von Mises stress (  mises = 3J 2 ) is available in the

variable solid.mises.
Tip
DEFINING PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIALS | 19

Tresca Criterion
Tresca yield surface is normally expressed in terms of the principal stress components
1
--- max   1 –  2   1 –  3   2 –  3  = k
2
Tresca criterion is a hexagonal prism with axis equally inclined to the three principal
stress axes. When the principal stresses fulfill 123, this criterion can be written
as
1
---   1 –  3  = k
2
By using the representation of principal stresses in term of the invariants J2 and the
Lode angle 03, this criterion can alternatively be written as
4J
--- ---------2-  cos    – cos   + 2
------  = 
J 2 sin   + --- = k
1
2 3   3   3
or equivalently

J 2 cos   – --- = k
 6
The maximum shear stress is reached at the meridians (=0 or =). Tresca
criterion can be circumscribed by setting the Lode angle =0, or equivalently, by a
von Mises criterion
3J 2 = 2k
The minimum shear is reached at=, so the Tresca criterion can be inscribed by
setting a von Mises criterion
J2 = k
When dealing with soils, the parameter k is also called undrained shear strength.
Tresca effective stress, tresca=13 is implemented in the Structural

Mechanics Module with the variable solid.tresca.
Tip


Upper limit
Lower limit
Figure 2-1: The upper and lower limits of Tresca criterion.
Figure 2-2: Classical yield criteria for metals. Left: Tresca criterion. Right: von Mises
criterion.
The von Mises and Tresca criteria are independent of the first stress invariant I1 and
are mainly used for the analysis of plastic deformation in metals and ductile materials,
though some researchers use these criteria for describing fully saturated cohesive soils
(that is, clays) under undrained conditions.
DEFINING PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIALS | 21

Plasticity Models for Soils
In this section:
• Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
• Drucker-Prager Criterion
• Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
• Lade-Duncan Criterion
• Tension Cut-Off
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb criterion is the most popular criterion in soil mechanics. It was
developed by Coulomb before Tresca and von Mises criteria for metals, and it was the
first criterion to account for the hydrostatic pressure. The criterion states that failure
occurs when the shear stress and the normal stress acting on any element in the
material satisfy the equation
 +  tan  – c = 0
here, is the shear stress, c the cohesion, anddenotes the angle of internal friction.
With the help of Mohr’s circle, this criterion can be written as
1 1
---   1 –  3  + ---   1 +  3  sin  – c cos  = 0
2 2
Mohr-Coulomb criterion defines an irregular hexagon pyramid in the space of

principal stresses, which generates singularities in the derivatives of the yield function.

ia n
rid
me
an
ile
i
rid
ns
me
Te
si ve
p res
m
Co
Figure 2-3: The Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I1 and J2 and
the Lode angle 03 (Ref. 1, Ref. 9) when the principal stresses are sorted as
123, the yield function then reads
J
F y = --- I 1 sin  + -----2-   1 + sin   cos  –  1 – sin   cos   + ------  – c cos  = 0
1 2
3 3  3 
The tensile meridian is defined when =and the compressive meridian when =
.
Rearranging terms, Mohr-Coulomb criterion reads
Fy = J 2 m    + I 1 – k = 0
where
m    = cos   –   6  – 1  3 sin  sin   –   6  ,  = sin   3 , and k = c cos 
In the special case of frictionless material, (=0, =0, k=c), the Mohr-Coulomb
criterion reduces to Tresca’s maximum shear stress criterion, 13=2k or
equivalently

Fy = J 2 cos   – --- – k = 0
 6
PLASTICITY MODELS FOR SOILS | 23

Drucker-Prager Criterion
Mohr-Coulomb criterion causes numerical difficulties when treating the plastic flow at
the corners of the yield surface. The Drucker-Prager model neglects the influence of
the invariant J3 (introduced by the Lode angle) on the cross-sectional shape of the
yield surface. It can be considered as the first attempt to approximate the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion by a smooth function based on the invariants I1 and J2
together with two material constants (which can be related to Mohr-Coulomb’s
coefficients)
Fy = J 2 + I 1 – k = 0
This is sometimes also called extended von Mises criterion, since it is equivalent to
von-Mises criterion for metals when setting =
Figure 2-4: The Drucker-Prager criterion.
The coefficients in the Drucker-Prager model can be matched to the coefficients in the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion by
2 sin  2 3c cos 
 = -------  -------------------------- and k = ---------------------------
3  3  sin    3  sin  
The symbol ± is related to either matching the tensile meridian (positive sign) or the
compressive meridian (negative sign) of Mohr-Coulomb’s pyramid.
The matching at the tensile meridian (=) comes from setting
m  0  =  3 + sin     2 3 

in Mohr-Coulomb criterion, and the matching at the compressive meridian (=)
from setting
m    3  =  3 – sin     2 3 
Compressive meridian Tensile meridian
Figure 2-5: The Drucker-Prager criterion showing the tensile and compressive meridians
(inner and outer circles), and the Lode angle compared to the cross section of
Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the -plane.
In the special case of frictionless material, (=0, =0, k = 2c  3 ), the Drucker

-Prager criterion reduces to von Mises criterion
J 2 = 2c  3
When matching Drucker-Prager criterion to Mohr-Coulomb criterion in 2D

plane-strain applications, the parameters are
tan  3c
 = ------------------------------------ and k = ------------------------------------
2 2
9 + 12 tan  9 + 12 tan 
and when matching both criteria in 2D plane-stress applications, the matching

parameters are:
1 2
 = -------  sin  and k = -------  c cos 
3 3

ELLIPTIC CAP
Both Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager criteria portray a conic yield surface which
opens in the hydrostatic axis direction. Normally, these soil models are not accurate
above a given limit pressure because real-life materials cannot bear infinite loads and
still behave elastically. A simpler way to overcome this problem is to add an elliptical
end-cap to these soil models.
The elliptic cap is an elliptic yield surface of a semi-axes as shown in Figure 2-6. The
initial pressure pa (SI units: Pa) denotes the pressure at which the elastic range
circumscribed by either a Mohr-Coulomb pyramid or a Drucker-Prager cone is not
valid any longer, so a cap surface is added. The limit pressure pb gives the curvature of
the ellipse, and denotes the maximum admissible hydrostatic pressure for which the
material starts deforming plastically. Pressures higher than pb are not allowed
pa pb p
Figure 2-6: Elliptic cap model in Haigh–Westergaard coordinate system.
Note that the sign convention for the pressure is taken from the Structural Mechanics
Module: positive sign under compression, so pa and pb are positive parameters.
Figure 2-6 shows the cap in terms of the variables
q = 3J 2    and p = – I 1     3
Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
Matsuoka and Nakai (Ref. 3) discovered that the sliding of soil particles occurs in the
plane in which the ratio of shear stress to normal stress has its maximum value, which
they called the mobilized plane. They defined the yield surface as

F y =  9 + 9 2 I 3 – I 1 I 2 = 0
where the parameter =/nSTP equals the maximum ratio between shear stress
and normal stress in the spatially mobilized plane (STP-plane), and the invariants are
applied over the effective stress tensor (this is the Cauchy stress tensor minus the fluid
pore pressure).
Matsuoka-Nakai criterion circumscribes Mohr-Coulomb criterion in dry soils, when
2 2
 = ----------- tan 
3
and  denotes the angle of internal friction in Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
Figure 2-7: The Matsuoka-Nakai criterion and Mohr-Coulomb criterion in the principal
stress space.
Lade-Duncan Criterion
The Lade-Duncan criterion was originally developed to model a large volume of
laboratory sample test data of cohesionless soils. This criterion is defined as
3
F y = kI 3 – I 1 = 0
where I1 and I3 are the first and third stress invariants respectively, and k is a parameter
related to the direction of the plastic strain increment in the triaxial plane. The
parameter k can vary from 27 for hydrostatic stress conditions (1=2=3), up to a
critical value kc at failure. In terms of the invariant I1, J2 and J3, this criterion can be
written as

F y = J 3 – --- I 1 J 2 +  ------ – --- I 1 = 0
1 1 1 3
3 27 k
Lade-Duncan criterion can be fitted to the compressive meridian of Mohr-Coulomb

surface, by choosing
k =  3 – sin   3 /  cos  2   1 – sin   
with  as the angle of internal friction in Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
Lade-Duncan
Matsuoka-Nakai
Mohr-Coulomb
Figure 2-8: Comparing the Mohr-Coulomb, Matsuoka-Nakai, and Lade-Duncan

criteria when matching the tensile meridian.
The Lade-Duncan criterion does not match Mohr-Coulomb criterion

(nor Matsuoka-Nakai criterion) at the tensile meridian.
Note
Tension Cut-Off
It appears that both Mohr-Coulomb and Drucker-Prager criteria predict tensile
strengths larger than the experimental measurements on soil samples. This discordance
can be accounted by the introduction of the Rankine or tension cut-off criterion.
The Rankine criterion states that a material stops deforming elastically when the
biggest principal stress 1 reaches a maximum tensile stress, also called tension cut-off
limit t.
In terms of the principal stress, Rankine criterion reads
F = 1 – t = 0

For soils and clays, the maximum tensile stress can be estimated from the material
parameters, such as the cohesion c and the friction angle  For instance, the tip of the
cone in Mohr-Coulomb criterion is reached when
cos 
 1 = c ------------
sin 
therefore, the tension cut-off should be chosen such as
cos 
 t  c ------------
sin 
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion together with a tension cut-off is sometimes called

modified Mohr-Coulomb criterion (Ref. 19).
Tension cut-off is also available with Concrete material models.

Note

Theory for the Cam-Clay Material
In this section:
• About the Cam-Clay Material

• Volumetric Elastic Behavior
• Hardening and Softening
• Including Pore Fluid Pressure
About the Cam-Clay Material

The Cam-clay material model was developed at the University of Cambridge in the
1970s, and since then it has experienced different modifications. The modified
Cam-clay model is the most commonly used due to the smooth yield surface, and it is
the one implemented in the Geomechanics Module.
The Cam-clay model is a so-called critical state model, where the loading and
unloading of the material follows different trajectories in stress space. The model also
features hardening and softening of clays. Different formulations can be found in
textbooks about these models (see Ref. 13, 14, and 15).
The yield function is written in terms of the variables
q = 3J 2    and p = – I 1     3
following the Structural Mechanics Module sign convention:
F y = q 2 + M 2  p – p c p = 0
This is an ellipse in p-q plane, with a cross section independent of Lode angle and
smooth for differentiation. Note that p, q and pc are always positive variables.
The material parameter M0 defines the slope of a line in the p-q space called critical
state line, and it can be related to the angle of internal friction  in Mohr-Coulomb
criterion
6 sin   
M = --------------------------
3 – sin   

q = Mp
q
Critical state line
softening
hardening
Nonlinear elastic region
pc/2 pc p
Figure 2-9: Modified Cam-clay surface in the p-q plane. The ellipse circumscribes a
nonlinear elastic region.
In the Cam-clay model, hardening is controlled by the consolidation pressure pc,

which depends exponentially on the volumetric plastic strain pvol.
– B p  pvol
p c = p c0 e (2-4)
The volumetric plastic strain is available in the variable solid.epvol and

the consolidation pressure in the variable solid.Pc.
Tip
Here, the parameter pc0 is the initial consolidation pressure, and the exponent Bp is
a parameter which depends on the initial void ratio e0, the swelling index , and the
compression index 
1 + e0
B p = ---------------
–
The initial void ratio, the compression index, and the swelling index are all positive
parameters and must fulfill
0     , so B p  0
THEORY FOR THE CAM-CLAY MATERIAL | 31

The void ratio e is the ratio between pore volume and solid volume. It can
be written in terms of the porosity  as e=  /(1  ).
Tip
In this formulation, the compression index  is the slope of the virgin isotropic
consolidation line, and  is the slope of the rebound-reloading line (also called
loading-reloading line) in the e versus ln(p) plane.
e
N


ln(prefN) ln(pC0) ln(p)
Figure 2-10: Slopes of the virgin isotropic consolidation line, and rebound-reloading line
in the e vs. ln(p) plane.
If an Initial Stress and Strain subnode is added to the Cam-clay material,

the initial consolidation pressure pc0 must be made equal or bigger than
one third of minus the trace of the initial stress tensor, otherwise the
Note
initial stress state is outside the Cam-clay ellipse.
Volumetric Elastic Behavior

The stress-strain relation beyond the elastic range is of great importance in soil
mechanics. For additive decomposition of strains, Cauchy’s stress tensor is written as
 –  0 = C:   –  0 –  th –  p –  c 
Here,  is the Cauchy stress tensor,  is the total strain tensor, 0 and 0 are the initial
stress and strain tensors, th is the thermal strain tensor, p is the plastic strain tensor,
c is the creep strain tensor, and, C is the fourth-order elasticity tensor.

For a linear elastic material, the trace of the Cauchy’s stress tensor is linearly related to
the volumetric elastic strain (the trace of the elastic strain tensor) by the elastic bulk
modulus
p = – I 1     3 = p 0 – K elvol
here p0=trace0/3 is the trace of the initial stress tensor 0, and K is the bulk
modulus, a constant parameter independent of the stress or strain.
The elastic volumetric strain is available in the variable solid.eelvol.

Tip
The modified Cam-clay model introduces a nonlinear relation between stress and
volumetric elastic strain
– B e  elvol 1 + e0
p – p0 = –K0 e with B e = ---------------

and K0 a reference bulk modulus. This formulation gives a tangent bulk modulus
KTBep. The reference bulk modulus is calculated from the initial consolidation
pressure pc0, and the void ratio at reference pressure N.
Hardening and Softening

The yield surface for the modified Cam-clay model reads
F y = q 2 + M 2  p – p c p = 0
The associated flow rule (Qp=Fy) and the yield surface written in terms of these two
invariants, Fy(I1, J2), gives a rate equation for the plastic strain tensor calculated from
the derivatives of Fy with respect to the stress tensor 
Q p Q p I 1 Q p J 2
 p =  p ---------- =  p  ---------- -------- + ---------- ---------
·
  I 1  J 2  
Here, p means the plastic multiplier, see Plastic Flow for Small Strains
and Hardening Models.
Note
THEORY FOR THE CAM-CLAY MATERIAL | 33

The plastic strain rate tensor · p includes both deviatoric and isotropic parts. Note that
I 1   = I and J 2   = dev   
These relations can be used for writing the plastic flow as
1 Q p Q p 3
 p =  p  – --- ---------- I + ---------- ------- dev    =  p  – --- M 2  2p – p c  I + 3dev   
· 1
 3 p q 2q   3 
The trace of the plastic strain rate tensor (the volumetric plastic strain rate · pvol )
then reads
· ·
 pvol = trace   p  =  p  – M 2  2p – p c  
This relation explains the reason why there is isotropic hardening for p>pc/2 and
isotropic softening for p<pc/2.
In the Cam-clay model, the hardening is controlled by the consolidation pressure

variable p c   pvol  as a function of volumetric plastic strain, as written in Equation 2-4.
Hardening introduces changes in the shape of the Cam-clay ellipse, since its mayor
semi axis depends on the value of pc.
Including Pore Fluid Pressure

When a pore fluid pressure pf is added to the Cam-clay material, the yield surface is
shifted on the p axis
Fy = q 2 + M 2  p – pf – pc   p – pf  = 0
The quantity ppf is normally regarded as the effective pressure, or effective stress.

Failure Criteria for Concrete, Rocks,
a nd O t he r B r i t t l e Mat eri al s
In this section:
• Bresler-Pister Criterion
• Willam-Warnke Criterion
• Ottosen Criterion
• Original Hoek-Brown Criterion
• Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion
Bresler-Pister Criterion
The Bresler-Pister criterion (Ref. 2) was originally devised to predict the strength of
concrete under multiaxial stresses. This failure criterion is an extension of the
Drucker-Prager criterion to brittle materials and can be expressed in terms of the stress
invariants as
2
Fy = J2 + k1 I1 + k2 I1 + k3 = 0 (2-5)
here, k1, k2, and k3 are material parameters.
This criterion can also be written (Ref. 17) in term of the uniaxial compressive strength
fc and the octahedral normal and shear stresses
 oct = I 1 /3 and  oct = 2J 2 /3
so Equation 2-5 simplifies to
 oct  oct  oct

2
F y = --------- – a + b ---------- – c ---------
- = 0
fc fc f c2
here, the parameters a, b, and c are obtained from the uniaxial compression, uniaxial
tension and biaxial compression tests. The octahedral normal stress octis considered
positive when tensile, and fc is taken positive.
FAILURE CRITERIA FOR CONCRETE, ROCKS, AND OTHER BRITTLE MATERIALS | 35

Willam-Warnke Criterion
The Willam-Warnke criterion (Ref. 10) is used to predict failure in concrete and other
cohesive-frictional materials such as rock, soil, and ceramics. The same as for the
Bresler-Pister criterion, it depends only on three parameters. It was developed to
describe initial concrete failure under triaxial conditions. The failure surface is convex,
continuously differentiable and it is fitted to test data in the low compression range.
The material is considered perfect elastoplastic (no hardening).
The original “three-parameter” Willam-Warnke failure criterion was defined as
 oct
--- --------- + r      --- – ----  oct – 1 = 0
3 1 1 (2-6)
Fy =
5 fc   f t f b 
here, fc is the uniaxial compressive strength, ft is uniaxial tensile strength, and fb is

obtained from the biaxial compression test. All parameters are positive. The octahedral
normal and shear stresses are defined as usual
 oct = I 1 /3 , and  oct = 2J 2 /3
This can be written as
--- r     ------ I 1 – f c = 0
1
Fy = J2 + 5
2  3 
with
 = fb ft /  fb fc – ft fc 
The function r( describes the segment of an ellipse on the octahedral plane when
0      3 . By using the Lode angle , the dimensionless function r( is defined as
2
2r c  r c2 – r t2  cos  + r c  2r t – r c  4  r c2 – r t2  cos  + 5r t2 – 4 r c r t
r    = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
-
4  r c2 – r t2  cos  +  r c – 2r t  2
Here, the tensile and compressive meridian rt and rc are defined in terms of the positive
parameters fc, fb, and ft:
fb ft
rt = 6
--- ----------------------------
5 2f b f c + f t f c

fb ft
rc = 6
--- -------------------------------------------
5 3f b f t + f b f c – f t f c
The function r( can be interpreted as the friction angle which depends on the Lode
angle (Ref. 10).

rc
r 
rt
Figure 2-11: The deviatoric section of Willam-Warnke failure criterion.
Ottosen Criterion
The Ottosen criterion is a four-parameter failure criterion proposed for short-time
loading of concrete. It corresponds to a smooth convex failure surface with curved
meridians, which open in the negative direction of the hydrostatic axis. The trace in
the deviatoric plane changes from almost triangular to a more circular shape with
increasing hydrostatic pressure. The criterion is in agreement with experimental results
over a wide range of stress states, including both triaxial tests along the tensile and the
compressive meridian and biaxial tests (Ref. 18).
Ottosen criterion is commonly written as (Ref. 17, Ref. 18):
a
F y = ---- J 2 +     J 2 + bI 1 – f c = 0
fc

In this formulation, the parameters a>0, b>0, k1>0 and k2>0 are dimensionless, fc>0
is the uniaxial compressive strength of concrete (with a positive sign), and the function
     0 (dimensionless) is defined as

 k cos  1 --- acos  k 2 cos  3   J3  0
 1 3 

 = 

  1 
 k 1 cos  --3- – --3- acos  – k 2 cos  3   J 3  0,

The parameter k1 is called the size factor. The parameter k2 (also called shape factor)
is positive and bounded to 0k21(Ref. 17, Ref. 18).
Typical values for these parameters are obtained by curve-fitting the uniaxial
compressive strength fc, uniaxial tensile strength ft, and from the biaxial and triaxial
data (for instance, typical biaxial compressive strength of concrete is 16% higher than
the uniaxial compressive strength). The parameters fc, fb, and ft are positive.
TABLE 2-1: TYPICAL PARAMETER VALUES FOR OTTOSEN FAILURE CRITERION ( Ref. 18).
FT/ FC A B K1 K2 T C
0.08 1.8076 4.0962 14.4863 0.9914 14.4725 7.7834

0.10 1.2759 3.1962 11.7365 0.9801 11.7109 6.5315
0.12 0.9218 2.5969 9.9110 0.9647 9.8720 5.6979
The compressive and tensile meridians (as defined in Willam-Warnke criterion) are
1 1
r c = ----- = -------------------
 c   /3 
1 1
r t = ----- = -----------
t   0 
For concrete, the ratio
 c / t = r t /r c

normally lies between 0.54~0.58.
Ottosen criterion is equivalent to Drucker-Prager when a = 0 and

= constant.
Note
Original Hoek-Brown Criterion

Hoek-Brown criterion is an empirical type of model which is commonly used when
dealing with rock masses of variable quality. The Hoek-Brown criterion is widely used
within civil engineering and is popular due to the fact that the material parameters can
be estimated based on simple field observations together with knowledge of the
uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock material. The Hoek–Brown criterion
is one of the few nonlinear criteria widely accepted and used by engineers to estimate
the yield and failure of rock masses. The original Hoek-Brown failure criterion states
(Ref. 5)
 1 =  3 + m c  3 + s c2
where 1230 are the principal stresses at failure (as defined in geotechnical
engineering, this is, absolute value), c is the uniaxial compressive strength of the
intact rock (positive parameter), and m and s are positive material parameters.
If the expression is converted into to the sign convention for principal stresses in the
Structural Mechanics Module, it becomes
 1 =  3 + – m c  1 + s c2
with c, m, and s positive material parameters. (In this case, note that 1 sc/m).
As developed originally, there is no relation between the parameters m and s and the
physical characteristics of a rock mass measured in laboratory tests. However, for intact
rock, s1 and mmi, which is measured in a triaxial test.

For jointed rock masses, 0s1 and mmi. The parameter m usually lies in the
range 5m30 (Ref. 7).
TABLE 2-2: CHARACTERISTIC VALUES FOR DIFFERENT ROCK TYPES
m ROCK TYPE
5 Carbonate rocks, dolomite, limestone

10 Consolidated rocks, mudstone, shale
15 Sandstone
20 Fine grained rocks
25 Coarse grained rocks
Hoek-Brown criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I1 and J2 and the Lode
angle 03, so
 m 1
F y = 2 J 2 sin   + --- –  c – ------------ + s = 0
 3 c
Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion

The generalized Hoek-Brown criterion was developed in order to fit the Geological
Strength Index (GSI) classification of isotropic rock masses (Ref. 6). A new
relationship between GSI, m, s and the newly introduced parameter a was developed,
to give a smoother transition between very poor quality rock masses (GSI<25) and
stronger rocks
mb 1 a
 1 –  3 =  c  – -------------- + s
 c 
In term of the invariants J2 and the Lode angle
03
this equals
 mb 1 a
F y = 2 J 2 sin   + --- –  c  – -------------- + s = 0
3  c 
where 123 are the principal stresses (using the Structural Mechanics Module
conventions) of the effective stress tensor (this is, the Cauchy tensor minus the fluid
pore pressure).

The positive parameter mb is a reduced value of the material constant mi:
m b = m i exp  --------------------------
GSI – 100
 28 – 14D 
s and a are positive parameters for the rock mass given by the following relationships:
s = exp  --------------------------
GSI – 100
 9 – 3D 
a = --- + ---  exp  ------------- – exp  --------- 

1 1 – GSI – 20
2 6 15 3
The disturbance factor D was introduced to account for the effects of stress relaxation
and blast damage, and it varies from 0 for undisturbed in-situ rock masses to 1 for very
damaged rock masses.
TABLE 2-3: DISTURBANCE FACTOR IN ROCK MASSES
D DESCRIPTION OF ROCK MASS
0 Undisturbed rock mass

0~0.5 Poor quality rock mass
0.8 Damaged rock mass
1.0 Severely damaged rock mass
The Hoek-Brown generalized criterion can be written in terms of the invariants I1, J2,
and the Lode angle 03 to
  mb I1 4J a
F y = 2 J 2 sin   + --- –  c  – --------  ----- + ---------2- cos    + s = 0
3  c 3 3 

Elastoplastic Material Theory
In this section:
• Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains

• Plastic Flow for Small Strains
• Isotropic Plasticity
• Yield Function
• Hardening Models
• Plastic Flow for Large Strains
• Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions
• References for Elastoplastic Materials
Working with the Geomechanics Materials

See Also
Introduction to Small and Large Plastic Strains

There are two implementations of plasticity in COMSOL Multiphysics. One is based
on the additive decomposition of strains, which is the most suitable approach in the
case of small strains, and the other is based on the multiplicative decomposition of the
deformation gradient, which is more suitable when large plastic strains occurs.
The additive decomposition of strains is used when small plastic strain is selected as
the plasticity model. The stress-strain relationship is then written as
 –  0 = C:   –  0 –  th –  p –  c 
Here:
•  is the Cauchy stress tensor

•  is the total strain tensor
• 0 and 0 are the initial stress and strain tensors
• th is the thermal strain tensor
• p is the plastic strain tensor

• c is the creep strain tensor, and
• C is the fourth-order elasticity tensor.
When Small plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the
Plasticity node, and the Include geometric nonlinearity check box is
selected on the study settings window, the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress
Note is used instead of the Cauchy stress, and the additive decomposition of
strains is understood as the summation of Green-Lagrange strains.
The elastic strain tensor is computed by removing inelastic and initial strains from the
total strain tensor
 el =  –  0 –  th –  p –  c
In the special case of zero initial strains and no creep or thermal expansion, the elastic
strain tensor simplifies to
 el =  –  p
If  or p are large, the additive decomposition might produce incorrect results,

however, the additive decomposition of strains is widely use for metal and soil
plasticity.
On the other hand, when large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model, the
total deformation gradient tensor is multiplicatively decomposed into elastic
deformation gradient and plastic deformation gradient
F = F el F p (2-7)
The plastic deformation is removed from the total deformation gradient, the elastic
Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the elastic deformation gradient tensor
Fel=FFp-1
1 T
 el = ---  F el F el – I 
2
and the plastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the plastic deformation
gradient tensor
1 T
 p = ---  F p F p – I 
2
ELASTOPLASTIC MATERIAL THEORY | 43

As opposed to the small strain formulation, the total, plastic and elastic
Green-Lagrange strain tensors are related as
–T –1
 el = F p   –  p F p
Under multiplicative decomposition, the elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor and the
plastic right Cauchy-Green tensor are defined as
T T
C el = F el F el and C p = F p F p
When Large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the
Plasticity node, the Include geometric nonlinearity check box in the study
Note settings is automatically selected and grayed out.
Plastic Flow for Small Strains

The flow rule defines the relationship between the increment of the plastic strain
tensor · p and the current state of stress, for a yielded element subject to further
loading. When Small plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the Plasticity
node, the direction of the plastic strain increment is defined by
· Q p
 p =  ----------

Here, is a positive multiplier (also called the consistency parameter or plastic
multiplier) which depends on the current state of stress and the load history, and Qp
is the plastic potential.
The “dot” (for · p ) means the rate at which the plastic strain tensor
changes with respect to Qp/. It does not represent a true time
Note derivative. Some authors call this formulation rate independent plasticity.
The direction of the plastic strain increment · p is perpendicular to the surface (in the
space of principal stresses) defined by the plastic potential Qp.
The plastic multiplier  is determined by the complementarity or Kuhn-Tucker

conditions

  0 , F y  0 and F y = 0 (2-8)
where Fy is the yield surface. The yield surface encloses the elastic region defined by
Fy<0. Plastic flow occurs when Fy=0.
If the plastic potential and the yield surface coincide with each other Qp=Fy, the
flow rule is called associated, and the rate in Equation 2-9 is solved together with the
conditions in Equation 2-8.
· F y
 p =  --------- (2-9)

For a non-associated flow rule, the yield function does not coincide with the plastic
potential, and together with the conditions in Equation 2-8, the rate in Equation 2-10
is solved for the plastic potential Qp (normally, a smoothed version of Fy).
· Q p
 p =  ---------- (2-10)

The evolution of the plastic strain tensor · p (with either Equation 2-9 or
Equation 2-10, plus the conditions in Equation 2-8) is implemented at Gauss points
in the plastic element elplastic.
Isotropic Plasticity
For isotropic plasticity, the plastic potential Qp is written in terms of at most three
invariants of Cauchy’s stress tensor
Q p    = Q p  I 1    J 2    J 3    
were the invariants of the stress tensor are
I 1    = trace   
1
J 2    = --- dev   :dev   
2
J 3    = det  dev    
so the increment of the plastic strain tensor · p can be decomposed into
Q p Q p I 1 Q p J 2 Q p J 3
 p =  ---------- =   ---------- -------- + ---------- --------- + ---------- ---------
·
  I 1  J 2  J 3  

The increment in the plastic strain tensor · p includes in a general case both deviatoric
and volumetric parts. The tensor · p is symmetric given the following properties
I 1
-------- = I

J (2-11)
---------2 = dev   

J 3
--------- = dev   dev    – 2
--- J 2 I
 3
A common measure of inelastic deformation is the effective plastic strain rate, which
is defined as
· 2
 pe = --- · p :· p (2-12)
3
The trace of the incremental plastic strain tensor, which is called the volumetric plastic
strain rate · pvol , relies only on the dependency of the plastic potential to the first
invariant I1(), sinceJ2/ and J3/ are deviatoric tensors
Q p Q p
 pvol = trace   p  =  trace  ---------- = 3 ----------
· ·
 I 1
For metal plasticity under the von Mises and Tresca criteria, the volumetric plastic
strain rate is always zero, since the plastic potential is independent of the invariant
I1. This is known as J2 plasticity.
However, this is not the case for most materials used in geotechnical applications. For
instance, a nonzero volumetric plastic strain is explicitly used in the Cam-Clay material.
Plasticity
See Also
The effective plastic strain and the volumetric plastic strain are available in
the variables solid.epe and solid.epvol.
Tip

Yield Function
When associate flow rule is applied, the yield function must be smooth, that is,
continuously differentiable with respect to the stress. In COMSOL Multiphysics, the
following form is used:
F y =     –  ys
where ys is the yield stress.
The predefined form of the effective stress is the von Mises stress, which is
commonly used in metal plasticity:
3
 mises = --- dev   :dev    = 3J 2   
2
Other expressions can be defined, such as Tresca stress or another user defined
expression.
Tresca stress is calculated from the difference between the largest and the smallest
principal stress
 tresca =  1 –  3
A user defined yield function can by expressed in terms of invariant of the stress tensor,
such as the pressure (volumetric stress)
1
p = – --- I 1   
3
the effective (von Mises) stress mises, or other invariants, principal stresses, or stress
tensor components.
Plasticity
See Also

Hardening Models
The plasticity model implements three different kinds of hardening models for
elastoplastic materials:
• Perfect plasticity (no hardening)

• Isotropic hardening
• Kinematic hardening
PERFECT (OR IDEAL) PLASTICITY

In this case the algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow rule for
the plastic potential Qp
· Q p
 p =  ----------

with the yield function
F y =     –  ys0
The yield function section is where the effective stress is specified from either a
von Mises stress, a Tresca stress, or other user defined expression.
Plasticity node, either the associate or non-associated flow rule is applied
Note as written in Equation 2-15.
ISOTROPIC HARDENING
In this case the algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow rule for
the plastic potential Qp
· Q p
 p =  ----------

with the yield function
F y =     –  ys   pe 
where pe is the effective plastic strain. The variable yspe is the yield stress, which
now depends on the effective plastic strain. The yield stress versus the effective plastic

strain can be specified in two different ways — tangent data (linear isotropic
hardening), or hardening function data.
Tangent Data (Linear Isotropic Hardening)

In this case, an isotropic tangent modulus ETiso is given. This tangent modulus is
defined as (stress increment / total strain increment), and it relates the hardening to
the effective plastic strain linearly. The yield stress yspe is a linear function of the
effective plastic strain
 ys   pe  =  ys0 +  h   pe 
 
 E Tiso 
with  h   pe  = k pe and k =  -----------------------
-
 E Tiso
 1 – -------------
E 
-
here, ys0 is the initial yield stress, and k is the isotropic hardening modulus. A value
for ETiso is entered in the isotropic tangent modulus section for the Plasticity node.
The Young’s modulus E is taken from the linear elastic material. For orthotropic and
anisotropic elastic materials, E represents an average Young’s modulus.
Hardening Function Data

In this case, define the (usually nonlinear) hardening function hpe such that the
yields stress reads
 ys   pe  =  ys0 +  h   pe 
This is the preferred way to define nonlinear hardening models.

Tip
The internal variable for the effective plastic strain is named solid.epe.
The effective plastic strain evaluated at Gauss points is named
Note solid.epeGp.

Plasticity node, either the associate or non-associated flow rule is applied
Note as written in Equation 2-15.
KINEMATIC HARDENING
The algorithm solves either the associated or non-associated flow rule for the plastic
potential Qp
· Q p
 p =  ----------

with the yield function defined as
F y =    –  shift  –  ys0 and  shift = f   p 
Here, ys0 is the initial yield stress, and the effective stress is either the von Mises
stress or another user defined expression.
The stress tensor used in the yield function is shifted by what is usually called the back
stress, shift. The back stress is generally not only a function of the current plastic strain
but also of its history. In the case of linear kinematic hardening, f p is a linear
function of the plastic strain tensor p, this is also known as Prager’s hardening rule.
The implementation of kinematic hardening assumes a linear evolution of the back
stress tensor with respect to the plastic strain tensor:
 shift = c p
where the work hardening constant is calculated from
 
2  E Tkin 
c = ---  -------------------------
3 E Tkin
 1 – ---------------
E 

The value for ETkin is entered in the kinematic tangent modulus section and the
Young’s modulus E is taken from the linear elastic material model. For orthotropic and
anisotropic elastic materials, E represents an average Young’s modulus.
When kinematic hardening is added, both the the plastic potential and the
yield surface are calculated with effective invariants, that is, the invariants
of the tensor defined by the difference between the stress tensor minus
the back-stress. The effective invariant of deviatoric tensor is named
Note
solid.II2sEff, which is used when von Mises plasticity is used together
with kinematic hardening.
Plastic Flow for Large Strains

When Large plastic strain is selected as the plasticity model for the Plasticity node, and
using a multiplicative decomposition of deformation (Ref. 1, Ref. 2, and Ref. 3), the
associated plastic flow rule can be written as the Lie derivative of the elastic left
Cauchy-Green deformation tensor Bel:
1 
– --- L  B el  =  ------- B el (2-13)
2 
The plastic multiplier  and the yield function  (written in terms of Kirchhoff stress
tensor ) satisfy the Kuhn-Tucker condition, as done for infinitesimal strain plasticity
  0 ,   0 and  = 0
The yield function in Ref. 1 and Ref. 2 was written in terms of
Kirchhoff stress and not Cauchy stress because the authors defined the
plastic dissipation with the conjugate energy pair  and d, where d is the
Note
rate of strain tensor.
The Lie derivative of Bel is then written in terms of the plastic right Cauchy-Green rate
·
L  B el  = FC p– 1 F T (2-14)
By using Equation 2-13 and Equation 2-14the either associated or non-associated

plastic flow rule for large strains is written as (Ref. 2)

1 · Q p
– --- FC p–1 F T =  ---------- B el (2-15)
2 
together with the Kuhn-Tucker conditions for the plastic multiplier  and the yield
function Fy
  0 , F y  0 and F y = 0 (2-16)
For the associated flow rule, the plastic potential and the yield surface coincide with
each other (Qp=Fy), and for the non-associated case, the yield function does not
coincide with the plastic potential.
In COMSOL Multiphysics, the elastic left Cauchy-Green tensor is written in terms of

the deformation gradient and the right Cauchy-Green tensor, so Bel=FCp-1F. The
plastic flow rule is then solved at Gauss points in the plastic element elplastic for the
inverse of the plastic deformation gradient Fp-1, so the variables in Equation 2-15 are
replaced by
· · · T = FF – 1 F – T F T
C p– 1 = F p– 1 F p–T + F p–1 F p– T and B el = F el F el p p
The flow rule then reads
1 · · Q p
– ---  F p– 1 F p– T + F p– 1 F p–T  = F –1 ---------- FF p– 1 F p–T (2-17)
2 
After integrating the flow rule in Equation 2-17, the plastic Green-Lagrange strain
tensor is computed from the plastic deformation tensor
1 T
 p = ---  F p F p – I 
2
and the elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor is computed from the elastic deformation
gradient tensor Fel=FFp-1
1 T
 el = ---  F el F el – I 
2
Plasticity node, the effective plastic strain variable is computed as the true
Note effective plastic strain (also called Hencky or logarithmic plastic strain).

Numerical Solution of the Elastoplastic Conditions
A backward Euler discretization of the (pseudo) time derivative is used in the plastic
flow rule. For small plastic strains, this gives
Q p
 p –  p,old =  ----------

where old denotes the previous time step and  = t , where t is the time step
length. For large plastic strains, Equation 2-17 gives
1 T T T Q p T
– --- F  2MM – M old M – MM old  =  ---------- FMM
2 
–1
where M = F p . For each Gauss point, the plastic state variables (p and M,
respectively) and the plastic multiplier, , are computed by solving the above
time-discretized flow rule together with the complementarity conditions
  0 , F y  0 and F y = 0
This is done as follows (Ref. 1):
• Elastic-predictor: Try the elastic solution  p =  p,old (or M = Mold ) and  = 0 .

If this satisfies F y  0 it is done.
• Plastic-corrector: If the elastic solution does not work (this is F y  0 ), solve the
nonlinear system consisting of the flow rule and the equation F y = 0 using a
damped Newton method.
References for Elastoplastic Materials

1. J. Simo and T. Hughes, Computational Inelasticity. Springer, 1998.
2. J. Simo, “Algorithms for Static and Dynamic Multiplicative Plasticity that Preserve
the Classical Return Mapping Schemes of the Infinitesimal Theory,” Computer
Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 99, pp. 61–112, 1992.
3. J. Lubliner, Plasticity Theory, Dover, 2008.
4. R. Hill, “A Theory of the Yielding and Plastic Flow of Anisotropic Metals,” Proc.
Roy. Soc. London, vol. 193, pp. 281–297, 1948.
5. N. Ottosen and M. Ristinmaa, The Mechanics of Constitutive Modeling, Elsevier

Science, 2005.

Creep and Viscoplasticity
In this section:
• About Creep
• Creep Material Models
Working with the Geomechanics Materials

See Also
About Creep
In the literature, the terms viscoplasticity and creep are often used
interchangeably to refer to the class of problems related to
Note rate-dependent plasticity.
Creep is an inelastic time-dependent deformation that occurs when a material is

subjected to stress (typically much less than the yield stress) at sufficiently high
temperatures.
The creep strain rate, in a general case, depends on stress, temperature, and time,
usually in a nonlinear manner:
·
 c = F cr   T t 
It is often possible to separate these effects as shown in this equation:
F cr   t T  = f 1   f 2  T f 3  t 
Experimental data shows three types of behavior for the creep strain rate at constant
stress as function of time. Researchers normally subdivide the creep curve into three
regimes, based on the fact that many different materials show similar responses:
• In the initial primary creep regime (also called transient creep) the creep strain rate
decreases with time to a minimum steady-state value.

• In the secondary creep regime the creep strain rate is almost constant. This is also
called steady-state creep.
• In the tertiary creep regime the creep strain increases with time until a failure
occurs.
When this distinction is assumed, the total creep rate can be additively split into
primary, secondary, and tertiary creep rates
·
 c = F cr1 + F cr2 + F cr3
In most cases, Fcr1 and Fcr3 depend on stress, temperature and time, while Fcr2
depends only on stress level and temperature. Normally, secondary creep is the
dominant process. Tertiary creep is seldom important because it only accounts for a
small fraction of the total lifetime of a given material.
c
1
primary creep
2
secondary creep tertiary creep
1 >2
log time
Figure 2-12: Uniaxial creep as a function of logarithmic time.
Creep
See Also
CREEP AND VISCOPLASTICITY | 55

Creep Material Models
Despite the fact that the creep response of a given material is related to its atomic
structure, a macroscopic (continuum mechanics) description is normally appropriated
for modeling scientific and engineering problems.
The fundamental mathematical models available for modeling creep in COMSOL are:
• Creep Potential
• Volumetric Creep
• Deviatoric Creep
• User defined Creep
These creep models are contributing subfeatures to the Linear Elastic Material and they
can also be combined with Plasticity and Thermal Expansion subfeatures for more
advanced models.
• Creep
• Plasticity
• See the Solid Mechanics interface in the Structural Mechanics Module
See Also
User’s Guide for details about the Thermal Expansion and Linear Elastic
Material nodes.
To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL, select

Help>Documentation from the main menu and either enter a search term
Tip or look under a specific module in the documentation tree.
CREEP PO TENTIAL
Some authors use a creep potential to describe the secondary creep rate, so the creep
rate is written in a similar way as the flow rule for plasticity:
· Q cr
 c =  ----------- and   0

Here, Qcr is a user defined creep potential, which is normally written in terms of
invariants of the stress tensor.
Volumetric creep is obtained when the creep potential depends only on the first
invariant of Cauchy stress tensor, I1, since

Q cr Q cr
----------- = ----------- I
 I 1
This is equivalent to that the creep potential would depend on the pressure pI1.
When the creep potential depends only on the second deviatoric invariant of Cauchy
stress tensor, J2, the deviatoric creep model is obtained since
Q cr Q cr
----------- = ----------- dev   
 J 2
This is equivalent to that the creep potential would depend on the effective stress
e3J2.
When (in SI units) the creep potential, Qcr, is given in units of Pa, the rate multiplier
is given in units of 1/s.
VO L U M E T R I C C R E E P
The creep strain rate is calculated by solving the rate equation
· 1
 c = --- F cr I
3
so the creep rate tensor is a diagonal tensor, and the trace of the creep rate tensor, the
volumetric creep strain rate, equals the user input Fcr
· (2-18)
trace   c  = F cr
The creep rate, Fcr, usually depends on the first invariant of Cauchy stress I1 or the
pressure pI1, in addition to the temperature and other material parameters.
Volumetric creep is not generally used to model creep in metals, but it is commonly
used to model creep in soils or other geological materials.
DEVIATORIC CREEP
·
 c = F cr n D
Here, nD is a deviatoric tensor coaxial to the stress tensor.

The creep rate, Fcr, normally depends on the second deviatoric invariant of the stress
J2 or the effective or von Mises (effective) stress e, in addition to the temperature
and other material parameters.
The deviatoric tensor nD is defined as
3 dev   
n D = --- -----------------
2 e
The resulting creep strain rate tensor is also deviatoric, since trace (nD)
·
trace   c  = F cr trace  n D  = 0
Given the property
3
n D :n D = ---
2
the effective creep strain rate equals the absolute value of the user input Fcr
· 2
 ce = --- · c :· c = F cr
3
Deviatoric creep is very popular to model creep in metals and alloys. For example,
Norton’s law is a deviatoric creep model.
The effective creep strain and the effective creep strain rate are available in
the variables solid.ece and solid.ecet.
Tip
USER DEFINED CREEP

·
 c = F cr
where Fcr is a user-defined symmetric tensor field.
Potential, Volumetric, Deviatoric, or User defined creep do not overwrite

each other. These are all contributing features to the Linear Elastic Material
Note node.

ENERGY DISSIPATION
Since creep is an inelastic process, the dissipated energy density can be calculated by
integrating the creep dissipation rate density (SI unit: W/m3) given by
· ·
W cdr = : c
In case many creep sub-features are added to a Linear Elastic Material node, the creep
dissipation rate density is calculated from the total creep strain rate tensor · c .
The total energy dissipated by creep in a given volume can be calculated by a volume
integration of the dissipated creep energy density Wc (SI unit: J/m3).
The creep dissipation rate density is available under the variable

solid.Wcdr and the dissipated creep energy density under the variable
Note Wc.
• Creep
See Also • Linear Elastic Material in the Structural Mechanics User’s Guide


References for the Geomechanics
Module
1. W.F. Chen and E. Mizuno, Nonlinear Analysis in Soil Mechanics: Theory and
Implementation (Developments in Geotechnical Engineering), 3rd ed., Elsevier
Science, 1990.
2. B. Bresler and K.S. Pister, “Strength of Concrete Under Combined Stresses,” ACI
Journal, vol. 551, no. 9, pp. 321–345, 1958.
3. H. Matsuoka and T. Nakai, “Stress-deformation and Strength Characteristics of Soil

Under Three Different Principal Stresses,” Proc. JSCE, vol. 232, 1974.
4. H. Matsuoka and T. Nakai, “Relationship Among Tresca, Mises, Mohr-Coulomb,

and Matsuoka-Nakai Failure Criteria,” Soils and Foundations, vol. 25, no. 4, pp.123–
128, 1985.
5. H.S. Yu, Plasticity and Geotechnics, Springer, 2006.
6. V. Marinos, P. Marinos, and E. Hoek, “The Geological Strength Index: Applications

and Limitations,” Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ., vol. 64, pp. 55–65, 2005.
7. J. Jaeger, N. G. Cook, and R. Zimmerman, Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics, 4th

ed., Wiley-Blackwell, 2007.
8. G. C. Nayak and O. C. Zienkiewicz, “Convenient Form of Stress Invariants for

Plasticity,” J. Struct. Div. ASCE, vol. 98, pp. 949–954, 1972.
9. A.J. Abbo and S.W. Sloan, “A Smooth Hyperbolic Approximation to the

Mohr-Coulomb Yield Criterion,” Computers and Structures, vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 427–
441, 1995.
10. K. J. Willam and E. P. Warnke, “Constitutive Model for the Triaxial Behavior of
Concrete,” IABSE Reports of the Working Commissions, Colloquium (Bergamo):
Concrete Structures Subjected to Triaxial Stresses, vol. 19, 1974.
11. B. H. G. Brady and E. T. Brown, Rock Mechanics for Underground Mining, 3rd
ed., Springer, 2004.
12. H.A. Taiebat and J.P. Carter, “Flow Rule Effects in the Tresca Model,” Computer
and Geotechnics, vol. 35, pp. 500–503, 2008.

13. A. Stankiewicz and others, “Gradient-enhanced Cam-Clay Model in Simulation of
Strain Localization in Soil,” Foundations of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
no.7, 2006.
14. D. M. Wood, Soil Behaviour and Critical State Soil Mechanics, Cambridge
University Press, 2007.
15. D. M. Potts and L. Zadravkovic, Finite Element Analysis in Geothechnical

Engineering, Thomas Telford, 1999.
16. W. Tiecheng and others, Stress-strain Relation for Concrete Under Triaxial
Loading, 16th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, 2003.
17. W.F. Chen, Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
18. N. Ottosen, “A Failure Criterion for Concrete,” Journal of the Engineering

Mechanics Division, ASCE, vol. 103, no. 4, pp. 527–535, 1977.
19. N. Ottosen and M. Ristinmaa. The Mechanics of Constitutive Modelling. Elsevier,

2005.
REFERENCES FOR THE GEOMECHANICS MODULE | 61

3
The Geomechanics Materials
The Geomechanics Module has materials that are used in combination with the
Solid Mechanics interface to account for the plasticity of soils and failure criteria in
rocks, concrete, and other materials used in geotechnical applications.
In this chapter:
• Working with the Geomechanics Materials

• Geomechanics Materials
63
Working with the Geomechanics
Materials
In this section:
• Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics Interface

• Plasticity
• Soil Plasticity
• Concrete
• Rocks
• Cam-Clay Material
• Creep
• The Output Materials Properties
See Geomechanics Theory for background information about these

materials.
See Also
Adding a Material to a Solid Mechanics Interface

1 Add a Solid Mechanics interface from the Structural Mechanics branch ( ) in the
Model Wizard.
2 In the Model Builder, right-click the Solid Mechanics node ( ) to add a Cam-Clay
Material node. Or right-click the default Linear Elastic Material node to add Soil
Plasticity, Concrete, and Rocks nodes.
Except for the settings described in this section, see The Solid Mechanics
Interface in the Structural Mechanics User’s Guide for details.
Note
64 | CHAPTER 3: THE GEOMECHANICS MATERIALS

The links to the features described in the Structural Mechanics User’s
Guide do not work in the PDF, only from the online help in COMSOL
Important Multiphysics.

Plasticity
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add the Plasticity subnode. It adds the
equations for plasticity in order to make it possible to model elastoplastic materials.
Elastoplastic Material Theory

See Also
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to add plasticity to a linear elastic material
By default, this node inherits the selection from its parent node, and only
a selection that is a subset of the parent node’s selection can be used.
Note
MODEL INPUTS
Use this section to define model inputs such as the temperature field if the material
model uses a temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are
required, this section is empty.
PLASTICITY MODEL
Use this section to define the plastic properties of the material.
Plasticity Model
Select Small plastic strains or Large plastic strains to apply either an additive or
multiplicative decomposition between elastic and plastic strains.
WO R K I N G W I T H T H E G E O M E C H A N I C S M A T E R I A L S | 65
Yield Function F
The Yield function F (SI unit: Pa) defines the limit of the elastic regime Fys0.
Select a Yield function F criterion—von Mises stress (the default), Tresca stress, or User
defined:
• The default is von Mises stress with associate plastic potential.

• Select Tresca stress to use a Tresca yield criterion. The plastic potential is
nonassociated with the von Mises criterion as flow rule.
• If User defined is selected, enter a different value or expression. Write any expression
in terms of the stress tensor variables or its invariants (SI unit: Pa) in the field.
- Also select the Plastic potential Q (SI unit: Pa) related to the flow rule—Associated
(the default), von Mises, or User defined (nonassociated). If User defined (SI unit:
Pa) is selected enter a value in the Q field as required.
Initial Yield Stress

For all yield function criteria, the default Initial yield stress ys0 (SI unit: Pa) uses values
From material and represents the stress level where plastic deformation starts. Select
User defined to enter a different value or expression.
Hardening Model
For all yield function criteria, select the type of plasticity from the Hardening model
list—Isotropic or Perfectly plastic.
• Select Perfectly plastic (ideal plasticity) if it is a material that can undergo plastic
deformation without any increase in yield stress.
• If Isotropic is selected, also choose an Isotropic hardening model—Use tangent data
or Use hardening function data.
- If Use tangent data is selected, the default Isotropic tangent modulus ETiso
(SI unit: Pa) uses values From material (if it exists) or User defined, and so the yield
level ys is modified as hardening occurs. The Young’s modulus E is taken from

the elastic material properties. The yield level ys is related to the effective plastic
strain pe as
E Tiso
 ys =  ys0 + ------------------------  pe
E Tiso
1 – --------------
E
This is a linear isotropic hardening model, so the yield level increases

proportionally to the effective plastic strain pe.
- If Use hardening function data is selected, enter the Hardening functionh(pe)

(SI unit: Pa), so the yield level ys is modified as
 ys =  ys0 +  h   pe 
This definition implies that the hardening function must be zero at zero plastic
strain. In other words, ysys0 whenpe0. With this option it is possible to
fit nonlinear isotropic hardening curves.
Soil Plasticity
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Soil Plasticity node. The Soil
Plasticity node adds the equations for linear elasticity and plasticity and the interface
for defining the elastic material properties and yield surface. The yield criteria are
described in the theory section:
• Drucker-Prager Criterion
• Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
• Matsuoka-Nakai Criterion
• Lade-Duncan Criterion
• Deep Excavation: Model Library path Geomechanics_Module/

Soil_Models/deep_excavation
Model
• Flexible and Smooth Strip Footing on Stratum of Clay: Model Library
path Geomechanics_Module/Soil_Models/flexible_footing
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to compute the displacements, stresses, and
strains.
MODEL INPUTS
Define model inputs, for example, the temperature field of the material uses a
temperature-dependent material property. If no model inputs are required, this section
is empty.
SOIL PLASTICITY
Select a Yield criterion—Drucker-Prager, Mohr-Coulomb, Matsuoka-Nakai, or
Lade-Duncan.
Drucker-Prager
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box (see Mohr-Coulomb
Criterion). If this check box is selected, the default values for Cohesion c (SI unit: Pa)
and the Angle of internal friction  (SI unit: rad) are taken From material. If User defined
is selected, then enter other values or expressions.
If the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box is not selected, then the default
Drucker-Prager alpha coefficient (dimensionless) and Drucker-Prager k coefficient k
(SI unit: Pa) are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions.
If required, select the Include elliptic cap check box (see Elliptic Cap). Enter values or
expressions for the semi-axes of the Elliptic cap parameter Pa and Elliptic cap parameter
Pb (SI unit: Pa).
Mohr-Coulomb
The default Angle of internal friction  (SI unit: rad) and Cohesion c (SI unit: Pa) are
taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Under Plastic potential select either Drucker-Prager matched at compressive meridian,

Drucker-Prager matched at tensile meridian, or Associated.
If required, select the Include elliptic cap check box (see Elliptic Cap). Enter values or
expressions for the semi-axes of the Elliptic cap parameter Pa and Elliptic cap parameter
Pb (SI unit: Pa).
Matsuoka-Nakai
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box. If this check box is
selected, the default Angle of internal friction  (SI unit: rad) is taken From material.
Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.

Matsuoka-Nakai mu coefficient  (unitless) is taken From material. Select User defined to
enter other values or expressions.
Lade-Duncan
If required, select the Match to Mohr-Coulomb criterion check box. If this check box is
selected, then enter a value or expression for the Angle of internal friction 
(SI unit: rad). Alternatively, select From material.
Lade-Duncan k coefficient k(unitless) is taken From material. Select User defined to enter
other values or expressions.
TE N S I O N C U T - O F F
If required, select the Include tension cut-off check box (see Tension Cut-Off). Enter a
value or expression for the Max tensile stress t (SI unit: N/m2). Use this to constraint
the soil plasticity model with an extra yield surface, which limits the maximum principal
stress.
Concrete
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Concrete node. The Concrete node
adds the equations for linear elasticity, and the interface for defining the elastic material
properties and failure surface. The failure criterion are described in the theory section:
• Bresler-Pister Criterion
• Willam-Warnke Criterion
• Ottosen Criterion
The settings for Domain Selection, Model Inputs, and Linear Elastic Model
are the same as for the Soil Plasticity.
Note
CONCRETE MODEL
Select a Concrete criterion—Bresler-Pister, Willam-Warnke, or Ottosen.
Bresler-Pister
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strength t, Uniaxial compressive strength c, and
Biaxial compressive strength b (SI units: Pa) are taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
Willam-Warnke
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strength t, Uniaxial compressive strengthc, and
Biaxial compressive strength b (SI units: Pa) are taken From material. Select User
defined to enter other values or expressions.
Ottosen
The defaults for the Uniaxial tensile strengthc (SI unit: Pa), Ottosen’s parameters a
and b (unitless), Size factor k1 (unitless), and Shape factor k2 (unitless) are taken From
material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
TE N S I O N C U T - O F F
If required, select the Include tension cut-off check box (see Tension Cut-Off). Enter a
value or expression for the Max tensile stress t (SI unit: N/m2). Use this to constraint
the concrete model with an extra yield surface, which limits the maximum principal
stress.
Rocks
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Rocks node. The Rocks node adds
the equations for linear elasticity, and the interface for defining the elastic material
properties and failure surface. The failure criterion are described in the theory section:
• Original Hoek-Brown Criterion

• Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion
The settings for Domain Selection, Model Inputs, and Linear Elastic Model
are the same as for the Soil Plasticity.
Note
ROCK MODEL
Select a Rock criterion—Original Hoek-Brown or Generalized Hoek-Brown.

Original Hoek-Brown
The defaults for the Uniaxial compressive strengthc (SI unit: Pa), Hoek-Brown m
parameter m (unitless), and Hoek-Brown s parameter s (unitless) are taken From
material. Select User defined to enter other values or expressions.
Generalized Hoek-Brown
The defaults for the Uniaxial compressive strengthc (SI unit: Pa), Geological strength
index GSI (unitless), Disturbance factor D (unitless), and Intact rock parameter
(unitless) mi are taken From material. Select User defined to enter other values or
expressions.
Cam-Clay Material
The Cam-Clay Material node adds the equations and interface for defining the material
properties for the modified Cam-clay material (see Theory for the Cam-Clay Material).
Right-click to add the Thermal Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain features.
Isotropic Compression: Model Library path Geomechanics_Module/

Verification_Models/isotropic_compression
Model
Thermal Expansion and Initial Stress and Strain in the Structural

Mechanics Module User’s Guide
See Also
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to compute the displacements, stresses, and
strains.
MODEL INPUTS
The Pore fluid pressure pfluid (SI unit: Pa) is user defined by default. The default is 1
atm, or enter another value or expression.
CAM-CLAY MATERIAL
To use a mixed formulation by adding the negative mean pressure as an extra
dependent variable to solve for, select the Nearly incompressible material check box.
From the Specify list, define the elastic properties either in terms of Poisson’s ratio or
Shear modulus.
The defaults for the Poisson’s ratio (unitless) or the Shear modulus G (SI unit: Pa),
Density (SI unit: kg/m3), Cam-Clay M parameter M (unitless), Swelling index 
(unitless), Compression index  (unitless), and Void ratio at reference pressure N
(unitless) are taken From material. Select User defined for any of these parameters to
enter other values or expressions.
For the Cam-Clay M parameter you can alternatively select Match to

Mohr-Coulomb criterion which then matches the slope of the virgin
consolidation line to the Angle of internal friction. Then select the Angle
Note of internal friction  (SI unit: rad) as From material (the default) or User
defined.
Enter a value or expression for the Reference pressure for the parameter N prefN (SI unit:
Pa), the Initial void ratio e0,and the Initial consolidation pressure pc0 (SI unit: Pa).
GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY
Select the Force linear strains check box as required.
Geometric Nonlinearity Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface in the

Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide
See Also
Creep
Right-click the Linear Elastic Material node to add a Creep subnode to a model. Use the
Creep node to define the material model.
See Creep and Viscoplasticity for background theory about this feature.
Note
DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains to define the creep.

MODEL INPUTS
From the Temperature T (SI unit: K) list, select an existing temperature variable from
a heat transfer interface (for example, Temperature (ht/sol1)), if any temperature
variables exist, or select User defined to enter a value or expression for the temperature
(the default is 293.15 K).
COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION

The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes.
CREEP DATA
Select a Material model—Potential, Volumetric, Deviatoric, or User defined.
• If Potential is selected, enter the Rate multiplier (SI unit: 1/s) and the Creep
potential Qcr (SI unit: N/m2). The defaults are 0.
• If Deviatoric or Volumetric is selected, enter the Creep rate Fcr (SI unit: 1/s). The
default is 0.
• If User defined is selected, enter each element for the symmetric Creep rate tensor Fcr
(SI unit: 1/s). The defaults are 0.
The Energy Dissipation section is also available on the Linear Elastic Material
settings window as an advanced physics feature (to display the section,
click the Show button ( ) and select Show Advanced Physics Features).
Note See Energy Dissipation in the theory section for more information about
this option.
Geomechanics Materials
The Output Materials Properties
The material property groups (including all associated properties) listed in
Table 3-1can be added to models from the Material page. See Material Properties
Reference in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s Guide for information about other
material properties, including those for Solid Mechanics.
TABLE 3-1: GEOMECHANICS MODELS MATERIALS
PROPERTY GROUP AND PROPERTY NAME/VARIABLE SI UNIT
MOHR-COULOMB
Cohesion cohesion Pa
Angle of internal friction internalphi rad
DRUCKER-PRAGER
Drucker-Prager alpha coefficient alphaDrucker 1

Druker-Prager k coefficient kDrucker Pa
MATSUOKA-NAKAI
Matsuoka-Nakai mu coefficient muMatsuoka 1

LADE-DUNCAN
Lade-Duncan k coefficient kLade 1

OTTOSEN
Ottosen a parameter aOttosen 1

Ottosen b parameter bOttosen 1
Size factor k1Ottosen 1
Shape factor k2Ottosen 1
HOEK BROWN
Hoek-Brown m parameter mHB 1

Hoek-Brown s parameter sHB 1
Geological strength index GSI 1
Disturbance factor Dfactor 1
Intact rock parameter miHB 1
YIELD STRESS PARAMETERS
Uniaxial tensile strength sigmaut Pa

Uniaxial compressive strength sigmauc Pa

TABLE 3-1: GEOMECHANICS MODELS MATERIALS
PROPERTY GROUP AND PROPERTY NAME/VARIABLE SI UNIT
Biaxial compressive strength sigmabc Pa

CAM-CLAY MATERIAL MODEL
Swelling index kappaSwelling 1

Compression index lambdaComp 1
Initial void ratio e0 1
GEOMECHANICS MATERIALS | 75
I n d e x
A absolute values 39 D deviatoric creep 58
advanced settings 7 deviatoric plane changes 37
alpha coefficient 68 deviatoric stress 16, 19
angle of internal friction 22, 28, 68 discretization settings 7
associated flow rule 45 dissipated energy density 59
disturbance factor 41
B back stress 50
documentation, finding 8
biaxial compression 36
dolomite 40
biaxial data 38
Drucker-Prager criterion 24
biaxial tension 70
ductile materials 21
Bresler-Pister criterion 35
E effective creep strain rate 58
C calcite 40
effective plastic strain rate 46
Cam-Clay material (node) 71
effective stress tensor 40
Cam-clay model 30
elastic deformation gradient 43
carbonate rocks 40
elastic Green-Lagrange strain tensor 43
Cauchy stress tensor 15
elastic right Cauchy-Green tensor 44
Cayley-Hamilton theorem 15
elastic volumetric strain variable 33
ceramics 36
elastoplastic materials 18, 36
circle, Mohr 22
elliptic cap 26
clays 21
elplastic 45, 52
cohesion 22, 68
emailing COMSOL 9
cohesionless soils 27
equation view 7
cohesive-frictional materials 36
expanding sections 7
complementarity 44
compressive meridians 16, 23–24, 36–37 F failure surfaces 18
compressive stresses 14 flow rule 44
concrete 35–37 fluid pore pressure 27
concrete (node) 69 friction, angle 22, 28, 68
consistency parameter 44 frictionless materials 23, 25
consistent stabilization settings 8
G Gauss points 45, 52
constraint settings 8
generalized Hoek-Brown criterion 40
continuum mechanics 14
geological strength index (GSI) 40
creep (node) 72
Geomechanics Module 6
creep dissipation rate density 59
geometry, working with 8
creep strain rate 54
H Haigh–Westergaard coordinates 16
crystal cleavage 40
hardening function data 49
INDEX| 77
hardening models Model Library 9
plasticity node settings 66 Model Library examples
theory 48 Cam-Clay material 71
Hencky plastic strain 52 soil plasticity 67
hexagonal prism 20 modified Cam-clay model 30
hide button 7 modified Mohr-Coulomb criterion 29
Hoek-Brown criterion 39 Mohr-Coulomb criterion 22
hydrostatic axis 16 MPH-files 9
hydrostatic pressure 14, 22 mu coefficient 69
hydrostatic stress 27 multiaxial stress states 35
I ideal plasticity 48 N nearly incompressible material 71

inconsistent stabilization settings 8 non-associated flow rule 45
initial yield stress 49
O octahedral normal stress 35
Internet resources 8
octahedral plane 17
isotropic hardening 48
Ottosen criterion 37
isotropic materials 19
over-consolidation pressure 31
isotropic plasticity 45
override and contribution settings 7
isotropic rocks 40
P pair selection 8
K k coefficient 69
perfectly elastoplastic materials 19
kinematic hardening 49
perfectly plastic hardening 48
knowledge base, COMSOL 10
physics settings windows 7
Kuhn-Tucker conditions 44
plastic deformation gradient 43
L Lade-Duncan criterion 27 plastic element 45, 52
large plastic strain 43 plastic flow rule 53
Lie derivative 51 plastic Green-Lagrange strain 43
limestone 40 plastic multiplier 44
Lode angle 16, 20, 23, 36, 40 plastic potential 44
logarithmic plastic strain 52 plastic right Cauchy-Green tensor 44
plasticity (node) 65
M marble 40
plasticity models 65
Matsuoka-Nakai criterion 26
plasticity, theory 14
meridians, tensile and compressive 16,
Prager’s hardening rule 50
23, 36–37
primary creep 54
metal plasticity 46
principal stresses 17
metals 21, 24
mixed formulation 71 R rate independent plasticity 44
mobilized planes 26 rock mass 41
Model Builder settings 7 rock types 40
78 | I N D E X
rock yield criteria 22 uniaxial tension 19, 70
rocks 39 user community, COMSOL 10
rocks (node) 70
V variables
S saturated cohesive soils 21 effective creep strain 58
secondary creep 55 effective plastic strain 49
shape factors 38 effective plastic strain and the volu-
shear stresses 16, 22, 35 metric plastic strain 46
show button 7 elastic volumetric strain 33
sign convention 14 Tresca effective stress 20
size factors 38 volumetric plastic strain 31
small plastic strain 42 volumetric creep strain rate 57
soil deformation theory 32 volumetric plastic strain rate 46
soil plasticity 16 volumetric plastic strain variable 31
soil plasticity (node) 67 von Mises criterion 19–20, 24, 46
soil yield criteria 22 von Mises stress 47
spatially mobilized planes (STP) 27
W weak constraint settings 8
stabilization settings 8
web sites, COMSOL 10
steady-state creep 55
Willam-Warnke criterion 36
stress invariants 15
Y yield function 47
T tangent data 49
yield functions 19, 22
tangent modulus 49
yield stress levels 66
technical support, COMSOL 9
yield surface 45
tensile meridian 16
yield surfaces 18, 24
tensile meridians 23–24, 28, 36–37
tensile normal strains and stresses 14
tension cut-off 28
tertiary creep 55
transient creep 54
Tresca effective stress variable 20
Tresca stress 47
Tresca yield criterion 20
triaxial conditions 36
triaxial data 38
typographical conventions 10
U undrained shear strength 20

uniaxial compression 38–39
uniaxial compressive strength 35
INDEX| 79
80 | I N D E X

Geo Mechanics Module Users Guide

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Geomechanics Module

If you need to contact Technical Support, an online request form is located at

Other useful links include:

• Technical Support www.comsol.com/support

Part No. CM021801

Geomechanics Module Overview 6

Chapter 2: Geomechanics Theory

General Geomechanics Theory 14

Defining Perfectly Plastic Materials 19

Plasticity Models for Soils 22

Theory for the Cam-Clay Material 30

Elastoplastic Material Theory 42

Creep and Viscoplasticity 54

References for the Geomechanics Module 60

Chapter 3: The Geomechanics Materials

Working with the Geomechanics Materials 64

Welcome to the Geomechanics Module User’s Guide. This chapter provides a

The Geomechanics Module extends the capabilities of the Structural Mechanics

The Geomechanics Module requires a Structural Mechanics Module

• Show More Physics Options

Show More Physics Options

The links to the features described in the COMSOL Multiphysics User’s

SECTION CROSS REFERENCE LOCATION IN

GEOMECHANICS MODULE OVERVIEW | 7

Pair Selection • Identity and Contact Pairs User’s Guide

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Model Library?

To locate and search all the documentation, in COMSOL Multiphysics:

• Press F1 for Dynamic Help,

THE MODEL LIBRARY

CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL

GEOMECHANICS MODULE OVERVIEW | 9

Main Corporate web site www.comsol.com

In particular, these conventions are used throughout the documentation:

text highlighted in blue Click text highlighted in blue to go to other information

KEY TO THE GRAPHICS

ICON NAME DESCRIPTION

GEOMECHANICS MODULE OVERVIEW | 11

Model The Model icon is used in the documentation as well as in

• General Geomechanics Theory

• Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis

Theory for the Solid Mechanics Interface in the Structural Mechanics

The links to the features described in the Structural Mechanics User’s

Sign Conventions for Stress and Strain Analysis

The Geomechanics Module follows the sign convention of continuum mechanics as

14 | CHAPTER 2: GEOMECHANICS THEORY

Defining the Stress Invariants

which comes from calculating the roots for the equation

GENERAL GEOMECHANICS THEORY | 15

introduces us to the first, second, and third deviatoric stress invariants

The invariants J2 and J3 can be called in user-defined yield criteria by

Following this convention, =corresponds to the tensile meridian, and =3

16 | CHAPTER 2: GEOMECHANICS THEORY

GENERAL GEOMECHANICS THEORY | 17

The principal stresses can be called in user-defined yield criteria by

Defining the Yield Surface

In general, the yield surface can be described as

18 | CHAPTER 2: GEOMECHANICS THEORY

• Von Mises Criterion

Von Mises Criterion

The von Mises criterion is implemented in the Structural Mechanics Module as

The effective or von Mises stress (  mises = 3J 2 ) is available in the

DEFINING PERFECTLY PLASTIC MATERIALS | 19

Tresca effective stress, tresca=13 is implemented in the Structural

20 | CHAPTER 2: GEOMECHANICS THEORY