Reaped university questions and answers

Climate and
Built
Environment
Priya kuttvan

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 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
Two marks

1. How to classify the climate in the tropics?

2. List the various factors that affect the human thermal comfort?
3. What is shadow mask?
4. What is azimuth and altitude angle of the sun?
5. What is sol- air temperature?
6. What is the function of ventilation?
7. What is thermal comfort?
8. How wind affects the temperature we feel?
9. What is the role of sun shade in building?
10. Wright the importance of sun path Diagram?
11. Distinguish conduction and convection heat flow?
12. Define time lag?
13. Define the term stack effect?
14. How does the altitude affect the climate?
15. Define humidity with unit?
16. Define azimuth angle with a sketch?
17. What is sunshade?
18. What is thermal lag?
19. Define surface resistance?
20. What is venture effect?
21. Differentiate latent and sensible heat?
22. What is the application of azimuth angle?
23. Why should we use Psychrometric chart?
24. Define specific heat?
25. Define U-value and R-value of a material?
26. List out the components of climate?
27. Define comfort zone?
28. What is solar radiation?
29. List out the methods of heat transfer?
30. Briefly explain the significance of climatology as a subject of study of architecture?
31. What is the use of Mahon’s table in climate study?
32. How does human body deals with inner body temperature fluctuation?
33. What are the different types of shading devices?
34. What is effective temperature?
35. Wright the short note on the importance of appropriate shading device for buildings?
36. What is the different between warm-humid and hot-dry climate?
37. List out the characteristic of warm-humid climate?
38. How to prevent heat gain in building?
39. Explain convective cooling?
40. Define periodic heat flow in building?
 CLIMATE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT 16 MARKS UNIT

1. List out the Components of climate and briefly explain how they affect the climate region?

COMPONENTS OF CLIMATE:
Solar radiation
Temperature
Humidity
Vapour pressure
Precipitation
Sky conditions
Wind
Special characteristics
Vegetation
Solar radiation
Solar radiation is the radiant energy received from the sun. It is the intensity of sunrays falling per unit
time per unit area and is usually expressed in Watts per square metre (W/m2). The radiation incident
on a surface varies from moment to moment depending on its geographic location (latitude and
longitude of the place), orientation, and season, time of day and atmospheric conditions (Fig. 2.1).
Solar radiation is the
most important
weather variable that
determines whether a
place experiences high
temperatures or is
predominantly cold.
The instruments used
for measuring of solar
radiation are the
pyranometer and the
pyrheliometer. The
duration of sunshine is
measured using a
sunshine recorder.
Ambient temperature
The temperature of air in a shaded (but well ventilated) enclosure is known as the ambient
temperature; it is generally expressed in degree Celsius (ºC). Temperature at a given site depends on
wind as well as local factors such as shading, presence of water body, sunny condition, etc. When the
wind speed is low, local factors strongly influence on temperature of air close to the ground. With
higher wind speeds, the temperature of the incoming air is less affected by local factors. The effect of
various factors on the ambient temperature is shown in Fig. 2.2. A simple thermometer kept in a
Stevenson’s screen can measure ambient temperature.
Air humidity
Air humidity, which represents the amount of moisture present in the air, is usually expressed in
terms of ‘relative humidity’. Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour in a
certain volume of moist air at a given temperature, to the mass of water vapour in the same volume
of saturated air at the same temperature; it is normally expressed as a percentage. It varies
considerably, tending to be the highest close to dawn when the air temperature is at its lowest, and
decreasing as the air temperature rises. The decrease in the relative humidity towards midday tends
to be the largest in summer. In areas with high humidity levels, the transmission of solar radiation is
reduced because of atmospheric absorption and scattering. High humidity reduces evaporation of
water and sweat. Consequently, high humidity accompanied by high ambient temperature causes a
lot of discomfort. The effects of various combinations of humidity and ambient temperature are
presented in Fig. 2.3.
Precipitation
Precipitation includes water in all its forms rain, snow, hail or dew. It is usually measured in
millimetres (mm) by using a rain gauge. The effects of precipitation on buildings are illustrated in Fig.
2.4.
Wind
Wind is the movement of air due to a difference in atmospheric pressure, caused by differential
heating of land and water mass on the earth’s surface by solar radiation and rotation of earth. Wind
speed can be measured by an anemometer and is usually expressed in metres per second (m/s). It is a
major design consideration for architects because it affects indoor comfort conditions by influencing
the convective heat exchanges of a building envelope, as well as causing air infiltration into the
building (Fig. 2.5).

Sky condition
Sky condition generally refers to the extent of cloud cover in the sky or the duration of sunshine.
Under clear sky conditions, the intensity of solar radiation increases; whereas it reduces in monsoon
due to cloud cover. The re-radiation losses from the external surfaces of buildings increase when
facing clear skies than covered skies. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6. The measurement of sky cover is
expressed in oktas. For example, 3 oktas means that 3/8th of the visible sky is covered by clouds.
In addition to these factors, a number of natural elements such as hills, valleys, waterbodies,
vegetation, etc. affect the climate locally. Buildings, cities and other man-made features also have an
impact on the climate. The effects of such features are discussed in the section 2.6 under
‘Microclimate’.
MICROCLIMATE
 The conditions for transfer of energy through the building fabric and for determining the
thermal response of people are local and site-specific.
 These conditions are generally grouped under the term of ‘microclimate’, which includes
wind, radiation, temperature, and humidity experienced around a building.
 A building by its very presence will change the microclimate by causing a bluff obstruction to
the wind flow, and by casting shadows on the ground and on other buildings.
 A designer has to predict this variation and appropriately account for its effect in the design.
The microclimate of a site is affected by the following factors
(A) landform
(B) vegetation
(C) waterbodies
(D) street width and orientation
(E) open spaces and built form
An understanding of these factors greatly helps in the preparation of the site layout plan.
For example, in a hot and dry climate, the building needs to be located close to a waterbody. The
waterbody helps in increasing the humidity and lowering the temperature by evaporative cooling.

(A) Landform
 Landform represents the topography of a site. It may be flat, undulating or sloping. Major
landforms affecting a site are mountains, valleys and plains. Depending on the
macroclimate and season, some locations within a particular landform experience a
better microclimate than others. In valleys, the hot air (being lighter) rises while cooler air
having higher density, settles into the depressions, resulting in a lower temperature at the
bottom.
 Upward currents form on sunny slopes in the morning. By night, the airflow reverses
because cold ground surfaces cool the surrounding air, making it heavier and causing it to
flow down the valley. Moreover, the wind flow is higher along the direction of the valley
than across it due to unrestricted movement.
  On mountain slopes, the air speed increases as it moves up the windward side, reaching a
maximum at the crest and a minimum on the leeward side. The difference in air speed is
caused due to the low pressure area developed on the leeward side. Temperature also
varies with elevation. The cooling rate is about 0.80C for every 100m of elevation
 Air moving down the slope will thus be cooler than the air it replaces lower down, and
vice versa. Further, the orientation of the slope also plays a part in determining the
amount of solar radiation incident on the site. For example a south-facing slope will get
more exposure than a north-facing one in the northern hemisphere. Studies conducted in
Mardin, Turkey showed that building groups located on a south facing slope in the city
needed approximately 50% less heat to maintain the same indoor temperature as
buildings located on the plain land.
 Careful positioning of a building with respect to landform can thus help in achieving
comfort.

(B) Waterbodies
 Waterbodies can be in the form of sea, lake, river, pond or fountains. Since water has a
relatively high latent heat of vaporisation, it absorbs a large amount of heat from the
surrounding air for evaporation.
 The cooled air can then be introduced in the building. Evaporation of water also raises the
humidity level. This is particularly useful in hot and dry climates.
 Since water has a high specific heat, it provides an ideal medium for storage of heat that
can be used for heating purposes. Large waterbodies tend to reduce the difference
between day and night temperatures because they act as heat sinks.
 Thus, sites near oceans and large lakes have less temperature variation between day and
night, as well as between summer and winter as compared to inland sites. Also, the
maximum temperature in summer is lower near water than on inland sites.
 The wind flow pattern at a site is influenced by the presence of a large waterbody in the
following way. Wind flow is generated due to the difference in the heat storing capacity
of water and land, and the consequent temperature differentials.
 During the day, the land heats up faster than the water, causing the air over the land to
rise and be replaced by cool air from water. Hence, the breeze blows towards the land
from water during the day and in the reverse direction at night. (as land cools more
rapidly than water). Evaporative cooling can help to maintain comfort in buildings in hot
and dry climate. This feature was successfully adopted in vernacular architecture.
 For example, the Deegh palace in Bharatpur is surrounded by a water garden to cool the
neighbourhood. Other examples include the Taj Mahal at Agra and the palace at Mandu.
The evaporation rate of water in such an open spaces depends on the surface area of the
water, the relative humidity of the air, and the water temperature.
(C) Vegetation
 Vegetation plays an important role in changing the climate of a city, as seen in section 2.5.
It is also effective in controlling the microclimate. Plants, shrubs and trees cool the
environment when they absorb radiation for photosynthesis.
 They are useful in shading a particular part of the structure and ground for reducing the
heat gain and reflected radiation.
 By releasing moisture, they help raise the humidity level. Vegetation also creates different
air flow patterns by causing minor pressure differences, and thus can be used to direct or
divert the prevailing wind advantage.
  Based on the requirement of a climate, an appropriate type of tree can be selected.
Planting deciduous trees such as mulberry to shade east and west walls would prove
beneficial in hot and dry zones. In summer, they provide shade from intense morning and
evening sun, reduce glare, as well as cut off hot breezes.
 On the other hand, deciduous trees shed their leaves in winter and allow solar radiation
to heat the building. The cooling effect of vegetation in hot and dry climates comes
predominantly from evaporation, while in hot humid climates the shading effect is more
significant.
 Trees can be used as windbreaks to protect both buildings and outer areas such as lawns
and patios from both hot and cold winds.
 The velocity reduction behind the windbreak depends on their height, density, cross-
sectional shape, width, and length, the first two being the most important factors.
 When the wind does not blow perpendicular to the windbreak, the sheltered area is
decreased. The rate of infiltration in buildings is proportional to the wind pressure.
 Therefore, it is more important to design windbreaks for maximum wind speed reduction
in extreme climates, than to attempt to maximize the distance over which the windbreak
is effective. In cold climates, windbreaks can reduce the heat loss in buildings by reducing
wind flow over the buildings, thereby reducing convection and infiltration losses.
 A single-row of high density trees in the form of a windbreak can reduce infiltration in a
residence by about 60% when planted about four tree heights from the building.
 This corresponds to about 15% reduction in energy costs. Thus, trees can be effectively
used to control the microclimate.
(D) Street width and orientation
 The amount of direct radiation received by a building and the street in an urban area is
determined by the street width and its orientation.
 The buildings on one side of the street tend to cast a shadow on the street on the
opposite building, by blocking the sun’s radiation.
 Thus the width of the street can be relatively narrow or wide depending upon whether
the solar radiation is desirable or not. For instance in Jaisalmer (hot and dry climate),
most of the streets are narrow with buildings shading each other to reduce the solar
radiation, and consequently the street temperature and heat gain of buildings.
 Figure 2.16 shows the street temperatures in summer and winter in Jaisalmer as
compared to temperatures recorded at the meteorological station.
 It is seen that street temperatures can be up to 2.5oC lower than the ambient air
temperatures due to mutual shading of buildings.
 At high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, the solar radiation is predominantly from
the south, hence wider east-west streets give better winter solar access.
 
 The orientation of the street is also useful for controlling airflow. Air movement in streets
can be either an asset or a liability, depending on season and climate.
 The streets can be oriented parallel to prevailing wind direction for free airflow in warm
climates. Smaller streets or pedestrian walkways may have number of turns (zigzags) to
modulate wind speed.
 Wind is desirable in streets of hot climates to cool people and remove excess heat from
the streets. It can also help in cross ventilation of buildings.
 This is important in humid climates, and at night in arid climates. In cold regions, wind
increases heat losses of buildings due to infiltration. For restricting or avoiding wind in
cold regions, the streets may be oriented at an angle or normal to the prevailing wind
direction.
 For regular organisations of buildings in an urban area, tall buildings on narrow streets
yield the most wind protection, while shorter buildings on wider streets promote more air
movement.
 When major streets are parallel to winds, the primary factors affecting the wind velocity
are the width of streets and the frontal area (height and width) of windward building
faces.
(E) Open spaces and built form
 The form of a building and the open spaces in its neighbourhood affect the radiation
falling on the building’s surface and the airflow in and around it.
 Open spaces such as courtyards can be designed such that solar radiation incident on
them during daytime can be reflected on to building façades for augmenting solar heat.
 This is desirable in cold climates, and it is possible if the surface finish of the courtyard is
reflective in nature.
 Inside a courtyard, wind conditions are primarily dependent on the proportion between
building height and courtyard width in the section along the wind flow line.
 Courtyards can also be designed to act as heat sinks. Grass and other vegetation in a
courtyard can provide cooling due to evaporation and shading.
  Water sprayed on the courtyards would cause cooling effect due to evaporation.
Consequently, the air temperature in the courtyard can be much lower compared to
street or outdoor air temperatures in a hot and dry climate.
 Figure 2.17 presents the measured temperature at Jaisalmer, showing the maximum of
courtyard temperature as 4 oC less than that of the outdoor air temperature

 The air in open spaces shaded by surrounding buildings would be cooler and can be used
to facilitate proper ventilation and promote heat loss through building envelope.
 Built forms can be so oriented that buildings cause mutual shading and thus reduce heat
gain. For ensuring unobstructed airflow, taller structures can be planned towards the rear
side of a building complex.
 Thus, open spaces and built form can be appropriately used to modulate the
microclimate.

2. Explain the characteristic features of elements of climate in any two tropical zones?

Hot and Dry zone

 The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India; Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Sholapur are
some of the towns that experience this type of climate.
 A typical hot and dry region is usually flat with sandy or rocky ground conditions, and sparse vegetation
comprising cacti, thorny trees and bushes.
 There are few sources of water on the surface, and the underground water level is also very low. Due to
intense solar radiation (values as high as 800-950 W/m2), the ground and the surroundings of this region
are heated up very quickly during day time.
 In summer, the maximum ambient temperatures are as high as 40–45 ºC during the day, and 20–30 ºC at
night.
 In winter, the values are between 5 and 25 ºC during the day and 0 to 10 ºC at night.
 It may be noted that the diurnal variation in temperature is quite high, that is, more than 10 ºC.
 The climate is described as dry because the relative humidity is generally very low, ranging from 25 to 40 %
due to low vegetation and surface water bodies.
 Moreover, the hot and dry regions receive less rainfall- the annual precipitation being less than 500 mm.
 Hot winds blow during the day in summers and sand storms are also experienced.
 The night is usually cool and pleasant. A generally clear sky, with high solar radiation causing an
uncomfortable glare, is typical of this zone.
 As the sky is clear at night, the heat absorbed by the ground during the day is quickly dissipated to the
atmosphere. Hence, the air is much cooler at night than during the day.
 In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar radiation and movement of hot winds. The design criteria
should therefore aim at resisting heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and
scheduling ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity.
 The presence of “water bodies” is desirable as they can help increase the humidity, thereby leading to
lower air temperatures.
 The ground and surrounding objects emit a lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings. As far as possible,
this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.

Warm and Humid zone

 The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country. Some cities that fall under this
zone are Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
 The high humidity encourages abundant vegetation in these regions. The diffuse fraction of solar
radiation is quite high due to cloud cover, and the radiation can be intense on clear days.
 The dissipation of the accumulated heat from the earth to the night sky is generally marginal due to
the presence of clouds.
 Hence, the diurnal variation in temperature is quite low. In summer, temperatures can reach as high
as 30 – 35 ºC during the day, and 25 – 30 ºC at night.
 In winter, the maximum temperature is between 25 to 30 ºC during the day and 20 to 25 ºC at night.
Although the temperatures are not excessive, the high humidity causes discomfort.
 An important characteristic of this region is the relative humidity, which is generally very high, about
70 – 90 % throughout the year.
 Precipitation is also high, being about 1200 mm per year, or even more. Hence, the provision for quick
drainage of water is essential in this zone.
 The wind is generally from one or two prevailing directions with speeds ranging from extremely low to
very high.
 Wind is desirable in this climate, as it can cause sensible cooling of the body. The main design criteria
in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and promote heat loss by
maximising cross ventilation. Dissipation of humidity is also essential to reduce discomfort.

Moderate zone
 Pune and Bangalore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone. Areas having a moderate
climate are generally located on hilly or high-plateau regions with fairly abundant vegetation.
 The solar radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the year. Being located at
relatively higher elevations, these places experience lower temperatures than hot and dry regions.
The temperatures are neither too hot nor too cold. In summers, the temperature reaches 30 – 34 ºC
during the day and 17 – 24 ºC at night.
 In winter, the maximum temperature is between 27 to 33 ºC during the day and 16 to 18 ºC at night.
The relative humidity is low in winters and summers, varying from 20 – 55%, and going upto 55 – 90%
during monsoons.
 The total rainfall usually exceeds 1000 mm per year. Winters are dry in this zone. Winds are generally
high during summer.
 Their speed and direction depend mainly upon the topography.
 The sky is mostly clear with occasional presence of low, dense clouds during summers.
 The design criteria in the moderate zone are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and to
promote heat loss by ventilation.


Composite zone
 The composite zone covers the central part of India. Some cities that experience this type of climate
are New Delhi, Kanpur and Allahabad. A variable landscape and seasonal vegetation characterise this
zone.
 The intensity of solar radiation is very high in summer with diffuse radiation amounting to a small
fraction of the total.
 In monsoons, the intensity is low with predominantly diffuse radiation. The maximum daytime
temperature in summers is in the range of 32 – 43 ºC, and night time values are from 27 to 32 ºC. In
winter, the values are between 10 to 25 ºC during the day and 4 to 10 ºC at night.
 The relative humidity is about 20 – 25 % in dry periods and 55 – 95 % in wet periods. The presence of
high humidity during monsoon months is one of the reasons why places like New Delhi and Nagpur
are grouped under the composite and not hot and dry climate.
 Precipitation in this zone varies between 500 – 1300 mm per year. This region receives strong winds
during monsoons from the south-east and dry cold winds from the north-east.
 In summer, the winds are hot and dusty. The sky is overcast and dull in the monsoon, clear in winter
and frequently hazy in summer. Generally, composite regions experience higher humidity levels
during monsoons than hot and dry zones.
 Otherwise most of their characteristics are similar to the latter. Thus, the design criteria are more or
less the same as for hot and dry climate except that maximising cross ventilation is desirable in the
monsoon period.

Cold and Cloudy zone

 Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy regions
are situated at high altitudes. Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and Mahabaleshwar are
examples of places belonging to this climatic zone.
 These are generally highland regions having abundant vegetation in summer. The intensity of solar
radiation is low in winter with a high percentage of diffuse radiation.
 Hence, winters are extremely cold. In summer, the maximum ambient temperature is in the range of
20 – 30 ºC during the day and 17 – 27 ºC at night, making summers quite pleasant.
 In winter, the values range between 4 and 8 ºC during the day and from -3 to 4 ºC at night, making it
quite chilly.
 The relative humidity is generally high and ranges from 70 – 80 %. Annual total precipitation is about
1000 mm and is distributed evenly throughout the year.
 This region experiences cold winds in the winter season. Hence, protection from winds is essential in
this type of climate.
 The sky is overcast for most part of the year except during the brief summer. Conditions in summer
are usually clear and pleasant, but owing to cold winters, the main criteria for design in the cold and
cloudy region aim at resisting heat loss by insulation and infiltration, and promoting heat gain by
directly admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space.

 Cold and Sunny zone

 The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in Leh (Ladakh). The region is mountainous, has
little vegetation, and is considered to be a cold desert.
 The solar radiation is generally intense with a very low percentage of diffuse radiation. In summer, the
temperature reaches 17 – 24 ºC during the day and 4 – 11 ºC at night.
 In winter, the values range from -7 to 8 ºC during the day and -14 to 0 ºC at night. Winters thus, are
extremely cold. The relative humidity is consistently low ranging from about 10 – 50 % and
precipitation is generally less than 200 mm per year.
 Winds are occasionally intense. The sky is fairly clear throughout the year with a cloud cover of less
than 50%.
 As this region experiences cold desert climatic conditions, the design criteria are to resist heat loss by
insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be promoted by admitting
and trapping solar radiation within the living space.

3. Wright the method of finding the thermal comfort level for a given place?
Thermal comfort is, “That condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”.

 It is also, “the range of climatic conditions

within which a majority of the people would not
feel discomfort either of heat or cold”.
 Such a zone in still air corresponds to a range
of 20 – 30 ºC dry bulb temperature with 30 – 60
% relative humidity.
 Besides, various climatic elements such as
wind speed, vapour pressure and radiation also
affect the comfort conditions.
 Figure 2.14 illustrates a ‘Comfort Zone’ on a
bio-climatic chart − a simple tool for analysing
the climate of a particular place.
 It indicates the zones of human comfort
based on ambient temperature and humidity,
mean radiant temperature, wind speed, solar
radiation and evaporative cooling.
 On the chart, dry bulb temperature is used
as the ordinate, and relative humidity as the
abscissa. Based on the dry bulb temperature and
humidity of a place, one can locate a point on
the chart.
 If it lies within the comfort zone, then the
conditions are comfortable. In case it is above
the zone, cooling is required; if it is below the
zone, heating is needed.

 If the point is higher than the upper perimeter of the comfort zone, air movement needs to
be increased.
 For conditions when the temperature is high and relative humidity is low, air movement will
not help. On the other hand, evaporative cooling is desirable.
 If the point lies below the lower perimeter of the comfort zone, heating is necessary to
counteract low dry-bulb temperature.
 If the point lies to the left of the comfort zone, either radiant heating or cooling is necessary.
Thus, a bioclimatic chart can give ready information about the requirements of comfort at a
particular time.
 Design decisions can be taken accordingly. Based on the characteristics of climate, the
comfort requirements for each climatic zone are presented in Table 2.2. The corresponding
physical manifestations are also mentioned in the table.

4. Describe briefly on the thermal balance of the human body with neat sketch?

THE BODY’S HEAT LOSS

The deep body temperature must remain balanced and constant around 37*C. In order to maintain body
temperature at this steady level, all surplus heat must be dissipated to the environment.
 If there is some form of simultaneous heat gain from the environment (e.g. solar radiation or warm
air) that also must be dissipated the body can release heat to its environment by convection, radiation
and evaporation – and to a lesser extent by conduction.
 Convection is due to heat transmission from the body to the air in contact with the skin or clothing
which then rises and is replaced by cooler air. The rate of convective heat loss is increased by a faster
rate of air movement, by lower air temperature and a higher skin temperature.
 Radiant heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of opposing
surfaces
 Evaporation heat loss is governed by the rate of evaporation, which is turn depends on the humidity
of air (the dryer the air, the faster the evaporation) and on the amount of moisture available for
evaporation. Evaporation takes place in The lungs through breathing and on the skin as imperceptible
perspiration and sweat
 Conduction depends on the temperature difference between the body surface and the object the
body is in direct contact with

REGULATORY MECHANISMS
the thermal balance of the body is shown and can be expressed by an equation. If the heat gain and
heat loss factors are
Gain:
 Met = metabolism (basal and muscular)
 Cnd = conduction ( contact with warm bodies )
 Cnv = convection ( if the air is warmer than the skin )
 Rad = radiation ( from the sun , the sky and hot bodies )
Loss:
 Cnd = conduction (contact with cold bodies)
 Cnv = convection (if the air is cooler than the skin)
 Rad = radiation (to night sky and cold surfaces)
 Evp = evaporation (of moisture and sweat)
Then thermal balance exists when Met – Evp+Cnd+Cnv+Rad = 0
5. What is Mahoney’s table? Explain the use of it for climate application design?
6. Explain the body heat loss process in the thermal environment
 In site climate, the importance of four factors emphasised, which would directly affect human
comfort. Those are
 air temperature
 Humidity
 Air movement
 and radiation
This factors anyway influences the heat exchange process between human body body and
environment
a. Calm, warm air, moderate humidity
In a temperature climate, indoors when the air temperature is around 18 degree, when the air is
clam, I,e. air velocity does not exceed 0.2 m/s and when the humidity is between 40 and 60% a
person engaged in secondary work will dissipate the surplus heat without any difficulty, in the
following ways:
By radiation 45%
By convection 30%
By evaporation 25%
If the temperature of bounding surface is same as the air temperature

b. Hot air, radiation and appreciable air movement?

The normal skin temperature is between 31 dec and 34 dec, as the air temperature approaches
skin temperature, convection heat loss and gradually decreases. Vasomotor regulation will
increase the skin temperature to the higher limits (34dec ), but when the air temperature reaches
this point, there will be no more convection heat loss.
As long as the average temperature of opening surface is below skin temperature there will be
some radiation heat loss, but also the surface temperature increases the radiation loss and
diminished. Radiant heat from the sun or a hot body can be a substantial heat gain factor
When both the convection and radiant elements in the heat exchange process are positive,
boadily thermal balance may still be maintained by evaporation up to a limit, provided the air is
sufficient dry to permit a high evaporation rate.

7. Highlight the sun path diagram in shading device design and those types?

Sun path diagram

 There are several ways of showing the 3-D sky hemisphere on a 2-D circular diagram. The
sun's path on a given date would then be plotted on this representation of the sky
hemisphere as a sun-path line.
 The orthographic (or parallel) projection is the method used in technical drafting. Fig.14
shows how points of the hemisphere (shown at 15o altitude increments) would be projected
onto the horizon plane, giving the positions of the corresponding altitude circles on the
horizon plane. Note that the altitude circles (of equal increments) are spaced very close
together near the horizon and are widely spaced nearer the zenith.
 Each sun-path line is valid for two dates: one between December and June and one between
June and December. Section 5 describes a short computer program that can be used to
generate such a diagram for any latitude and can also be used for shading design.
 Gnomonic projections
 Sun-clocks or sun-dials have been used for thousands of years. There are two basic types: horizontal and
vertical. With a horizontal sun-dial the direction of the shadow cast by the gnomon (a rod or pin) indicates the
time of day. Conversely, if the direction of this shadow for a particular hour is known, then the direction of the
sun (its azimuth angle) for that hour can be predicted.
 If the length of the gnomon is known, then the length of the shadow cast will indicate the solar altitude angle.
During the day the tip of the shadow will describe a curved line, which can be adopted as the sun-path line for
that day
 The principles of a vertical sun dial are similar, except that the gnomon is protruding horizontally from a
vertical plane, onto which the shadow is cast (Fig.24). There are also sun dials casting the shadow onto a
cylindrical or curved surface, but these are not considered here.
 If the viewing point is taken to be at the tip of the gnomon and a transparent sheet is placed between this
point and the sun, the position of the sun can be marked on it.
 The curve described by this point during the day on the transparent sheet is the sun-path line for that day. The
distance of this sheet (the picture-plane) from the viewing point is the perspective distance.
 The sun-path line thus produced is the inverted image of the curve described by the shadow of the gnomon's
tip, if the length of the gnomon is the same as the perspective distance. The method is referred to as the
gnomonic or perspective projection method.

SHADING DESIGN
 Solar radiation incident on a window consists of three components: beam-(direct-) radiation,
diffuse-(sky-) and reflected radiation. External shading devices can eliminate the beam component
(which is normally the largest) and reduce the diffuse component. The design of such shading
devices employs two shadow angles: HSA and VSA.
Shadow angles
Shadow angles express the sun's position in relation to
a building face of given orientation and can be used
either to describe the performance of (i.e. the shadow
produced by) a given device or to specify a device.
Horizontal shadow angle (HSA) is the difference in
azimuth between the sun's position and the orientation
of the building face considered, the edge of the shadow
falls on the point considered (Fig.29):
 HSA = AZI - ORI
By convention, this is positive when the sun is clockwise from the orientation (when AZI > ORI) and
negative when the sun is anticlockwise (when AZI < ORI).
 When the HSA is between +/- 90o and 270o, then the sun is behind the facade, the facade is in
shade, there is no HSA. Section 4.4 gives two further checks for results beyond 270o.
 The horizontal shadow angle describes the performance of a vertical shading device. Fig.30 shows
that many combinations of vertical elements
can give the same shading performance.
 The vertical shadow angle (VSA) (or 'profile
angle' for some authors) is measured on a
plane perpendicular to the building face. VSA
can exist only when the HSA is between -90o
and +90o, i.e. when the sun reaches the
building face considered.
 When the sun is directly opposite,
 I.e. when AZI = ORI (HSA = 0o), the VSA is the
same as the solar altitude angle (VSA = ALT).
 When the sun is sideways, its altitude angle
will be projected, parallel with the building face, onto the perpendicular plane and the VSA will be
larger than the ALT (Fig.31) (see also section 4.4, eq.10). Alternatively, VSA can be considered as the
angle between two planes meeting along a horizontal line on the building face and which contains
the point considered,
 I.e. between the horizontal plane and a tilted plane which contains the sun or the edge of the a
shading device.
 8. What do you understand by horizontal and vertical shading and shadow angle? Explain through
schematic diagram the design of shading device?
 HSA horizontal shadow angle, from the surface normal, or azimuth difference, clockwise +ve,
anticlockwise –ve
 The horizontal shadow angle (HSA) is relevant for vertical shading devices such as fins. It is easy to
determine: It's the angle between the normal of the window pane and the azimuth of the sun.
 HSA = azimuth - orientation
 VSA vertical shadow angle, within a plane perpendicular to a vertical surface, from horizontal
 The vertical shadow angle (VSA) is a little bit more difficult. If we imagine a virtual plane between the
bottom left-hand and right-hand corners of the window and the sun, then the VSA is the angle this
plane forms with the ground plane. The VSA is required when designing horizontal shading devices
such as overhangs.
 VSA = arc tan( tan(altitude) / cos(HSA) )

The shadow angle protractor

 This is a semi-circular protractor, radial lines, marked 0 at the centre, to -90o to the left and +90o
to the right, to give readings of the HSAb
 arcual lines, which coincide with the altitude circles along the centreline, but then deviate and
verge at the two corners of the protractor; these will give readings of the VSA.
 Shows a pair of vertical devices in plan: two fins at the sides of a window. Connection of the edge
of the device to the opposite corner of the window gives the shading line, which defines the HSA
of the device.
 Superimposing the protractor the HSA can be read (centre of protractor to left edge of window:
HSA = +60 degree, to right hand edge gives -60degree) and a shading mask can be constructed
(traced).

 The shading mask will be sectoral in shape (Fig.35). This shading mask, when superimposed on
the sun-path diagram (according to the orientation of the building), will cover all the time-
points (dates and hours) when the point considered will be in shade

 shows the section of a window, with a canopy over it. The line connecting the edge of the canopy
to the window sill gives the shading line. The angle between this and the horizontal is the VSA of
the device.
 If the corresponding arcual line of the protractor is traced, this will give the shading mask of the
canopy (Fig.38). Placed over the sun-path diagram it will cover the times when the device is
effective
 


9. Discuss the understanding of movement of sun and building form in relation to sun?

EARTH - SUN RELATIONSHIP

 The earth is almost spherical in shape, some 12 700 km in diameter and it revolves around the
sun in a slightly elliptical (almost circular) orbit. The earth - sun distance is approximately 150
million km, varying between 152 million km (at aphelion, on July 1) and 147 million km (at
perihelion, on January 1)
 The full revolution takes 365.24 days (365 days 5 h 48’ 46” to be precise) and as the calendar
year is 365 days, an adjustment is necessary: one extra day every four years (the ‘leap year’).
This would mean 0.25 days per year, which is too much.
The excess 0.01 day a year is compensated by a one day

adjustment per century. The plane of the

earth's revolution is referred to as the
ecliptic. The earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.45o from the normal to the plane of the
ecliptic (Fig.1). The angle between the plane of the earth's equator and the ecliptic (or the
earth - sun line) is the declination (DEC) and it varies between +23.45o on June 22 (northern
solstice) and -23.45o on December
22 (southern solstice, Fig.2).

 On equinox days (approximately March 22 and Sept.21) the earth – sun line is within the
plane of the equator, thus DEC = 0o.
 Geographical latitude (LAT) of a point on the earth's surface is the angle subtended between
the plane of the equator and the line connecting the centre with the surface point
considered.
 In most practical work we consider our point of location on the earth's surface as the centre
of the world: the horizon circle is assumed to be flat and the sky is a hemispherical vault.
  The sun's apparent position on this 'sky vault' can be defined in terms of two angles
 altitude (ALT) - measured in the vertical plane, between the sun's direction and the
horizontal; in some texts this is referred to as 'elevation' or 'profile angle'
 azimuth (AZI) - the direction of the sun measured in the horizontal plane from north in a
clockwise direction (thus east = 90o, south = 180o and west = 270o, whilst north can be 0 or
360o); also referred to as 'bearing' by some; many authors use 0o for south (in the northern
hemisphere) and have -90o for east and +90o for west, or the converse for the southern
hemisphere, taking 0o for north and going through east to+180o and through west to -180o.
The convention here adopted is the only one universally valid.

The design process- the task of shading design can be divided into three steps:

 1 - Determine the overheated period, i.e. the dates and times when shading should be
provided. This can be taken as the time when the monthly mean temperature is higher than
the lower comfort limit. The daily temperature profile should be looked at to ascertain the
hours when shading is necessary. (A more precise definition of this overheated period should
take into account also the type of building, the amount of internal heat gain and even the
relationship of solar gain to the building mass available for heat storage. This is beyond the
scope of the present Note.)
 2- By using the appropriate sun-path diagram and the protractor establish the necessary
horizontal or vertical shadow angles (or a combination of the two), as performance
specification for the device to be designed.
 3 - Design the actual device to satisfy these performance specifications.
10. Define sun path and sun path diagram? Explain how to read the general sun path diagram? And
overheated period?
Sun Path Diagrams
 The solar altitude, and the solar azimuth, can be read directly for any date of the year and any hour of
the day from the solar charts or sun path diagrams.
 There are several methods of projection for representing the sun"s apparent movement two
dimensionally but the "stereographic" method described here is generally used.
 Consider any point on the Earth’s surface to be covered by an imaginary hemisphere.
 Any point on the surface of the hemisphere is connected to the sphere’s nadir - equivalent to viewing
the inside surface of the upper hemisphere from the nadir as the eyes position.
 These connecting, or sight lines cut the equatorial plane of the sphere; this plane can represent the
horizon. On this plane, at the intersection of sight lines, every point on the surface of the hemisphere
can be projected.
 This yields a two dimensional projection, with the horizon forming the outer circle and the zenith the
centre of the hemisphere’s surface.
 On such a projection, the paths of the sun can be plotted, as they would appear to pass over the
imaginary sky hemisphere; the altitudes can be represented by a series of concentric rings and the
azimuths by a scale from 0° to 180° along the periphery.
 Hence, the altitude and azimuth of the sun at any date and time can be read off directly. Each such
diagram will be correct for one Latitude; by reversal of the dating, each such diagram will also serve
for the equivalent Latitude in the other hemisphere.
 The sun path diagrams also have hour lines plotted on them. All these times are in true solar time;
that is the Sun is due south (in the northern hemisphere) at noon. It will be seen that the equinox sun
paths at all Latitudes show sunrise exactly due east and sunset due west, at 6:00 and 18:00 hours,
respectively.

The method to read the altitude and azimuth angle from the sun path diagram
 11. Design a shading device for opening in north wall by assuming location and data?

Designing Shading Systems By assuming location as Chennai and data according to Warm humid climatic
The functions of external shading devices include:
 allowing a view out
 protection from rain
 protection from direct solar radiation
 protection from sky glare

 Step One
It is necessary to determine when shading is required, that is at what times of the year and during
what hours of the day. This is usually done by defining the overheated and under heated periods.
 Step Two
The position of the sun at the times when shading is required must be established. This is usually done
with the aid of a sun-path diagram.
 Step Three
The dimensions and proportions of the shading device that will provide shading during the period
earlier defined is found. This is done with the aid of a shadow single pro tractor.
 Step Four
The choice of prefabricated devices or the design of new ones. The design of shading devices takes
not only the required geometry into consideration but also aesthetic and structural factors.
 Shading devices should be selected according to the orientation of the window. Whilst some
orientations are easy to shade, others are much more difficult as the sun can shine almost straight in
at times. The table below indicates the most appropriate type of shading device to use for each
orientation in the southern hemisphere.
 These are guidelines and, of course, there are many variations to these basic types.
Orientation - Effective Shading
East or West - Vertical device/louvres (moveable)
North (equator-facing) - Not required
South (pole-facing) - Fixed horizontal device
 By assuming location as Chennai and data according to Warm humid climatic
The north facing opening and widows need not required and external shading device.

12. How do you describe the position of sun on given day? Sketch neat zero degree sun path diagrams and
highlight salient features?

The stereographic chart projects a view of the sky onto a horizontal plane. Radiating lines indicate azimuth
and concentric circles show angular altitude.
These diagrams may be used to indicate which sections of the sky are free of obstructions and, consequently,
the relative importance of the periods when solar light will be blocked.
The horizon is represented by the outermost circle, at the periphery. The altitude of the sun above the
horizon is read on the various concentric circles, from 0 to 90 degrees.
The angle of azimuth is written on the periphery (0 degrees is south, east and west are 90 degrees on either
side.
By understanding the overheating period and under heating period through shading sun path diagram by
using horizontal shading angle and vertical shading angle. We can able to find the suitable shading device as
follows
1. What is time lag and decrement factor? How is it significant to designer? Using a brick cavity wall as
example?
Or
Explain time lag and decrement using brick cavity wall as an example with their controls? And heat
transfer in glass?
Or
How will you find out the U- value for a brick wall construction with layers of brick each 9 cm thick with
3cm air cavity between them and external side finished with 1cm thick cement plastering on both sides?

Periodic heat flow

 In nature the variation
of climatic conditions
produces a non-steady
state.
Diurnal - variations
produce an
approximately repetitive
24-hour cycle of
increasing and
decreasing
temperatures.
 The effect of this on a
building is that in the hot period heat flows from the environment into the building,
  Where some of it is stored, and at night during the cool period, the heat flow is reversed:
from the building to the environment.
 As the cycle is repetitive, it can be described as periodic heat flow.
Time-lag & decrement factor - The two quantities characterizing this periodic change are the
time-lag (or phase shift θ) and the decrement factor (or amplitude attenuation µ).
The decrement factor is the ratio of the maximum outer and inner surface temperature amplitudes taken
from the daily mean.

Thermal lag is the delay of heat transmitted through a wall. It's a measurement of the ability
of walling material to slowly absorb and release heat energy.
 Only brick and other heavyweight
materials offer this property. Exposing a
brick wall to winter sunlight can be crucial
to passive solar hearing design in regions
with large swings of temperature from day
to night.
 While insulation will stop heat, brick
stores heat from sunlight during the day
and releases it during winter evening
hours. Because of the higher angle of the
midday sun during summer months, a
passive solar heating design will throw
shade on the brick wall during summer
months to block sunlight, keeping a home
cooler.
 Time -lag: The delay in the heat flow measured in units of time (eg. Hours)
Decrement factor: It is the difference between the outdoor and indoor temperature swings. The lower the
decrement factor, the larger the difference between these swings.
Dec factor= Indoor maximum .temp. / Outdoor maximum .temp.


CONDUCTIVITY AND RESISTIVITY OF SOME

MATERIALS

Conductivity (k) W/m deg C resistivity (b/k)

o Asbestos cement sheet : 0.360 2.78
o Brick work : 1.210 0.83
o Concrete : 1.440 0.69
o plaster board (gypsum) : 0.159 6.33
o plywood : 0.138 7.25
o stone ( granite ) : 2.920 0.34
o straw board ( timber ) : 0.093 10.75
o wood chip board : 0.108 9.26

TRANSMITTANCE (U-VALUE) OF SOME CONSTRUCTIONS (in W/m2 deg C)

Bricks: Walls (thickness)

o solid UN plastered 114 mm 3.64
o Plastered both sides 114 mm 3.24
o Solid, UN plastered 228 mm 2.67
 o Plastered both sides 228 mm 2.44
o Concrete 152 mm 3.58
o Stone 305 mm 2.84
o Brick cavity 280 mm 1.70
o Concrete block cavity 250 mm 1.19

In case of insulation for thermal and acoustics

 There are 3 types of controls for thermal lag and decrement factor in design, those are

 Micro climatic control

Controls- The environment immediately outside and between buildings can be influenced by the design of a
settlement and by the grouping of buildings to a minor extent. Structural (passive) means of control can
provide a further levelling out of the climatic variations, and often even comfort conditions can be achieved
by such means. (Passive solar heating/cooling techniques, etc.) Precisely controlled indoor climate can only
be achieved by mechanical (active) controls (the straight line in the figure), but this may not be our aim, and
even if it is, with adequate structural controls, the task of mechanical controls is radically reduced and it
becomes more economical.
 Structural controls
Structural Controls Heat absorbing glass on opaque surfaces the incident radiation is partly absorbed and
partly reflected, a + r = 1 with transparent bodies, it may be absorbed, reflected or transmitted. a + r + t = 1
An ordinary window glass transmits a large proportion of all radiation between 300 and 3000 nm, i.e. both
visible light and short‐wave infra‐ red, but very little around and outside the 300 to 3000 nm range.
Its transmittance is selective. This selective transmittance can be modified by varying the composition of the
glass to reduce substantially the infra‐red transmission, whilst only slightly affecting the light transmission.
Such a
product
is
referred
to as heat
absorbing
glass.

Whilst
the heat
absorbing
glasses
achieve a
selective
 transmittance by selectivity in absorption, the heat reflecting glass achieves a similar selective
transmittance by selectivity in reflection. The glass is coated by a thin film of metal (usually
nickel or gold), applied by vacuum evaporation. Such glasses absorb very little heat, therefore
the improvement in reducing the total solar gain is far greater, but unfortunately they are still
rather expensive. Recently, several types of photo chromatic or light‐sensitive glasses have
been developed, containing sub microscopic halide crystals, which turn dark when exposed to
strong light and regain their transparency when the light source is removed. Their
transmittance may thus vary between 74% and 1%. When the technique is more developed
and more economical, these glasses may have a future in solar control.
 Mechanical control is the method of using fans, air conditioners and HCAC systems to control
the indoor temperature.

2. Wright notes on: conductivity, resistivity, Air to air transmittance, cavity wall, thermal capacity, specific
heat, glass as a cladding material, air cavities?

Heat transmission
Heat always flows from a higher temperature to a lower
temperature.
The quantity of heat transmitted through a material depends on
 its conductivity;
 the temperature difference between outside and inside;
 the thickness of the material;
 The surface conductance.

THE CONDUCTIVITY
 In conduction, the spread of molecular movement constitutes the
flow k (W/mK) of heat. The rate of heat flow varies with different
materials and depends on its thermal conductivity (k). It is defined
as the rate of heat flow through a unit area of unit thickness of the
material, by a unit temperature difference between the two sides.
 The dimensionis W/mK. This value is used to compare the thermal
insulation effectiveness of materials that are homogeneous in
composition.
 Its value ranges from 0.03 W/mK for thermal insulation materials up
to 400 W/mK for metals. The lower the conductivity, the better the
material is as an insulator.

Resistance - R (m2K/W) The resistance depends on the

conductivity and the thickness of a material. It is defined as thickness
k
 The total resistance of a composite construction is the sum of the
resistance of its components, thus R1 + R2 + R3 = R total.
 A thin layer of air film separates the material surface from the
 Surrounding ambient air, and this air film has a specific conductance
(f) in relation to the transfer between material and the surrounding
air.
 Surface conductance includes the convection and radiant
 Components of the heat exchange at the surfaces. The resistance
 Of these films is expressed as 1/f. For internal surfaces this resistance (fi) is around 0.15 m2K/W, and
 for external surfaces (fo) it varies between 0.1 and 0.01 m2K/W depending on wind exposure.
 Transmittance
Adding the surface resistance 1/f to R total, the total heat transmission can be calculated:

The reciprocal value is the thermal transmissivity U.

(The U-value corresponds with the k-value in the German system)
The U-value represents the total heat transmitted through a composite construction by a
temperature difference of 1K . Multiplying it by the effective temperature difference gives the total
heat energy transmitted:

This value, however, is only valid for the theoretical case of stable temperature conditions over a
longer period. In reality, the outdoor temperature fluctuates during the course of the day. This is of
Special relevance in the case of warm climates, where the houses are neither heated nor cooled and
the heat flow is thus not unidirectional. Here the time lag, the decrement factor and the
Thermal capacity play important roles.

Specific heat (Wh/kgK)

This is defined as the amount of energy required for a unit
temperature increase in a unit mass of material. The higher the
specific heat of a material, the more heat it will absorb for a given
increase in temperature. Of all common materials, water has the
highest specific heat.
Thermal capacity or Heat capacity Q (Wh/m2K) this is defined as the
amount of heat energy required for a unit temperature increase in a
unit of area.
Thickness x specific mass x specific heat = heat capacity (Q)

CAVITY WALLS - Has many advantages, especially in hot- arid zones.

Reflective surface in the cavity (e.g. aluminum foil) reduces radiant
heat transfer. Ventilation of the cavity takes the heat away and
reduces conductive heat transmission to the interior.

Window glass:
A wide range of special heat-absorbing and heat-reflecting glass types is available on the market, but
they are generally only suitable for air-conditioned buildings. Most of them are limited in
Their effectiveness because either their own temperature is raised, which increases the heat
convected and re-radiated into the internal space, or they tend to reduce light rather than heat. In
addition, availability and costs have to be considered.
Sealed double-glazed window panes are mainly used for air- conditioned buildings only. They are
expensive and difficult to replace. In naturally cooled buildings they have little advantages.

Solar control glass can reduce direct radiation but cannot offer complete protection. If the windows
cannot be opened, air conditioning is unavoidable. Furthermore, such glass is expensive, its life span
Uncertain and it is difficult to replace.

3. What are the methods of inducing air movements around the building with appropriate sketches?
Or
What are the architectural factors which influence air movement inducing building?
And effects of external sunshade on the airflow inside room?
Or
Explain the position of inlet and out let to the wall for inducing air flow inside buildings?

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF AIR CIRCULATION

 Hot air entering a building heats it up, cold air cools it down.
 Air circulation striking the human body provides evaporative
 cooling which at certain times and in certain circumstances is most welcome, at other times
not.
 As a consequence, the ventilation system of a building should be Planned in order to optimize
the indoor climate.
There are, however, limiting factors:
 Ventilation can only reduce temperatures higher than the outdoor temperature.
 The air circulation should not exceed a certain speed (ca.1.5 m/s under warm-humid
conditions) because this would create discomfort.
 On the other hand, complete blocking of air ventilation is also not possible because a minimal
air exchange is needed for breathing and for reasons of hygiene.
 A certain degree of ventilation is necessary to prevent mold growth.
 In assembly areas (e.g. schools, meeting halls, etc.) it is almost impossible to keep the
internal air cooler than the external, other than for short periods. When the body heat output
exceeds the rate of heat absorption by the building fabric, the air temperature
Increases. When it reaches the outside air temperature, further rises can be avoided by ample
ventilation.

AMPLE VENTILATION AT NIGHT

When the stored heat is to be dissipated at night, ample ventilation is necessary. The indoor air
stream at night should be directed so that it passes the hottest inside surfaces, which are likely to be
the ceiling or the underside of the roof. The placement of openings, louvres etc. should be designed
accordingly.

Types of air circulation basically, two types of air circulation can be distinguished:

a) External winds
Air circulation can be induced by external winds. They produce wind pressure on the building, positive
on the windward side, negative on the leeward side.
b) Thermic circulation
Air circulation can also be induced by thermic movement. Any material, including air, expands when
heated. Warm air is lighter than cool air and rises. This, so-called “stack effect” can be used to
increase ventilation where the breeze is not sufficient.

MEANS OF CONTROLLING VENTILATION

a) Outside the building- There are many possibilities for directing and deflecting winds.
Deflection of up to 90° is possible.
Influence of building SHAPE IN WIND
Every building creates wind-protected areas and may deflect the wind direction. This may be
important for neighbouring buildings. Some general examples illustrate this aerodynamic
phenomenon: The wider a building, the smaller is the windshade behind it.

When grouping buildings in a row parallel to the main wind direction, a large distance between
buildings is needed to guarantee proper ventilation.
Orientation of the roof
To keep roofs cool, they should be sloped towards the prevailing breeze and any obstructions which
would prevent the airflow along the roof surfaces should be avoided. High solid continuous parapet
walls around the roof would, for example, create a stagnant pool of hot air and should, therefore, be
avoided.

Building shell design, openings and louvres

The size of the openings and their location influence the velocity of air circulation and its main route
in the interior. The larger the windows, the higher the indoor air speed; but this is true only when the
inlet and outlet openings are increased simultaneously. When a room has unequal openings and the
outlet is larger, then much higher maximum velocities and slightly higher average speeds are
obtained.
A loggia opening leeward, with only small openings windward, will result in a steady airflow through
the building because the airflow over and around it creates a low pressure within it, thus pulling in air
in a steady stream through the small openings. Therefore, the greater the ratio of the outlet area to
inlet area, the greater the airflow through the building.

Placement of openings
The location of openings may create a deflection of the indoor air circulation. When the opening is
placed asymmetrically in a facade, unequal pressure on both sides of the opening influence the
airflow.
The same is also true in the vertical direction. This is best illustrated when adding another floor on an
existing building and thus changing the proportions of the facade.

DEFLECTED BY AIR FINS

 The direction of the airflow is also influenced by louvres and their
Position. Although the indoor airflow pattern is mainly influenced by the size
and position of the openings, it can also be influenced and controlled by
adjustable louvres. In this way, incoming air can be diverted to the desired level
within the room

Interior design and special devices

Cross-ventilation
 To achieve a reliable air circulation, buildings must be
designed for cross ventilation.
 Care must be taken not to impede such cross-ventilation
with incorrectly designed interior partitions. When a
room is divided by means of a partition- or when there
are several rooms together with inlets and outlets
separated by doors or halls - the air changes direction
and speed as it passes through the room.
 This, in general, reduces air movement. By creating a
turbulent, circulating movement of air within the room,
however, an effective ventilation of more of the area
may result.
 Partitions arranged parallel to the airflow may divide this
stream, but do not reduce the velocity.
 4. Describe the following with the help of sketches
1, Wright short notes on impact of fans on indoor comfort?

Active cooling devices

a) Electric fans

A simple active device for the improvement of the indoor climate may be
the use of electric fans. In most cases this widespread method can
provide a sufficient means of evaporating perspiration and cool the skin
at a fraction of the cost of air conditioning.

Fans can be used in various ways:

 Placed too closely to the body may be a health hazard, especially

for the elderly.
 Remote or slow revolving overhead fans are recommended.
 Indirect and remote positioning gives a steady mild flow and is
safe for health.
 Pivoting fans produce a strong but intermittent flow, which may
not suit everybody.

2, what is venture effect and stack effect in detail?

Stack effect
 Often there are no regular winds, but there may be solar
radiation and diurnal temperature fluctuations. These
phenomena can create a "stack effect" that can be utilized to increase ventilation.
 The "stack effect" can also be induced by placing openings near the floor and near the ceiling.
It can be regulated by window shutters to obtain the desired heating or cooling effect.


 Solar chimneys make use of solar heat to reinforce natural air convection.
 A black coated metal pipe chimney is heated by the sun’s radiation and so is the air inside.
The latter then rises taking the interior air up and out. This system is self-regulating; the
hotter the day, the faster the air motion.
 

3, Discuss the effects of topography on wind patterns with sketches?

EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY ON CLIMATE
Topography Affects Rain and Snowfall
Mountains play an important role in precipitation patterns. Topographic barriers such as mountains and hills
force prevailing winds up and over their slopes. As air rises, it also cools. Cooler air is capable of holding less
water vapour than warmer air. As air cools, this water vapour is forced to condense, depositing rain or snow
on windward slopes.
Topography Creates Distinctive Regional Winds
Mountain barriers also create and funnel regional winds, an important element of climate. As wind descends
the leeward slopes, the air compresses, becoming more dense and warm. Strong winds can result, such as the
powerful and unseasonably warm winds that flow down the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Wind blows
more strongly when forced by topography through a narrow opening, and many wind farms can be found in
these locations.
Higher Elevations and Cooler Temperatures

Land at higher elevations, such as

mountains or plateaus, are naturally
cooler due to a
phenomenon known as the
environmental lapse rate. Air cools at
3.5 degrees Fahrenheit for every 1,000
feet of elevation gain.
Direction of mountains
if the winds blow parallel to the
mountain range, then there will be no
rainfall, e.g., Aravalli’s. If the winds are
obstructed by the mountains, the
windward side of the mountain
receives heavy rainfall, e.g., Western Ghats. The windward side of the mountains means that it is the side
where the clouds are blocked by the mountain, this side experiences rainfall because the clouds are forced to
precipitate. The other side of the mountain, which does not block the clouds, is called the leeward side, and
this side does not receive much rainfall.
 5. Design a climate responsive house for hot and dry climate (with plan, elevation and section) highlighting
the salient designing strategies?
Or
Explain the planning and design strategies that can improve the comfort in hot and dry climate?

hot-arid zones
 The climate of hot-dry zones is in general characterized by high temperatures (40 - 50°C in summer),
 with sharp variations in both diurnal (day / night) and seasonal (summer/ winter) temperatures;
 Precipitation (rainfall, snow) which is scarce, irregular and unreliable, but may nevertheless cause severe floods.
 Cold winds and dust/ sandstorms prevail in winter.
 The solar radiation intensity is high and enhanced by the radiation reflected from the ground.
 The humidity tends to reduce diurnal variations and moderate temperatures.

Design objectives
 Buildings must be adapted to extreme summer / winter and day / night conditions to achieve a well-
balanced indoor climate.
 Not only is cooling needed; passive heating may also be needed in winter and during cold nights.
 Protection is required from the intense radiation from the sun, ground and surrounding buildings,
from dust, sandstorms.
 Glare has to be reduced and dust penetration prevented. Settlements and buildings, therefore, have
to be compact,
 Providing shade and controllable ventilation.
 In maritime desert regions, the high humidity requires more air circulation (ventilation) in summer. It
is difficult to design buildings for this climate.
 Sun-orientation
 The orientation of a building is influenced by the amount of solar
radiation falling on different sides at different times.
 Buildings are best arranged in clusters for heat absorption, shading
opportunities and protection from east and west exposures.
 Protection from solar radiation is particularly important during times of
excessive heat
 The larger building dimension should face north and south (generally,
west orientation is the worst: high air temperature combined with
strong solar radiation).
 In general, the best orientation is north-south, because the high midday
sun can easily be controlled by shading devices.
 Courtyards are also preferably south oriented.
 Attention should be paid to solar radiant heat reflected from the
surroundings (topography, slopes, rocks, ground coverage) to the
building.

Wind-orientation
Main walls and windows should face the prevailing (cool) wind direction in order to allow maximum
cross-ventilation of the rooms.

Shape and volume

 The shape and volume of buildings should be compact, yet somewhat
elongated along the east-west axis, because large, compact building
volumes gain less heat.
 Under winter conditions an elongated form is ideal; under summer
conditions a square shape is better.
 A compact “patio” house type is therefore preferable. Adjoining houses,
row houses, and group arrangements (all continuous along the east-
west axis), which tend to create a volumetric effect, are advantageous,
as are high massive buildings.
 Lithospheric arrangements (subterranean) are also applicable.

Courtyard design
 In summer from the microclimatic effects of cool air pools that occur in courtyards.

Tall buildings
 Cooler air from the lower floors is channeled through the building.
 Staircases, ducts and high walls with integrated ventilation shafts are built at the back on the shady
side.
 In maritime regions, large openings or bay windows for cross-ventilation are protected with wooden
screens such as “rowshans” or “mashrabiyas”.
 The indoor climate of structures built underground or covered with a thick layer of soil benefits from
the huge thermal mass of the adjacent ground and is thus not affected by hot days and chilly nights.

Room arrangements
 A courtyard design has certain advantages.
 Heat-producing areas should be separated from other areas of the house.
 Non-inhabited spaces should be placed on the west side to check the sun’s impact.
 Bedrooms should be on the east side, and outdoor or roof sleeping possibilities should be considered.
 Living rooms should be on the north or south side.
 The depth of interior spaces should allow for proper natural lighting.

Building materials
Buildings in hot-arid zones are traditionally constructed with thick walls and roofs and with very small
openings.
An internal thermal storage capacity is very
important to decrease the temperature
variations and to make it possible to profit from
an increased night ventilation by “storing the cool
of the night until the day” during summer.
The best materials are those that do not conduct
heat. Sun-dried earth brick

 Walls- To achieve this they must be constructed

of heavy materials.
 Openings and windows- small and Glare of direct natural lighting can also be avoided by the use of
internally reflected light.

 Orientation and size of opening - Main openings should face north and south, but the latter should be
shaded either by shading devices, roof overhangs. The size of the windows on the west and east sides
should be minimized in order to reduce heat gains
 Window glass- Insulating and special heat-absorbing and heat-reflecting
glass is basically only justified
 Placement of openings- High openings vent the hot air collecting near
the ceiling and are most useful for convective cooling.
 Roofs- The rounded form of a hemispherical vault (dome) has a larger
surface area than its base. Solar radiation impact is thus diluted and re-
radiation during the evenings is also greatly facilitated.
 Wind catchers- Roof wind catcher one kind of wind catcher (also called
wind “chimney”) is built onto the roof. In some places the catchers are
unidirectional and orientated to catch favorable winds or face away
from it to draw cool air from the courtyard through rooms
 Passive cooling means
A courtyard house with a dry and hot surrounding and a cool yard with
vegetation and a pool represents a good example of such a ventilation concept. A draft which passes
through an evaporative cooler before entering the main rooms is created by the yard.
  External cooling - External cooling through humidification can
be achieved by keeping the surfaces of roofs and / or walls
moist. (e.g. lawn sprinkler) The surface temperature can be
reduced by up to 30°C.

 Evaporative coolers - Warm and dry air passing over water is

cooled by evaporating the water. Evaporative coolers have a
limited effect and should only be used in relatively dry
climates.

6. Discuss the important climate responsive architectural design strategy for composite climate?

Design for temperate and upland zones

Climatic conditions
The temperate and upland climate is characterized by three seasons.
A hot and dry season, usually the longest period, is followed by a wet and warm season, the monsoon
period. In the third season, the winter time, depending on the altitude, temperatures
Can drop far below the comfort level, especially at night, whereas daytime temperatures are
moderate and the solar radiation intense.
Design objectives
 Orientation and room placement should be south facing.
 Form depends on precipitation pattern.
 Shade in summer and heat gain in winter is necessary.
 Ventilation must be controllable.

Sun orientation - Normally, buildings should have an elongated shape along the east-west axis. The southern
front can easily be designed for proper utilization of the winter sun and for protection against the summer
sun.
Windows on the eastern side receive substantial heat during the morning, which may be highly appreciated
in winter time.

Wind orientation - Buildings should be arranged so that they benefit from summer
winds because this season is usually humid and a proper cross-ventilation is required for cooling and
hygienic reasons (prevention of mould growth). Shelter should be provided from the winter winds.

Shape and volume- In upland areas, heating in winter becomes more important than cooling in
summer. Hence, rather compact structures with minimal but proper sun-oriented exterior surfaces
are desirable.
 Buildings may be large and grouped
close together. Row houses or adjoining buildings have the advantage of reduced heat loss.

Room arrangements- Courtyard buildings are suitable, terraced buildings facing south may also be
appropriate. In cooler areas, exposure of the main rooms to the winter sun is essential, whereas in
warmer areas these rooms can also be placed facing north.
Ventilation in warm zone - In the warmer areas, humidity can cause problems during the monsoon
period. Hence, arrangements for a proper cross-ventilation are necessary. The separation of humidity-
producing areas such as kitchen and bathrooms from the rest of the building is recommended.

Building components
 Medium heat storage capacity and time lag is required.
 Thermal insulation is needed in upland areas.
 Reflectivity and emissivity is less important.
 Proper protection from precipitation

Walls- Surfaces should generally have medium colors. In warmer regionsa bright surface with
higher reflectivity is appropriate. Absorptive, dark surfaces are possible in recessed areas,
where the summer sun does not reach.

Openings and windows - Excessive glazing can lead to overheating. This can be counteracted
by
 the provision of adequate shading,
 the provision of ventilation,
 sufficient heat storage capacity.

7. Discuss the detail various planning and design consideration to be followed in a hot-humid-climate?
Or
Deign a climate responsive house for hot and humid climate (with plan, section and elevation)
highlighting the salient designing strategies?

Hot and humid

 The climate of warm-humid zones is characterized by high rainfall and high humidity.
 The temperature range is relatively high at around 30-35°C
  Due to minimal temperature differences, winds are light
 However, heavy precipitation and storms occur frequently.

Design objectives

 The main elevations and rooms should be placed facing north

and south and towards the prevailing wind.
 The form should be spread out.
 Provide generous shade for direct and diffused radiation.
 Provide effective cross ventilation.

Sun orientation
Shading of the east and west elevations is difficult because of the low sun, and
may require special devices; whereas the south and north sides can easily be
protected by an overhanging roof. Thus the best orientation for protection from
the sun is along the east-west axis.

Wind orientation
Where a predominant wind direction can clearly be identified, long- shaped
buildings should be arranged across this direction.

Compromise
Often the above two parameters are contradictory. In this case, a reasonable
compromise should be made based on a detailed analysis of the specific
situation, considering the possibilities for
Diverting the wind direction by means of vegetation and structural
arrangements, such as parapet walls within the external adjoining space.

Shape and volume

Forms with large surface areas are preferred to compact buildings. This favours ventilation and heat emission
at night time.

Type and form of buildings

 The main goal is the reduction of direct heat gain by radiation through
openings and of the internal surface temperature.
 The building should therefore be designed not only with protected
openings, but also with protected walls.
 This task will be much easier if the building is kept low.
 In addition, the roof should extend far beyond the line of walls, with
broad overhanging eaves and other means of shading.

Room arrangements
 rooms on the east side are warm in the morning and,
 if not built with much thermal mass, cool down in the afternoon.
 Rooms on the west side are cooler in the morning and heat up in the afternoon.
 Rooms facing north and south remain relatively cool if provided with adequate shading.

Bedrooms- Bedrooms can be adequately located on the east side, where it is coolest in the evening.
Kitchen- Provided the kitchen is mainly used during morning and midday hours, it can be located on the west
side as well.

Main room- The main rooms which are in use most times of the day, such as living rooms, should not be
located on the east or west side.
 Rooms with internal heat load - Rooms where internal
heat occurs, such as kitchens, should be detached from
the main building, although they can be connected by a
common roof.

Wet rooms- Special attention should be given to the

arrangement of rooms with a high humidity
(bathrooms).

Cross-ventilation- Free passage of air for cross-

ventilation through the interior is important. This
can be achieved by large openings, not only in the
outer walls but also in the internal partitions. An
even more efficient solution is that of single-banked
rooms with access from open verandahs or
galleries.

Building components
Walls- The outer surface should be reflective, light colored.
Openings and windows- They should be large and fully openable, with inlets of a
similar size on both sides of the room allowing a proper cross-ventilation. Windows
are preferably equipped with flexible louvres allowing a regulation of ventilation.
Louvre design A difficult problem is the design of large openings which at the
Same time protect from driving rain. Ordinary louvres direct the wind upwards
above body level.

Roofs- In warm-humid areas the roof should preferably be

pitched. This makes it easier to achieve a construction
which is waterproof by allowing heavy rains to run off.

Shading with vegetation- Another efficient solution is to grow a green cover over roofs and
Walls.
 This cover functions as a second skin which provides protection against solar radiant heat,
 cooling by a ventilated space between green cover and wall or roof,
 reduction of glare,
 reduction of noise, by sound absorption,
 reduction of dust, by filtering the air,
 stabilization of the microclimate,
 protection of the wall and roof surfaces from wind and driving rain,
 A regulating effect on humidity.

Evaporative coolers - The possibilities for evaporative cooling in humid regions are limited. The
potential of the air to absorb humidity, and with it the potential for cooling is minor.

Basic principles- Efficient air circulation is one of the few possibilities for natural climate
Control in warm-humid zones. Because of the minimal temperature differences it can hardly be
utilized to cool down the building components, but cooling is felt through the increased perspiration
of the human body.