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Chapter7.Radiation Pollution

MSBTE Syllabus
5.3 Radiation pollution (Marks 18/4)
5.3.1 Sources & effects of radiation
5.3.2 Radiation exposure standards
5.3.3 Radiation protection
5.3.4 Treatment & disposal of radiation waste

7.1 Introduction:

Radioactive material consists of atoms with unstable nuclei, these atoms spontaneously change
(decay) to more stable forms and emit radiation.

Radiation pollution is the increase in natural background radiation. Radiation pollution is any
form of ionizing or non-ionizing radiation that results from human activities. There are many
sources of radiation pollution such as research laboratories, nuclear power plants, etc. The worst
case of the radiation pollution was the Chernobyl disaster, which occurred long ago, but the
effects still linger on today.

Radiation pollution differs from conventional pollution in that it cannot be detoxified. Instead,
radioactive materials must be isolated from the environment until their radiation level has
decreased to a safe level, a process which requires thousands of years for some materials.

A person who is contaminated has radioactive material on his/her skin or inside his/her body
(e.g., inhalation, ingestion, or wound contamination).

7.2 Classification of Radiation:

Radiation is classified as being ionizing or nonionizing. Both types can be harmful to humans and
other organisms.

i) Nonionizing radiation is relatively long-wavelength electromagnetic radiation, such as

radiowaves, microwaves, visible radiation, ultraviolet radiation, and v e ry low-energy
electromagnetic fields. Nonionizing radiation is generally considered less dangerous than
ionizing radiation. However, some forms of nonionizing radiation, such as ultraviolet, can
damage biological molecules and cause health problems. Scientists do not yet fully understand
the longer-term health effects of some forms of nonionizing radiation, such as that from very

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low-level electromagnetic fields (e.g., high-voltage power lines), although the evidence to date
suggests that the risks are extremely small.

ii) Ionizing radiation is the short wavelength radiation or particulate radiation emitted by
certain unstable isotopes during radioactive decay. There are about 70 radioactive isotopes, all
of which emit some form of ionizing radiation as they decay from one isotope to another. A
radioactive isotope typically decays through a series of other isotopes until it reaches a stable
one. As indicated by its name, ionizing radiation can ionize the atoms or molecules with which it
interacts. In other words, ionizing radiation can cause other atoms to release their electrons.
These free electrons can damage many biochemical’s, such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
(including DNA). In intense, this damage can cause severe human health problems, including
cancers, and even death.

Ionizing radiation can be either short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation or particulate

radiation. Gamma radiation and X-radiation are short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation.
Alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and protons are particulate radiation. Alpha particles,
beta particles, and gamma rays are the most commonly encountered forms of radioactive
pollution. Alpha particles are simply ionized helium nuclei, and consist of two protons and two
neutrons. Beta particles are electrons, which have a negative charge. Gamma radiation is high-
energy electromagnetic radiation.

7.3 Sources of radiation (Causes of Radiation Exposure and Contamination):

i) Natural source:
The largest impact of naturally caused radiation pollution occurs when a person breathes radon
gas that is trapped within buildings. This usually occurs in homes with basements that are not
properly vented for radon. Certain geographic areas can be more prone to radon gas exposure,
because radon emanates from the ground due to the decay of uranium and thorium. Also,
granite found in home furnishings such as counter tops and furniture tends to emit radon, which
can add to the indoor accumulation. Other more mild forms of natural radioactive elements
include: radioactive materials in the earth's crust, rays from the cosmos and trace amounts of
radioactivity in the body.

ii) Anthropogenic source:

The most well-known radiation results from the detonation of nuclear devices and the controlled
release of energy by nuclear-power generating plants. Other sources of radiation include spent-
fuel reprocessing plants, by-products of mining operations, and experimental research

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laboratories. Increased exposure to medical X-rays and to radiation emissions from microwave
ovens and other household appliances, although of considerably less magnitude, all constitute
sources of environmental radiation.

a) Accidents: There are several settings or scenarios in which radiation accidents may
occur: nuclear reactor accidents; medical radiation therapy accidents or errors in treatment dose;
accidental overexposures from industrial irradiators; lost, stolen, or misused medical or industrial
radioactive sources; and accidents during the transportation of radioactive material.

b) Terrorist Use of Nuclear Materials: The use of radioactive materials in an RDD or

a nuclear weapon by a terrorist is a remote but probable threat.

c) Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD): An RDD disperses radioactive material and

can be used for the purpose of terrorism. An RDD that uses a conventional explosive (e.g., TNT
or a plastic explosive) to disperse the radioactive material is called a “dirty bomb.” A dirty bomb
is NOT an atomic bomb. The initial explosion may kill or injure those closest to the bomb, while
the radioactive material remains to expose and contaminate survivors and emergency
responders.

d) Mining: mining and refining of uranium and thorium are also causes of nuclear
waste.

7.4 Means of contamination

Radioactive contamination can enter the body through ingestion, inhalation, absorption, or
injection. For this reason, it is important to use personal protective equipment when working with
radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating
contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals.

7.5 Radiation Measurement (Units of Measure):

When scientists measure radiation, they use different terms depending on whether they are
discussing radiation coming from a radioactive source, the radiation dose absorbed by a person,
or the risk that a person will suffer health effects (biological risk) from exposure to radiation.

Most scientists in the international community measure radiation using the System International
(SI) but still conventional units are also used. Different units of measure are used depending on
what aspect of radiation is being measured.

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i) Measuring Emitted Radiation
the amount of radiation being given off, or emitted, by a radioactive material is measured using
the conventional unit curie (Ci), named for the famed scientist Marie Curie, or the SI unit
becquerel (Bq).

A radioactive atom gives off or emits radioactivity because the nucleus has too many particles,
too much energy, or too much mass to be stable. The nucleus breaks down, or disintegrates, in
an attempt to reach a non-radioactive (stable) state. As the nucleus disintegrates, energy is
released in the form of radiation.

The Ci or Bq is used to express the number of disintegrations of radioactive atoms in a

radioactive material over a period of time. For example, one Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109)
disintegrations per second. The Ci is being replaced by the Bq. Since one Bq is equal to one
disintegration per second, one Ci is equal to 37 billion (37 X 109) Bq.

Ci or Bq may be used to refer to the amount of radioactive materials released into the
environment. For example, during the Chernobyl power plant accident that took place in the
former Soviet Union, an estimated total of 81 million Ci of radioactive cesium (a type of
radioactive material) was released.

ii) Measuring Radiation Dose

When a person is exposed to radiation, energy is deposited in the tissues of the body. The
amount of energy deposited per unit of weight of human tissue is called the absorbed dose.
Absorbed dose is measured using the conventional rad or the SI Gy (gray).

The rad, which stands for radiation absorbed dose, was the conventional unit of measurement,
but it has been replaced by the Gy. One Gy is equal to 100 rad.

iii) Measuring Biological Risk

A person's biological risk (that is, the risk that a person will suffer health effects from an
exposure to radiation) is measured using the conventional unit rem (Roentgen Equivalent Man)
or the SI unit Sv (sievert). To determine a person's biological risk, scientists have assigned a
number to each type of ionizing radiation (alpha and beta particles, gamma rays, and x-rays)
depending on that type's ability to transfer energy to the cells of the body. This number is known
as the weighting factor or Quality Factor(Q). The weighting factor is 1.0 for gamma radiation and
beta particles, and it is 20 for alpha particles.

When a person is exposed to radiation, scientists can multiply the dose in rad by the quality
factor for the type of radiation present and estimate a person's biological risk in rems. Thus, risk
in rem = rad X Q.

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The rem has been replaced by the Sv. One Sv is equal to 100 rem.

7.5.1 Difference Between Roentgen, Rad and Rem Radiation Measurements:

Since nuclear radiation affects people, we must be able to measure its presence. We also need
to relate the amount of radiation received by the body to its physiological effects. Two terms
used to relate the amount of radiation received by the body are exposure and dose. When you
are exposed to radiation, your body absorbs a dose of radiation. As in most measurement
quantities, certain units are used to properly express the measurement. For radiation
measurements they are:

Roentgen: The roentgen measures the energy produced by gamma radiation in a cubic
centimeter of air. It is usually abbreviated with the capital letter "R". A milliroentgen, or "mR", is
equal to one one-thousandth of a roentgen. An exposure of 50 roentgens would be written "50
R".

Rad: Or, Radiation Absorbed Dose recognizes that different materials that receive the same
exposure may not absorb the same amount of energy. A rad measures the amount of radiation
energy transferred to some mass of material, typically humans. One roentgen of gamma
radiation exposure results in about one rad of absorbed dose.

Rem: Or, Roentgen Equivalent Man is a unit that relates the dose of any radiation to the
biological effect of that dose. To relate the absorbed dose of specific types of radiation to their
biological effect, a "quality factor" must be multiplied by the dose in rad, which then shows the
dose in rems. For gamma rays and beta particles, 1 rad of exposure results in 1 rem of dose.

Quantity SI unit and Non-SI Conversion factor

symbol unit
Radioactivity becquerel, Bq curie, Ci 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq
= 37 Gigabecquerels
(GBq)
1 Bq = 27 picocurie (pCi)
Absorbed dose gray, Gy rad 1 rad = 0.01 Gy
"Dose" sievert, Sv rem 1 rem = 0.01 Sv
(Equivalent 1 rem = 10 mSv
dose)
Table 7.1: Units of Radioactivity and Radiation Dose

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7.6 Radiation Exposure standards:

ALARA ("as low as reasonable achievable") is a basic requirement of current radiation safety
practices. It means that every reasonable effort must be made to keep the dose to workers and
the public as far below the required limits as possible. People are exposed to radiation daily from
different sources, such as naturally occurring radioactive materials in the soil and cosmic rays
from outer space. Some common ways that people are exposed to radiation and the associated
doses are shown in the table 7.2. This exposure would be in addition to the 0.3 rem/year from
natural background radiation and the 0.05 rem/year from man-made sources such as
medical x-rays.

Source of exposure Dose in rem Dose in sievert (Sv)

Exposure to cosmic rays during a roundtrip 5 m re m 0.05 mSv
airplane flight from New York to Los
Angeles
One dental x-ray 4–15 mrem 0.04–0.15 mSv
One chest x-ray 10 mrem 0.1 mSv
One mammogram 70 mrem 0.7 mSv
One year of exposure to natural radiation 300 mrem 3 mSv
(from soil, cosmic rays, etc.)
Annual public dose limit 100 mrem 1 mSv
Annual radiation worker dose limit 5,000 mrem 50 mSv
pregnant women limit 500 mrem 5 mSv
Persons under the age of 18 years limit 500 mrem 5 mSv
Fetal dose limit 500 mrem 5 mSv
Table 7.2: Common Radiation Exposure and exposure limits

7.7 Radiation protection:

Radiation protection, sometimes known as radiological protection, is the science of
protecting people and the environment from the harmful effects of ionizing radiation, which
includes both particle radiation and high energy electromagnetic radiation.
Ionizing radiation is widely used in industry and medicine, but presents a significant health
hazard. It causes microscopic damage to living tissue, resulting in skin burns and radiation
sickness at high exposures and cancer, tumors and genetic damage at low exposures.

7.7.1 Principles of radiation protection:

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The principle used for radiation protection is ALARP. ALARP is an acronym for an important
principle in exposure to radiation and other occupational health risks and stands for "As Low As
Reasonably Practicable". The aim is to minimize the risk of radioactive exposure or other
hazard while keeping in mind that some exposure may be acceptable in order to further the task
at hand. The equivalent term ALARA, "As Low As Reasonably Achievable", is also commonly
used.
This policy is based on the principle that any amount of radiation exposure, no matter how small,
can increase the chance of negative biological effects such as cancer, though perhaps by a
negligible amount.
There are four major ways to reduce radiation exposure to workers or to population:
i) Time: Spend less time in radiation fields. Reducing the time of an exposure reduces the
effective dose proportionally.
ii) Distance: Increase distance between radioactive sources and workers or population.
iii) Amount: Reduce the quantity of radioactive material for a practice.
iv) Shielding: Use proper barriers to block or reduce ionizing radiation.
Different types of ionizing radiation behave in different ways, so different shielding techniques
are used.

Fig 7.1: Effectiveness of shielding

a) Alpha particles (helium nuclei) are the least penetrating. Even very energetic alpha
particles can be stopped by a single sheet of paper.
b) Beta particles (electrons) are more penetrating, but still can be absorbed by a few
millimeters of aluminum. However, in cases where high energy beta particles are emitted
shielding must be accomplished with low density materials, e.g. plastic, wood, water or acrylic
sheet.
c) Neutron radiation is not as readily absorbed as charged particle radiation. Neutrons are
absorbed by nuclei of atoms in a nuclear reaction.

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Cosmic radiation is not a common concern, as the Earth's atmosphere absorbs it and the
magnetosphere acts as a shield, but it poses a problem for satellites and astronauts and frequent
fliers are also at a slight risk. Cosmic radiation is extremely high energy, and is very penetrating.
Electromagnetic radiation consists of emissions of electromagnetic waves, the properties of which
depend on the wavelength.
a) X-ray and gamma radiation are best absorbed by atoms with heavy nuclei; the heavier
the nucleus, the better the absorption. In some special applications, depleted uranium is used,
but lead is much more common; several centimeters are often required. Barium sulfate is used in
some applications too. However, when cost is important, almost any material can be used, but it
must be far thicker. Most nuclear reactors use thick concrete shields to create a bioshield with a
thin water cooled layer of lead on the inside to protect the porous concrete from the coolant
inside.
b) Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is ionizing but it is not penetrating, so it can be shielded by
thin opaque layers such as sunscreen, clothing, and protective eyewear. Protection from UV is
simpler than for the other forms of radiation above.
In some cases, improper shielding can actually make the situation worse, when the radiation
interacts with the shielding material and creates secondary radiation that absorbs in the
organisms more readily.

7.8 Treatment & disposal of radiation waste

Nuclear waste is produced from industrial, medical and scientific processes that use radioactive
material. Radioactive nuclear wastes cannot be treated by conventional chemical methods and
must be stored in heavily shielded containers in areas remote from biological habitats. The safest
of storage sites currently used are impervious deep caves or abandoned salt mines. Most
radioactive wastes, however, have half-lives of hundreds to thousands of years, and to date no
storage method has been found that is absolutely infallible. (The radioactive half-life is a measure
of the persistence of radioactive material. The half-life is the time required for one-half of an
initial quantity of atoms of a radioactive isotope to decay to a different isotope)

Depending on type of radio active waste (radwaste) material, wastes must be managed in ways
which safeguard human health and minimize their impact on the environment.

Low-level Waste: Low-level Waste is generated from hospitals, laboratories and industry, as
well as the nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc. which contain
small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It is not dangerous to handle, but must be
disposed of more carefully than normal garbage. Usually it is buried in shallow landfill sites. To

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reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated (in a closed container) before disposal.
Worldwide it comprises 90% of the volume but only 1% of the radioactivity of all radwaste.

Intermediate-level Waste: Intermediate-level Waste contains higher amounts of radioactivity

and may require special shielding. It typically comprises resins, chemical sludge’s and reactor
components, as well as contaminated materials from reactor decommissioning. Worldwide it
makes up 7% of the volume and has 4% of the radioactivity of all radwaste. It may be solidified
in concrete or bitumen for disposal. Generally short-lived waste (mainly from reactors) is buried,
but long-lived waste (from reprocessing nuclear fuel) will be disposed of deep underground.

High-level Waste: High-level Waste may be the used fuel itself, or the principal waste from
reprocessing this. While only 3% of the volume of all radwaste, it holds 95% of the radioactivity.
It contains the highly-radioactive fission products and some heavy elements with long-lived
radioactivity. It generates a considerable amount of heat and requires cooling, as well as special
shielding during handling and transport. If the used fuel is reprocessed, the separated waste is
vitrified by incorporating it into borosilicate (Pyrex) glass which is sealed inside stainless steel
canisters for eventual disposal deep underground.

On the other hand, if used reactor fuel is not reprocessed, all the highly-radioactive isotopes
remain in it, and so the whole fuel assemblies are treated as high-level waste. This used fuel
takes up about nine times the volume of equivalent vitrified high-level waste which results from
reprocessing and which is encapsulated ready for disposal.

Both high-level waste and used fuel are very radioactive and people handling them must be
shielded from their radiation. Such materials are shipped in special containers which prevent the
radiation leaking out and which will not rupture in an accident.

Whether used fuel is reprocessed or not, the volume of high-level waste is modest, - about 3
cubic meters per year of vitrified waste or 25-30 tonnes of used fuel for a typical large nuclear
reactor. The relatively small amount involved allows it to be effectively and economically isolated.

Exercise:
Q. Define Radiation pollution and write sources of radiation pollution.
Q. write four effects of radiation pollution
Q. List the terms used in radiation measurement. Define RAD and REM.
Q. Write a note on radiation exposure standards.
Q. Write principle of radiation protection and explain four methods used in radiation protection.
Q. Write a note on Treatment & disposal of radiation waste

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