Sand Stresses Around a Wellbore
Rasmus Risnes, * SPE, Rogaland Regional C.
Rolf K. Bratli, SPE, IKU (Continental Shelf Ins!.)
Per Horsrud, ** SPE, Rogalandsforskning
Abstract
We have studied theoretically the stresses in a poorly
consolidated sand around a cylindrical well, assuming
axial symmetry. Applying theories of elasticity and
plasticity on this three-dimensional (3D) model,
analytical solutions for all three stress components have
been worked out.
The existence of a plastic zone around an uncased
wellbore is confirmed, and the size of the zone is deter-
mined. When allowing an incompressible fluid to flow
radially into the well bore , a stability criterion describing
the failure of the sand is found to exist. This criterion
relates fluid flow forces to rock strength properties.
Consideration also has been given to the stress
distribution around a cased hole. It is shown that a
decrease in the size of the plastic zone relative to an un-
cased hole occurs.
Introduction
Previous Work
Knowledge of the stress distribution around a drilled
hole is of great importance in several situations, such as
while drilling, during production or injection, and when
calculating fracturing pressures. One of the early works
contributing to this problem is the study by
Westergaard. I This study was initiated by Karl Ter-
zaghi, who raised the question: What distributions of
stress are possible in the soil around an unlined drill hole
for a deep well? Westergaard concluded that at great
depths a plastic state exists around the hole, which
relieves the stresses.
In his work, Westergaard uses the concept of effective
stresses. A more detailed discussion of the influence of
• Now with Norsk Agip AlS
.. Now wilh IKU (Conlinenlal Shelf Insl.)
0197·7520/82/0012·9650$00.25
Copy rig hI 1982 Sociely of Pelroleum Engineers of AIME
DECEMBER 1982
the pore pressure resulting from a fluid contained in a
porous rock was given by Biot. 2 Biot gave a general
theory of 3D consolidation, taking into account also the
possibility of a flowing pore fluid. Many of the later
works are based on this study.
One of these is the work done by Paslay and
Cheatham. 3 They studied rock stresses caused by a fluid
flowing into the borehole. In their study, they also con-
sidered the case where permeability is reduced in a
region adjacent to the wellbore. Paslay and Cheatham
assumed that the rock behaved elastically all the way up
to the wellbore and thus ignored the effect of a plastic
zone around the hole.
Gnirk 4 realized the existence of a plastic zone around
the well. He assumed that the rock was situated in a
hydrostatic stress field and that it obeyed the Coulomb
criterion of plastic yield. Gnirk calculated the well bore
pressures required to prevent plastic yielding of an un-
cased wellbore, assuming that no fluid flow would be
involved.
The same problem was treated later by Geertsma. 5 He
studied two specific problems: particle influx in produc-
tion wells and formation fracturing around injection
wells. Geertsma discussed stress and strain solutions and
stated that elastic theory is applicable to borehole fractur-
ing, but that sand influx requires accounting for plastici-
ty effects. This study was basically two-dimen'sional, not
taking into consideration the vertical stress. Geertsma
discussed the problems in a general way and did not give
detailed stress and strain solutions.
In another recent paper, Bradley 6 worked out a
semiempirical approach to the well bore stability prob-
lem, discussing especially inclined boreholes. This ap-
proach is useful for predicting the limit of elastic
behavior; however, it gives no information on the
behavior in the plastic state.
883
 R
stants. This problem was discussed by Biot,2 who in-
troduced additional terms into the basic equations.
Following the procedure given in Appendix A, the com-
plete solutions can be written as follows.

1-2v [ Rr
- P -P (3
(" 1)2(1-v) R~-Rr

.[1- (Ro)
r
2J + In(R"lr) }.
In(RjRi
. ......... (1)

I-2v [ Rr
- P -P (3
(0 I) 2(1-v) R~ -Rr
Fig. 1-Configuration of problem.

.[1 + (Ro)
r
2J + 1 [In(R()r)-I]}.
In(R"IR i )
Model Description
......................... (2)
As a model, we considered a vertical cylindrical hole
through a horizontal layer of porous and permeable rock.
We assumed axial symmetry around the well axis. The
geometry of the problem is shown in Fig. 1. This il-
lustrates a disk of sand with inner radius R i, outer radius
R 0' and height h. The radius of the plastic zone is R c .
The rock is assumed isotropic and homogeneous, and
the pores are assumed completely filled with fluid. The
material is subject to stresses in three dimensions-the
principal stresses are radial, tangential, and vertical. For
the stresses, we used the conventional definition of total
'[In(Rolr)-~]l ...................... (3)
stress, combining the contributions both from the fluid v is Poisson's ratio and (3 depends on rock matrix ,and
pressure in the pores and from forces in the solid rock bulk compressibilities, and normally has a value
material. Stresses and strains are considered positive close to one.
when compressive. The material is assumed to obey the Whether the material will fail depends on the dif-
Coulomb failure criterion. The mode of failure is as- ference between the greatest and the smallest principal
sumed to be a plastic deformation. stress. A typical elastic stress distribution around an
Deformations are considered small, and after the in- open hole with no fluid flow (a ri =P i =P 0) is illustrated
itial overburden loading only radial displacement is in Fig. 2. Here we observe that the difference between
assumed. This corresponds to the assumption of plane the stresses will be greatest at the borehole surface. The
strain. vertical stress is constant as long as there is no fluid
When fluid is flowing into the well, the pressure and flow.
stress solutions will be time-dependent. But we are in- The horizontal and vertical stresses at the outer boun-
terested only in the stresses close to the wellbore, where dary are assumed related by
we have approximately steady-state conditions. We
therefore have considered a cylindrical disk of outer v I-2v
aro =--a zo +--(3P o . ................. (4)
radius R 0' where the fluid pressure is maintained at a I-v I-v
constant level Po, thus ensuring steady-state conditions. If we introduce this in Eqs. 1 through 3 and assume that
The permeability may vary with the radius but then is R" ~Ri' the stresses at the borehole surface in the
assumed symmetric around the well axis. nonflowing situation are given as
Stress Solutions in Elastic Material
ari=P o , ................................. (5)
The principle of solving the problem of stresses in an
elastic hollow cylinder can be found in standard text-
books. 7,8 But if the material is porous, the stress rela- 2v
aei =--a zo +
[2(1-2V) J
(3-1 Po, ......... (6)
tions will depend on fluid pressure as well as elastic con- I-v I-v
884 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
and
t
a zi = a zo . . ............................... (7) 6'

The radial component, a" thus will be the smallest of

the stresses, while a 8 or a z will be the greatest, depend-
ing on Poisson's ratio, pressure gradients, and
compressibility.
The Coulomb failure criterion in a porous material is
given by 8

a] -p=2S otana+(a3 -p)tan 2 a, ............. (8)

RI
where a I is the greatest principal stress, a2 is the Fig. 2-Elastic stress solutions.
smallest principal stress, So is the inherent shear
strength, and a is the failure angle (7r/4+ct>/2), where ¢
is the internal friction angle. and
At the borehole surface, the criterion becomes
aze=a zo . ............................... (12)
al-P o =2S otana . ........................ (9)
At the boundary, these elastic stress solutions must
In a poorly consolidated sand, So will be less than 100 fulfil the Coulomb criterion. To find the case when the
kPa (14.5 psi) and a will have values of about 60 to 65°. tangential and vertical stresses are equal, we put
The right side of Eq. 9 thus will have values less than aoc =a zc . This gives
430 kPa (62.4 psi). Under normal conditions, the left 3V-l
side will be much greater than this, regardless of which azo -Po =2S o tana+ [ ~azo
of a 8 and a z is the greatest. This means that critical
stress values are reached near the borehole surface and 2(1-2v) ] 2
that the elastic solutions will not be valid in this region. + (3P o -P o tan a ......... (13)
I-v
Stress Solutions in Plastic Material Rearranging this equation, we find a limit for
When critical stresses are reached, according to the Poisson's ratio:
Coulomb failure criterion (Eq. 8) the material will v' ={(tan 2 a+ l)azo -[tan 2 a(2(3-1)+ l]Po
transform from an elastic to a plastic state. The elastic
analysis showed that in a poorly consolidated sand there
normally will be a zone around the wellbore that will be
plastically strained. Assuming the linear Coulomb - [tan 2 a(4(3 - 1) + 1]p 0 - 2S 0 tan a } . . ..... (14)
criterion to hold in this region, the stress solutions can be The prime on Poisson's ratio in Eq. 14 is to indicate
calculated. This requires, however, knowledge of which that this is a calculated value, with which the real
principal stress will be the smallest and which will be the (measured) value of Poisson's ratio can be compared.
greatest. For Poisson's ratio greater than the value given by Eq.
The elastic solutions show clearly that the radial stress 14, the tangential stress will be the greatest at the
will be the smallest at the boundary between the elastic elastic/plastic boundary, while the vertical stress will be
and plastic zones. It is not equally evident which of ao greatest for smaller values. This boundary is given by the
and a z will be the greatest at the boundary. The different initial stress state and the strength of the material.
possibilities are treated in detail later in this paper.
The point to consider first is the boundary between the (J r < (J z < (J 9 at Plastic/Elastic Boundary
elastic and the plastic zone, r=Re. Because two dif- The procedure used when deriving the solutions is
ferent sets of equations must be worked out, depending basically the same as outlined by Florence and Schwer. 9
on which of the tangential and vertical stresses will be The detailed procedure is given in Appendix B. Apply-
greatest at the plastic/elastic boundary, it would be ing theories of elasticity and plasticity, we find
helpful to find a relation that could indicate which set of
equations to use for a given set of parameters. The elastic
stress solutions at this boundary are given by Eqs. 1 p-q
ar=Pi+---Inr/R 1(
i - - 2S o tana----
M)
through 3, when using R 0 are' and Pc instead of R i , 27rhk e t 27rhk e
a ri' and Pi, respectively. Assuming no fluid flow Al
(P e = Po) and R 0 ~ R e' together with Eq. 4, the stresses +2tan 2 a - r l •..•..•.......•.•.•••• (15)
are given as V '

are =a re' ............................... (10)

2v 2(1-2v)
aoe=--azo+ (3P o -a re , ......... (11) ........ (16)
I-v I-v

DECEMBER 1982 885

and for R i < r < R b, where Rbis the radius of the inner
plastic zone.
The complete solutions now can be found by determin-
a z =[2v(1-{3)+iJl (Pi +~lnr/Ri) ing the integration constant, A I. A I is found by requir-
27rhk c ing continuity in the radial stress across the boundary
r= R b. The resulting stress solutions in the entire plastic
-~ [4Sotana-(tan2a+l)~J zone are as follows.
t 27rhk c
(1 +v)(1-2v) ForRi<r<R c ,
+ (azo-iJP o )
I-v
Al
+v(tan 2a+ 1)2tan 2a - r l , •..•.......•. (17)
V
where A I is an integration constant, kc is the permeabili- +2.(2Sotana-~) [(~)I -IJ.
ty ofthe material in the plastic zone, and t 27rhk c Ri

· ....................... (23)

and ForRi<r<R c ,

V=tan 4 a+ I-v(tan 2a+ 1)2. . .............. (18)

M
ao =p. + - - ( 1 +lnr/R)
There are then two possibilities: (1) the tangential and '27rhk c '
vertical stresses cross each other and the vertical stress
becomes the greatest in the zone next to the well bore or +2. (2Sotana-~) [(t+ 1) (~) 1 -IJ.
(2) the tangential and vertical stresses remain equal. t 27rhk c Ri
Solutions for the first case are given later in the paper,
but by examining these solutions it is found that they · ....................... (24)
cannot be linked to the solutions presented in this sec-
tion. The only possibility is therefore the following.

(J r < (J z = (J 9 in an Inner Plastic Zone

The problem is now greatly simplified and solutions are
found by combining the Coulomb criterion

f=ao( =a z)-a rtan2a+p(tan2a-l) -2S otana=0 +2.

t
(2Sotana-~)
27rhk
[(t+ 1) (~)
Ri
1 -IJ.
c

........................ (19)
· ....................... (25)
and the equation of equilibrium
dar ar-ao
-+ =0 ........................ (20)
dr r

Together with the boundary condition a r = Pi, when

r = R i, the solutions in the inner plastic zone are given as (1 +v)(1-2v)
+ (azo -iJP o )
I-v
M
ar=Pi+---Inr/R 1( /lq )
i +- 2S otana----
27rhk c t 27rhk c +~t [2Sotana-~J
27rhk
[(t+2) (~)
Ri
1 -2J.

.[(;)1-
,
J ......................
1 (21)
c

· ....................... (26)
and
M 1 Here we notice that the solutions for a r and a 0 are not
ao =a z =P i +---(1 +lnr/R i)+- altered at the boundary, r = R b .
27rhk c t The radii, Rb and R", now can be determined. At
r=R b , the condition is that the vertical stress and the
. (2Sotana-~)
27rhk
[(t+l)(~)1
R,
-IJ, tangential stress as given by Eq. 24 and Eq. 26 are equal.
c An equation for Rc is found by applying the Coulomb
criterion at the elastic/plastic boundary. Details are given
........................ (22) in Appendix C.

886 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

 The elastic stress solutions are given by Eq. I through
3 when substituting a ri, R i, and Pi with are' Reo and
P co respectively.

(J r < (J 9 < (J z at Plastic/Elastic Boundary

ar = Po + + 2S 0 tana [ (;. )
I
t- I J. .......... (31)
The solutions in this case are worked out by using the
same procedure as in Case I (see Appendix B). InCase
I, the stress components that enter into the equation of
equilibrium and the Coulomb criterion are the same,
namel y, a r and a e. This will not be so when a z is the
greatest principal stress; a z then must be used in the
Coulomb criterion. This will complicate the expressions,
and to avoid the rather voluminous equations we limit
ourselves to the case with no fluid flow (q=O). We then
find "Y-IJ(r)-'Y-1J 1
2"y Rb tan 2a-2v
I
2 2S"tana (1+v)(l-2v)
tan a-2v . [ (1-2v)(1-{3)P 0 +2S o tana- - - - - -
_ I-v

. [v(tan 2 a+1) -"YV'Y- 1, .............. (27)

tan 2 a-I +(l-2v){3 I
ae = Po - --1---2Sotana For Ri <r<R b ,
2
tan a-2v tan~a -2v

. [v(tan 2a+ I)-"yjr-'Y- 1 , •••••••••••••• (28) ........................ (33)

and

2vtan 2aeJ -(3)+tan 2a-2v 2v

a,= Po +----
,. 2
tan a-2v 2
tan a-2v
_"Y;I J(:b) 1'-1 _[("Y-~-I) (;~) t

"Y-IJ(r)-'Y-1J 2 I
1
+tan~a-[v(tan
B2 2 1
a+l)-"yjr-'Y- , ...... (29) 2 Rh tan a-2v
V
(1+v)(1-2v)
. [ (1 - 2v)(1 - (3)P 0 + 2S 0 tana - - - - - -
where Bland B2 are integration constants and I-v

"y2 =tan 4 a-2vtan 2a+ 1. .................. (30) .(a zo -{3p o )J [1- ("Y;I) (:h) 1'-1
Examining these stress solutions, we see that the
dominant term will be the term containing r'Y -I . Com-
paring Eqs. 28 and 29, we then find that ae and a z will
+( "Y-2I) (Rrh) -'Y-1J. ............. (34)

become equal some place in the plastic zone. Again we

find that the only possibility is an inner plastic zone next
to the weUbore, where a r < a::: = a e. These stress solu,

lf[("Y+t+l)
tions are given by Eqs. 21 and 22 with q=O.
The integration constants, Bland B 2, now can be t+I
a z =P o +2S o tana+ -t-2Sotancx 2"y
found by requiring continuity in a r and a e at r = R b .
Continuity in a e results because a e = a z at the boundary
r=Rb. The stress solutions in the entire plastic zone then
are given as follows.
DECEMBER 1982 887
dlMPa! Ipsi!
i
dlMPa! Ipsi!

tlOOO
12000 80
80
70
tOOOO
70 10000
60
60
1000
1000 50
SO
40 6000 Or
6000
40
30
4000
30
4000

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 10

0 0.2 0.4 0.8 10 1.2
Ri
~ 1m!
R.I R
c
rlm!~

Po • 32065 kPa 14650 psi) i3 • 1.0

p.. 32065 kPa 14650 psi} f3. 1.0
5,. 101.4 kPa 1147 psi} v .0.30
5,'1Ot.4 kPa 114.7 psi} V : 0.45

Fig. 3-Stress solutions with no fluid flow, high v. Fig. 4-Stress solutions with no fluid flow, low v.

. R; - 'Y2~ IJ(';b ) -"I'-.I} -tan t+a-2v

I pressure, pore pressure, and rock strength parameters. In
R ) I
this case, the outer plastic zone serves only as a transi-
( 2
tion zone for the intermediate principal stress, (J z, since
(l+v)(1-2v) the solutions for (J rand (J e are not altered at r = R b .
. [ (1-2v)(l-(3)P 0 +2S otana------ If we use a lower value for Poisson's ratio, v=0.30,
I-v the stress solutions for Case 2, where (J r < (J e < (J z, must

'«(Jzo-(3P o)
'Y+I)(r)"I'-1
J[ (2:;-
1- Rb
be applied. Keeping all other parameters unaltered, the
resulting curves are given in Fig. 4.
When comparing these solutions with the ones given
I
(1'-1) ( -"I'- J
in Fig. 3, we see that the basic conclusion is the same:
- 2:;- r )
Rb . . ............ (35) After a well is drilled in a poorly consolidated sand, the
sand will be in a plastic state of stress in a zone around
the wellbore.
The radii, Rb and Reo now can be determined. Byap- The main difference between the two figures is that the
plying the Coulomb criterion at the plastic/elastic boun- solutions in the outer plastic zone are curved differently.
dary and the condition of continuity in the displacement, However, changing the value of Poisson's ratio has very
u, at r=Rc, two equations containing Rb and Rc as little influence on the range of the plastic zone. Figs. 3
unknowns are found. The additional demand of continui- and 4 also indicate that the outer plastic zone acts only as
ty in displacement is introduced in this case because the a transition zone between the inner plastic zone and the
solutions this time contain two integration constants. elastic zone.
Details are given in Appendix D. On the basis of this comparison, we have chosen to
work out the remaining examples with a high value of
Stress Solutions with No Fluid Flow Poisson's ratio (v=0.45), so that (Jz<(Je at the
This corresponds to the situation after the well has been plastic/ elastic boundary. This situation will give the set
drilled and the fluid pressure in the well is in balance of equations that is most complete (fluid flow can be in-
with the pore pressure in the formation. cluded) and is simpler to handle.
We first consider Case I, where (J r < (J z < (J e at the To get a quick and reasonably good estimate of the
plastic/elastic boundary. To illustrate the solutions, we range of the plastic zone, a simplified approach may be
use an example where used, assuming (J e = (J z in the entire plastic zone. This of
course will introduce a discontinuity in the intermediate
Po = P;(q=0)=32 065 kPa (4,650 psi), principal stress, but there will be no other major in-
(Jzo = 65500 kPa (9,500 psi), fluence on the qualitative picture.
R; = 0.1 m (0.33 ft), We also have considered the effect of reducing (3,
Ro = 10.0 m (33 ft), representing a compressible rock. The curves for (3=0.9
a = 60°, are given in Fig. 5. Except for the change in (3, this ex-
So = 101.4 kPa (14.7 psi), ample is identical with the one presented in Fig. 3. A
(3 = 1.0, and comparison between the two sets of curves leads us to
v = 0.45. conclude that neglecting the rock compressibility
«(3 = 1.0) would not introduce any significant error.
The resulting curves are given in Fig. 3. The plastic Varying (3 will have only small effects on the size of the
zone in this case extends approximately 0.9 m (3 ft) into plastic zone.
the material. As long as there is no fluid flow, the radius One parameter that will have great influence on the
of this plastic zone will depend mainly on overburden range of the plastic zone is the cohesive strength, So, ex-

888 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

<lIMPa) Ipsi) <l[MPa] Ips,]
12000
80 12000
80
70
10000
70
60
1000
60
50
6, 50
40 6000
40
30
4000
30
4000
0.2 04 06 0.8 1.0
Ri
0 0.2 0.4 06 0.8 10
Ri Rb Rc
rlml -----
Po' 32065 kPa 14650 psi I 13, 0.9 Po' 32065 kPa (4650 psi I f3, 1.0
So' 101.4 kPa 114.7 psi I V ,0.45
5,,1014 kPa 1147 psi I v' 0.45

Fig. 5-Stress solutions with no fluid flow, low {3. Fig. 6-Stress solutions with no fluid flow, high So'

pressing the degree of consolidation of the sand. In Fig.
6 we have increased So, representing a somewhat con-
solidated sand.
Compared with Fig. 3, we notice that a significant
reduction of the plastic zone has occurred. A further in-
crease of the cohesive strength will give continually
smaller plastic zones. A totally elastic material would re-
quire So = 15 796 kPa (2,291 psi) in our case. This value
is found by setting Rc =Ri in Eq. C-3 and thereby
calculating So.
To illustrate the influence of the pore pressure, we also
have considered an abnormally high-pressure formation
with Po =48 263 kPa (7,000 psi). The result of the
calculations are shown in Fig. 7. Note a decrease of the
plastic region compared with Fig. 3. Hence, an increase
in the pore pressure will cause a reduction of the plastic
zone. However, a plastic zone will exist even at higher
pore pressures. As a theoretical result, it can be shown
that with the parameters used in Fig. 7, the sand would
become totally elastic at a pore pressure only slightly
below the far-field vertical stress [Po =65 293 kPa
(9,470 psi)]. This limit is, however, to a large degree
dependent on the cohesive strength of the material.
Stress Solutions with Fluid Flowing
Into the Well bore
The stress solutions for the plastic region are given by
Eqs. 23 through 26 and for the elastic region by Eqs. 1
through 3 when replacing R i, Pi, and a ri with R c' Pc,
and are' respectively.
Stability
From Eq. 23 we see that the radial stress component con-
tains two r-dependent terms, one logarithmic and one to
the power of t. The exponent t normally will have values
greater than two. The last term therefore will soon be
.dominant. The constant
C=-1 ( 2S o tana----
Jlq ) R -/
i
t 27rhk c
depends on the flow rate, q, and C will decrease with in-
creasing flow rate. As long as C is positive, a r in the
DECEMBER 1982
plastic zone will increase with distance r, and combined
solutions are possible. But when q is great enough to
make C negative, a r will drop off with increasing
distance r, and combined plastic/elastic solutions are no
longer possible. This implies that there exists a stability
criterion:
C>O. . ................................. (37)
The limit is
M
- - = 2 S o tana, ........................ (38)
27rhk c
where the right side depends only on rock strength prop-
erties.
The effect of an increasing flow rate can be shown best
through numerical examples. We have considered three
different flow rates: 50, 100, and 200 cm 3 Is. In SI and
field units, the corresponding values are 4.32 m 3 /d (27.2
BID), 8.64 m 3 /d (54.3 BID) and 17.28 m 3 /d (108.7
BID). The results are illustrated in Figs. 8A, 8B, and
8C, respectively. The fluid and rock properties used are
Jl = 0.001 Pa's 0.0 cp),
kc = 0.1 Jlm 2 (0.1 darcy), and
k = 1.0 Jlm2 (1.0 darcy),
where kc is the permeability in the plastic zone and k is
the permeability in the elastic zone.
Here we have taken into account that there might be
reduced permeability in the plastic zone. Furthermore,
we assume that the height of the producing zone is 1 m
(3.3 ft) hence, h= 1.0 m (3.3 ft). The other values used
are identical to the ones used in Fig. 3.
The drop in the pore fluid pressure related to these
flow rates is relatively small. Therefore, this does not
show on the figures with the scale used. The same effect
............ (36) applies to the vertical stress component in the elastic
zone. The pore pressure gradient is too small to show on
the vertical stress curve in the elastic zone, see Eq. 3.
The resulting curves show clearly the increase in the
radius of the plastic zone as the flow rate is increased.
889
 t
6 [MPal Ips,]
t
G[MPal [psI I

12000 12000
80 80
6e
70 ":8 70 10
10000
d.
60
aODO
6.
6r
--- fiO
0000
50 50
P &r
40 6000
40 6000

30 30 P
4000
loOOO

0 0.2 0.4 0.8 10 o 0:1 04 06 121416182.0

R. R,
1
r[ml _ r [m I

P,; 32065 kPa 14650 psi) (3 ; 1.0

P,; 48263 kPa 17000 psi) (3 ; 1a
5,;101.4 kPa 114.7 psi I ,,;0.45
5,;1014 kPa 114.7psi) \);045

Fig. 7-Stress solutions with no fluid flow and high pore Fig. S8-Stress solutions with fluid flow, q = 100 em 3 Is.
pressure.

t i
cllMPaj Ipsi] G IMPal [psil

'2000
12000 80
80

70 1000
70 10000

60
60
0000
8000 50
50 6r
Or 40 6000
40 6000

30 p
£.000
30 P
4000

0.8 12 1.6 20 24 28 32 36 40
D.4 1.D. 12 1.4 16 18 20 Rb Rc
Rc rlml ~
rlml ---+
Po; 32065 kPa 14650 psi) (3; 1.0
S.; 101.4 kPa 114.7 psi ) " ; 0.45
Po; 32065 k Pa 14650 psi I (3; 1.0
5.; 1014 kPa 1147 psi) \);0 45

Fig. SA-Stress solutions with fluid flow, q = 50 em 3 Is. Fig. Se-Stress solutions with fluid flow, q=200 em0/s.

Th~y also illustrate the rapid growth of the plastic zone Comparing the two criteria, we see that the main dif-
as the flow rate approaches the critical flow rate, which, ference is caused by the difference in geometry. It now is
in this case, is 18.81 m 3 /d (118.3 BID). When the also possible to compare directly the maximum
critical flow rate is reached, the plastic zone will grow allowable flow rates:
throughout the whole formation and thus cause total col-
lapse of the formation.
The stability criterion developed in this cylindrical tan 2a-1 h
geometry is very similar to the one found in the spherical 2(2tan2a-l) RI ................... (40)
geometry around a perforation. 1O This criterion was
found to be
With a=60° and a realistic experimental value for the
2tan 2a-l arch radius, R 1 =2.5 cm, we find that
--.,----4S o tana, ............ (39)
2(tan 2a-l)
qcyl =8.0 h, ............................ (41)
where R I is the radius of arch around a perforation. q'ph

890 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

where h is given in meters (feet) and depends on the In comparison, the permeability at the wall of the
number of perforations per foot. With two perforations wellbore, k s , is given by
per foot, h=0.IS24 m (O.S ft) and qcyl = 1.22qsph' This
is a somewhat surprising result. The maximum flow I
rates will be in the same order of magnitude. Two or - = 2.:a nR j n . .......................... (47)
fewer perforations per foot will give even higher possible k\. n
flow rates from an open well than from a cased and per-
forated well.
To illustrate the effect of a varying permeability we have
chosen one simple model. Using a relation with two r-
Variable Permeability in the Plastic Zone dependent terms and low values for n, n = -1,1, we
have
The plastic zone surrounding the wellbore probably will
be a zone with reduced permeability, compared with the
elastic region. It is also likely that the permeability will I _I
-=alr+a_lr ....................... (48)
vary within the plastic zone. However, this function is k
not known, so as an example we consider the case where
the permeability is given by an empirical relation of the
form The coefficients a 1 and a_I are determined by k = k"
when r=R j , and k=k n when r=Ro which gives
I
-= 2.: anr n . ............................ (42)
k n

Elimination of ae in Eq. B-2 by use of the Coulomb

criterion, Eq. B-1, leads to the equation and

da r ar 1 t
- - t - =-2S o tanO'--p . ............... (43)
dr r r r Rj2 ................ (49)

The fluid pressure can be found by integrating Darcy's

law, Eq. A-2. Hence,
This leads to the effective permeability,
p.,q [ a InrIR·+
P =p+--
I 27rh 0 I

........................ (44)

The radial stress solution tr.cn is given as

With t=2, k c =lOk,\, and R c =7R j , we find that
I tanO'+--a
a =P·--2S
ItO
r 27rh
(I-+lnrIR
t I
) M
o.
ke = I.S2k s ' With an effective permeability largely
determined by the permeability at the wellbore, k s , this
indicates that the critical flow rate that causes the plastic
a
_n (rn Rn) +Crt . ... (4S)
_ _ +_1
zone to extend throughout the elastic region is deter-
n n-t t mined mainly by the permeability just around the well.
This permeability function is illustrated in Fig. 9,
where it appears to correspond rather closely to a linear
If t is an integer, this value of n is excluded. The in- function.
tegration constant, C, is as before determined by the
boundary condition a r = Pi, when r = R i, and the Failure Theory for Collapse of an Inner Shell
criterion C =0 results in
Bratli and Risnes 10 observed collapses of thin inner
shells around the perforation. Collapse of an inner cylin-
drical shell around a well bore by a fracturing mechanism
is possible if

where p-ar=To, ............................. . (SI)

I t
where To is the uniaxial tensile strength. This is il-
- = 2.: an --R? ..................... (46) lustrated schematically in Fig. 10.
ke n*t t-n When assuming a constant permeability in the plastic
DECEMBER 1982 891
i
k
kc

i
d

PI (P-Gr)max

RI
Fig. 9-Permeability model based on empirical formula. Fig. 10-Stress situation at possible shell collapse.

zone, we find by integrating Eg. A-2 from Ri to R, and But since there will be no fluid flow in this situation
combining with Eg. 23 that (q=O, Pi =P,,), we have

p-a r = _2. (2Sotana-~) [(~_) I -IJ,

t 27rhk, Ri
........................ (52) The corresponding stress solutions are now as follows.

which will reach its maximum when When Ri < r<R"

d
-(p-ar)=O.
dr
a r =P 0 - +2S otana+ (a ri -Po + +2S o tana)
The result of the derivation is

- [2S () tana-~J
l 1

27rhk
r
Ri
=0 -
l '
............ (53)
• ( ; ) I ............................
,
(57)

which leaves us with the condition C=O. But this When Ri < r<R"
describes a situation of total collapse, so that when
assuming constant permeability in the plastic zone, only
total collapse is possible. Collapses of inner shells never 0e =P o - +2S otana+(t+ I) (a ri -P" + +2S otana)
will occur in the case of constant permeability.
With a variable permeability in the plastic zone, the
picture is more complicated. If we let the permeability . (Rr,)1 ........................... (58)
vary according to Eg. 48, the same procedure can be
used to show thar shell collapses are possible for this
model. However, specific knowledge of the permeability
is needed to evaluate the possibility of this failure
mechanism.
Stress Solutions Around a Cased Hole
When a casing is set and cemented, the cement column
in the well will cause an increase in the pressure against
the formation. This can be expressed as a new boundary
.(;)1
,
............................ (59)

condition,

ar=ari, when r=Ri' ...................... (54)

Introducing this new boundary condition, a new integra-

tion constant, C', is found:
(1 +v)(l-2v)
C'= [a-p+2.
n 't
(2S tana-~)JR
0 2 7rhk c I
-I.
+
I-v
(azo -(3P,,)+v(t+2)

........................ (55)
.(a n -P o ++2S tana) (;,)1
o ....... (60)

892 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

 i
<5 IMPel Ips,]

61MPai Ips, I
I 12000
80
12000
80 70

70
60
60
000l 50
50
1.0
40 6<XlO
p
30
30 4000
4000

0 0.2 04 0.6 08 10 o 01. 06 0.8 10

R, Rc
rlml---..
rIm 1
p. • 32065 kPo (4650 psi I (l • 1.0 Po = 32065 kPa (4650 psi) (3 = 1.0
50.101.4 kPo (14.7 psi I v; 0.45 So= 1014 kPa (147 psi) v = 0.45

Fig. 11-Stress solutions around a cased hole, low So. Fig. 12-Stress solutions around a cased hole, high So'

The radius of the inner plastic zone, R b , is as before and

given by the condition that a IJ and a z, as determined by
the solutions in the outer plastic zone, are equal at
r=Rb' Setting Eq. 58 equal to Eq. 60 with r=R b , we ar- ........... (64)
rive at the following equation in Rb:

b;R~+b~=O, ........................... (61) To illustrate the stress distribution around a cased

hole, we have used the same numerical values as in Fig.
where 3. In addition, we set a ri =34474 kPa (5,000 psi). The
corresponding set of curves is given in Fig. II. Compar-
ing this with Fig. 3, representing the open hole, we see a
drastic reduction of the plastic zone as a result of the in-
crease in stress level. Most of the originally plastic zone
returns to an elastic state of stress. A considerable
and amount of material will have been through the plastic
state before returning to the elastic state of stress.
Although again elastic, the rock properties of this
material may be different from those of the originally
elastic material.
1-2v In this example the cohesive strength was set to 101.4
- - - 2 S o tana. . .................... (62) kPa (14.7 psi). Around an open hole we found that a
t higher cohesive strength of 1014 kPa (147 psi) resulted
in a much smaller plastic zone (see Figs. 3 and 6). The
An equation for the radius of the emire plastic zone, stress distribution in the stronger material after a casing
R c' is found by inserting a r from the plastic zone and a IJ is set and cemented is illustrated in Fig. 12. Comparing
from the elastic zone into the Coulomb criterion. the figures, we observe that the increase in cohesive
strength gives only a slightly smaller plastic zone around
c; R/+ 2 +c~R~ +C3 =0, .................. (63) the cased hole.
To eliminate the plastic zone and thus again to have an
elastic medium around the cased hole, in our example,
where would require So=I3 011 kPa (1,887 psi). We notice
that because of the support from the cement, this is 2785
kPa (404 psi) lower than in the openhole situation.
Thus, we can conclude that when we perforate in a
poorly consolidated sand, the zone just around the well
will be in a plastic state of stress. When flow starts,
'_ ,t+2 2 assuming radial flow at some distance from the well, we
c2- c ]--R o '
t see from Eq. 55 that the cylindrical stability criterion
DECEMBER 1982 893
now allows greater flow rates. This leads to the conclu- b l ,b 2 ,b 3 = constants given by Eq. C-2
sion that the stability of the well now will be governed by b;, b 2 = constants given by Eq. 62
the stability of the sand arches behind the perforations. Cb rock bulk compressibility,
Lt 2 /m
Conclusions rock matrix compressibility,
We have considered the stresses in the sand around a Lt 2 /m
wellbore. We have applied theories of elasticity and
CI, ~2' .;. c~ = constants given by Eq. C-4
plasticity together with the supposition that the rock
C I, C2, C3 = constants given by Eq. 64
obeys the Coulomb criterion. This leads to the conclu-
d l , d2 , .•. ds = constants given by Eq. D-3
sion that in a poorly consolidated sand there is a
plastically strained zone just around the wellbore, which E = Young's modulus, m/Lt 2
is in the order of magnitude of I m (3.3 ft). Higher f = plastic flow function
degree of consolidation gives smaller plastic zones. G = shear modulus, m/Lt 2
When fluid is allowed to flow into the uncased well, h = height of producing layer, L
the plastic zone will grow with the flow rate and will ex- k = permeability, L 2
tend throughout the whole formation when the flow rate kc = permeability in the plastic
has reached a certain value. This possible failure of the zone, L2
sand implies that there is a stability criterion forthe sand, ke = effective permeability, L 2
a criterion that relates fluid flow forces LO the strength ks = permeability at wellbore wall,
properties of the sand. L2
Calculations show that with a variable permeability in
the plastic zone, collapses of thin inner shells are possi- p fluid pressure, m/Lt 2
ble before total collapse occurs. With constant Pc fluid pressure at plastic/elastic
permeability, only total collapse is possible. These boundary, miLt 2
calculations also show that a key parameter in the stabili- Po = fluid pressure at outer boun-
ty criterion is the permeability close to the wellbore. dary, m/Lt 2
Around a cased hole, the stress level will increase, q = fluid flow rate, L 3ft
thus reducing the plastic zone. Under normal conditions, q cyl = maximum flow rate in cylin-
this reduction will not be sufficient to make the plastic
drical geometry, L 3/t
zone vanish. This means that perforations will be made
in a plastic material. q sph = maximum flow rate in
The supporting effect of the casing on the formation spherical geometry, L 3 It
also increases the critical flow rate as given by the cylin- r = radial distance from center of
drical stability criterion. Thus, as flow starts through the wellbore, L
perforations, the stability of the well now will be gov- R = radial volume force per unit
erned by the stability of the sand arches behind the mass, Llt 2
perforations.
Rb = radius of inner plastic zone, L
With respect to possible application, one of the impor-
tant aspects of sand control is to identify the poorly con- Rc = radius of total plastic zone, L
solidated layers so that perforation of these dangerous Ri = wellbore radius, L
zones can be avoided if possible. Our knowledge that Ro = outer boundary radius, L
sand layers around a well form critically stressed zones So = inherent shear strength,
of magnitudes depending on the degre~ of consolidation cohesive strength, m/Lt 2
may be used to detect the dangerous zones. To = uniaxial tensile strength, m/Lt 2
The in-situ stress configuration in the model presented t, V = constants given by Eq. 18
corresponds to an idealized case. If more complex u = radial displacement, L
stresses and geometries are considered by taking into ac- IX = failure angle, degrees
count tectonic stresses and inclined boreholes, the com- (3 = l-C r lC b
plexity of the mathematical formulation will increase
'Y = constant given by Eq. 30
greatly. However, it is inherent in the present model that
Ll e = volumetric elastic strain
small changes in stresses, homogeneity, and geometry of
the system are likely to produce only small modifications E i, E:, E f = elastic strain components
in the solutions obtained. In this sense, the model E f, E g, E f = plastic strain components
presented could be regarded as a first-order approxima- E" E I), E Z ( = E zo) = total strain components
tion of the complete solution. K = a scalar
A = Lame parameter, m/Lt 2
Nomenclature p., = fluid viscosity, miLt
an = constants in empirical v = Poisson's ratio
permeability equation p = bulk density, miL 3
A', A" = constants given by Eqs. B-18 (J I, (J 2, (J 3 = principal stress components,
and B-19 m/Lt 2
AI, A 2 , B I , ( J " (J e, (J z = stress components in cy lin-
B 2 , C, C' = integration constants drical coordinates, m/Lt 2
894 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL
 o ri, 00i, 0 zi stress components at wellbore where
wall, m/Lt 2
o rc, 00c, 0 zc stress components at /1- = fluid viscosity,
plasticlelastic boundary, q 0= fluid flow rate,
m/Lt2 k = rock permeability, and
h = height of flowing zone.
Oro' 000' 0 zo stress components at outer
boundary, miLt 2 In our case, pR is zero and Eq. A-I is given as
</> = internal friction angle, degrees

Acknowledgment d (dU
(A+2G)- -+-U) +(3-=0
dp ........... (A-3)
dr dr r dr
We thank Statoil for economic support making this work
possible.
The stresses now are given by
References or=M. e +2GEi+(3p, .................... (A-4)
1. Westergaard, H.M.: "Plastic State of Stress Around a Deep
Well," 1. BosIOn Soc. of Civil Engineers (Jan. 1940) 27, 1-5.
2. Biot. M.A.: "General Theory of Three-Dimensional Consolida- 00 =A~e +2GtB+(3P, .................... (A-5)
tion." 1. Appl. Phys. (Feb. 1941) 12,155-64.
3. Paslay. P.R. and Cheatham, J.B.: "Rock Stresses Induced by and
Flow of Fluids into Boreholes," Soc. Pet. Eng. 1. (March 1963)
85-94.
4. Gnirk, P.F.: "The Mechanical Behavior of Uncased Wellbores Oz =A~e +2GEf+(3p, .................... (A-6)
Situated in Elastic/Plastic Media under Hydrostatic Stress," Soc.
Pet. Eng. 1. (Feb. 1972)49-59.
5. Geertsma, J.: "Some Rock Mechanical Aspects of Oil and Gas
Well Completions," paper EUR 38 presented at the 1978 SPE
where E;, E5, and Ef are elastic strain components and
European Offshore Petroleum Conference and Exhibition, Lon-
don, Oct. 24-26. ~e =E;+EB +Er ........................ (A-7)
6. Bradley. W .B.: "Failure of Inclined Boreholes," AS ME paper
presented at the ASME 1978 Energy Technology Conference and
Exhibition. Houston, Nov. 5-9.
7. Love. A.E.H.: A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elastici- If the load history of the material includes an over-
ty. Dover Publications. New York City (1944) 141-44. burden loading, this initially will cause a deformation in
8. Jaeger. J.e. and Cook. N.G.W.: Fundamentals of Rock the vertical direction. Assuming that there will be no
Mechanics. Chapman and Hall. London (1976) 134-37 and 97. deformation in the horizontal directions (E r = E 0 = 0), the
9. Florence, A.L. and Schwer. L.E.: "Axisymmetric Compression
of a Mohr-Coulomb Medium Around a Circular Hole," Inti. 1.
initial vertical strain, E zo, is given by Eq. A-6:
Numa. and Anal. Methods in Geomech. (1978) 2, 367-79.
10. Bratli, R.K. and Risnes. R.: "Stability and Failure of Sand Ozo -(3P o
Arches." Soc. Pet. Eng. 1. (April 1981) 236-48. E zo = , ........................ (A-8)
A+2G
APPENDIX A
where 0 zo is the far-field vertical stress and Po is the far-
Elastic Stress Solutions field fluid pressure.
If we include the effect of the pore fluid pressure, the Assuming only radial displacement after initial
displacement U of an elastic material is given by the loading, we have
equation
du
E;=-, ............................... (A-9)
d (dU U) +pR+(3-=O,
dp dr
(A+2G)- -+- ...... (A-I)
dr dr r dr
U
EB=-, ............................... (A-lO)
where r

Lame's parameters, and

radial volume force per unit volume,
I-CrIC h ,
rock matrix compressibility, and .............................. (A-II)
rock bulk compressibility.

By solving Eq. A-I and combining the result with Eqs.

The pressure gradient is given by Darcy's law in radial
A-9 through A-II, the stress solutions can be found by
form,
inserting the result in Eqs. A-4 through A-6. Combining
these solutions with the boundary conditions,
dp p..q
................ ' ........... (A-2)
dr 27fhkr 0r=Ori, when r=Ri

DECEMBER 1982 895

and EZ =Ezo comes because we have assumed only radial
displacement after initial loading. Together with Eq.
0r=Oro, whenr=R o , B-3, this gives

the final solutions can be written as in Eqs. 1 through 3. EZ =E zo =EJ. ............................ (B-6)
In these solutions, we have introduced the relations

Ev Using Eq. B-5 in Eq. B-4 then gives

A= ...................... (A-12)
(1 +v)(1-2v)

and
Hooke's law relating elastic strains to stresses is
E
G= , .......................... (A-13) EE i=o r - v(o 0 + a z) - (1- 2v){3p, ........... (B-8)
2(1 +v)
EE B= a 0 - v(a r +0 z) -(1- 2v){3p, ............. (B-9)
where v is Poisson's ratio.
and
APPENDIXB
Plastic Stress Solutions (0' r < 0' z < 0' 6) EE {=o Z - v(a r +(0) -(1- 2v){3p. . ......... (B-lO)
With Or < 0 z < a 0 at the plastic/elastic boundary, the
Eq. B-6 substituted in Eq. B-lO gives
Coulomb criterion can be written
o Z =EE zo + v(a r +(0) + (1- 2v){3p. . ........ (B-ll)

Combining Eqs. B-8, B-9, and B-ll, applying the

-2S otana =0. . ....................... (B-1)
Coulomb criterion, Eq. B-1, together with the strain
relation, Eq. B-7, we get
Balancing the forces in the material, we have
[tan 4a+ I-v(tan 2a+ 1)2]a r =2GE r +tan2a2GEo
dar
r dr +or-aO=O, ...................... (B-2)

. (1- 2v){3]p - [tan 2a(1- v) -v]2Sotana

which holds whether the material is elastic or not.
The flow rule associated with Eq. B-1 is
+ v(tan 2a + 1)2GE zo ..................... (B-12)

and

+tan4a2GEo + [v(tan 4a-1) -(tan 2 a -1)

+tan 2a(tan 2a+ 1)(l-2v){3]p-[v(tan 2 a

and
+ 1) -1]2S o tana + vtan 2a(tan 2a + 1)2GE zoo
af
Ef=K- =0, .......................... (B-3)
aa z ...................... (B-13)

Substitution of Eqs. B-12 and B-13 into the equation of

where Ef, E~, and Ef are plastic strain components and K
equilibrium, Eq. B-2, and use of the strain-displacement
is a scalar.
relations, Eqs. A-9 and A-lO, lead to the displacement
From Eq. B-3, it follows that
equation
Ef+E%tan 2 a=0. . ....................... (B-4)

Total strain components are given as

M
-v(tan 4a-l)+(tan 2a+ 1)(1-2v){3]--
27rhk c

EZ =E{+Ef=Ezo. . ....................... (B-5) I

(M)
-(tan 4 a-l)(l-2v)(1-{3) P·+--lnr/R·
27rhk c I

896 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL

 plastic zone, are equal. Setting Eq. 24 equal to Eq. 26,
we arrive at the following equation in R b .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (B-14)

where k c is the permeability of the material in the plastic

zone.
The displacement solution of Eq. B-14 and the cor-
responding strains are where
2 2
2Gu =A] rtan o: + A 2 r -tan A 'r+A "r In r, ... (B-15)
b] = ~ (2Sotana-~) [(t+ 1)-v(t+2)),
t 27rhk c
M
b 2 =(l-2v)(l-{3)--,
27rhk c
+A'+A"+A" In r, ............... (B-Io)
and
and
Il-q
b 3 =(l-2v)(l-{3)Pi + ( l - v ) - -
27rhk c

...................... (B-17) (1 +v)(1-2v)

- - - - - (0 zo - (3P 0)
I-v
where A] and A 2 are integration constants, and
-~ (2Sotana-~) (l-2v) . ....... (C-2)
t 27rhk c

Radius of Entire Plastic Zone, R c

At the plastic/elastic boundary, the Coulomb criterion
1-2v ] M must hold. Another requirement is continuity in the
+ {3-v - - +(l-2v)(1-{3)
tan 2 a -I 27rhk c radial stress across the boundary. When inserting radial
stress from the plastic zone, Eq. 23, and tangential stress
from the elastic zone into the Coulomb criterion, the
resulting equation in Rc is

-v2GE ZO ••••••••••••••••••••••••• (B-18)

and

A "=(l-2v)(l-{3)~ ................ (B-19)

27rhk c
+Cg In Ro/Rc +c9 =0, ................... (C-3)
Or and 0e now can be found by inserting Eqs. B-16 and where
B-17 into Eqs. B-12 and B-13 together with Darcy's law
for radial flow,
C] = (2S tana-~)R'
27rhk
o
-',
'
Il-q c
P =P i + - - In r/R,· . ................. (B-20)
27rhk c t+2 2
C2=---c]R o ,
t
The vertical stress, 0 z, then is given by Eq. B-1!.
The fully written solutions for the three stress com- 1-2v
C3=- (3(Po-P i ),
ponents are given in Eqs. 15 through 17. 2(l-v)

APPENDIXC 1-2v M
C4= (3--,
Equations for the Radii, Rb and 2(l- v) 27rhk c
Rc{O'r < O'z <O'e} M
Cs=---,
Radius of Inner Plastic Zone, R b 27rhk c
At the boundary between the inner and the outer plastic
zones, the condition is that the vertical stress and the c6=- (2- 1-2v (3)csRo2,
tangential stress, as given by the solutions in the outer I-v
DECEMBER 1982 897
 2v 1-2v
C8= [ -1- a , +--(3(P +P)-2P
- v ,0 1_ V O l 1

2
+-2S t+2 M 2
o tanex------ R" ,
J +
1'-1 } ('Y-1)(l +v)(l-2v)
--------
t t 27fhkc
tan 2 ex-2v 2'Y(l-v)
and

.......................... (C-4)
_ 1 2
d3- 2 2 [a: o +Po(tan ex-I)
APPENDIXD R" tan ex

Equations for the Radii, Rb and - 2S o tanex - 2va ro),

R c (O"r<0"9<O"Z)
In this case, the stress solutions contain two integration
constants, and the equations are therefore somewhat
more complicated. To find equations for Rb and Rc> we
must introduce art additional condition, namely continui-
+P,,(tan 2 ex-l)-2S o tanex)
ty in displacement at the plastic/elastic boundary.
Together with applying the Coulomb criterion, this
results in two equations, both containing Rb and R c' 2S tanex
o (I +v)(l-2v)
When working out these equations, we have for simplici-
--:----
2
+-----
tan ex-2v I-v
ty assumed that Rc < <Ro'

and

................... (0-1) tan 2 ex-l I

ds= 2 (l-2v)(I-(3)Po+--,-[a: o +P o
tan ex-2v tan-ex
and 1-2v
(tan 2 ex-I)-2S"tanexj- , 2S"tanex
tan'ex-2v
[v(tan 2 ex+ l-IJ(I-2v)
2 (a: o -(3P o ) -am'
(tan ex-2v)(l-v)

....................... (0-3)

....................... (0-2) Note that both d l and d 2 contain the unknown, R h .

However, d, , d 4 , and d 5 are constants.
where

SI Metric Conversion Factors

cu in. x 1.638 706 E+OI = cm'
ft x 3.048* E-OI = m
+ 2S o tanex
21'
[~ [('Y+ t + 1) (~)
t Ri
f J
-'Y- 1
'Conversion factor is exact SPEJ
+ 1'+1 }_ ('Y+ 1)(l+v)(l-2v)
tan 2 ex-2v 2'Y(l-v)
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office Dec. 18, 1980.
Revised manuscript received May 3, 1982. Paper accepted for publication Aug. 2,
t982. Paper (SPE 9650) first presented at the 1981 SPE Middle East Oil Technical
'(a~O -(3Po)' Conference held in Manama, Bahrain, March 9-12.

898 SOCIETY OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERS JOURNAL