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Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in

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Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of
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Ozhan Ertekin; Vedia Dokmeci; Tuba Unlukara; Evren Ozus

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RESEARCH BRIEFING

Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls

and Analysis of their Trade Areas
in Istanbul

OZHAN ERTEKIN, VEDIA DOKMECI, TUBA UNLUKARA &

EVREN OZUS
ABSTRACT This paper investigates the spatial distribution of shopping malls with respect to
population and analyses the factors which effect the shopping mall location. According to the
results, while the shopping mall space ratio is higher than population ratio in the intermediate
zone, the reverse is true in the periphery. The relationships between the shopping mall space and
income, population and distance to the central business district (CBD) of the locations are
investigated by the use of regression analysis. The results reveal that income is the only factor
affecting the location of shopping malls among those considered. In addition, three shopping
malls from the inner and peripheral zones of Istanbul were analysed with respect to frequency
to shopping centres and characteristics of trade areas. According to the results, the size of the
catchment area of the shopping mall from the inner zone is larger then the peripheral ones due
to higher accessibility with alternative transportation systems and supporting functions in its
surrounding areas. The results fall within the concept of central place theory. Further research
is suggested by expending the study to the other areas of the city with different characteristics
to calculate their retail potential and their spatial implications.

Introduction
Istanbul has a very active commercial life with several and varied successful retail facility
types due to being the largest and one of the wealthiest city of Turkey, and in a strategic
location between Asia and Europe on the traditional international trade routes. Istanbul’s
involvement in the capitalist world economy intensified since the 1980s when Turkey
experienced an economic restructuring which stimulated the reallocation of resources
and power within the sphere of urban commerce (Tokatli & Boyaci, 1999). Thus, these
recent changes encourage restructuring of urban form in relation to commerce, and Istanbul
has great potential for retail development due to its rapid population and income growth.

Correspondence Address: Ozhan Ertekin, Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Taskisla,
34437, Istanbul, Turkey. Email: ertekinozh@itu.edu.tr.

ISSN 0965-4313 print/ISSN 1469-5944 online/08/010143–13 # 2008 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/09654310701748017
 144 O. Ertekin et al.

This paper investigates spatial distribution of shopping malls and their trade areas in order to
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provide background for the future retail development.

The process of analysing retail demand and sales is more sophisticated and more accu-
rate than analysis for any other land use, and numerous well-tested theories of consumer
shopping patterns and preferences provide a firm base for the analysis of consumer
demand (Ling & Smersh, 1996). Trade areas of shopping centres have been extensively
studied by earlier researchers. Reilly (1931, 1949) was among the first to use retail
gravity models to predict consumers. His law of retail gravitation established trading
area boundaries around retail centres on the basis of distance between the centres and
the relative size of two retail centres. Reilly’s model suggests that greater shopping
centre size increases consumer utility, thus increasing the gravitational pull of a centre;
and that distance to the centre decreases consumer utility, which exponentially decreases
the gravitational pull of a centre. While this gravity model explained retail shopping pat-
terns across metropolitan areas, it has since been adapted to model patterns within a metro-
politan area and may include many more variables than simply population and distance
(Benjamin, 1996). Reilly also empirically demonstrated a relationship between the popu-
lation of a city and the number of stores in that city. Later, a more flexible model based on
gravity theory was proposed by Huff (1963, 1964, 1966) by taking into consideration
multiple competing shopping centres. According to this model, the market capture rate
of a shopping centre is directly related to its size and inversely related to distance
between the customers and the centre.
Central place theory is the best developed normative theory of retail location and trade
areas. The first proposed by Christaller (1933) and later developed by Lösch (1954), the
theory offers a powerful explanation of spatial distribution of retail facilities and the
pattern and extent of trade areas. The theory rests on the assumptions that households
make single-purpose shopping trips and will travel to the nearest shopping centre. The
theory also emphasizes that the demand for goods decreases with distance. Christaller’s
work suggests the following spatial pattern:

(1) The development of hexagonal trading areas. Consumers travel to the nearest shop-
ping centre and the shape of the trading areas do not overlap.
(2) The trading areas form a hierarchical pattern. The logic is that consumers do not travel
far in order to purchase everyday items and a convenience store will therefore be
sustainable with a relatively small catchment area.

For more expensive or less frequent purchases retail outlets require larger catchment areas
(Leishman, 2003).
The findings of earlier work by Berry (1967) on the determination of catchment areas of
different retail activities support the basis of central place theory. The value of central
place theory lies in its ability to consider simultaneously the behaviour of consumers
and retail firms in a spatial market. In combination, the many extension of central place
theory and retail agglomeration economies have clearly enhanced the understanding of
both retailer and consumer behaviour (Eppli & Benjamin, 1994). With the ubiquity of
cars and the mobility of the customers, Christaller’s single-purpose/nearest centre shop-
ping trip has evolved into a multi-purpose trip at a distant, agglomerated shopping centre.
Because of the complexity of the problem, early theorists examined central place systems
by assuming homogenous distribution of characteristics of the market areas (Craig et al.,
 Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in Istanbul 145

1984). Later developments, however, have brought the theory closer to actual retail
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environments (Dokmeci, 1973; Eaton & Lipsey, 1982; Ghosh & McLafferty, 1984).
Meanwhile, the roles of market and infrastructure factors in shaping spatial patterns
have been examined by Brown (1981). Other approaches for the retail trade areas analysis
have been summarized by Hirshman (1981), and Ingene and Lusch (1981). Dennis et al.
(2002) introduced and tested an empirically based measurement system for the attractive-
ness of shopping centres with a view to modelling and predicting hinterlands and positions
in the hierarchy. Their results support the prediction of central place hinterland boundaries
based on the authors’ attractiveness measures. Recent research on central place theory is
greatly enhanced by geographical information system (GIS) and in spatial decision-
making (Benoit & Clarke, 1997).
Review of the literature illustrates that most of the studies were done about developed
countries with few exceptions about developing ones (Abaza, 2002; Erkip, 2003, 2005),
and there is a need to expand the shopping centres market research into developing
ones due to internationalization of retail activities and to provide information for efficient
development of the new ones. With this respect, the study by Erkip (2005) is a very com-
prehensive research about a shopping mall in an upper income neighbourhood of Ankara
and it investigates shopping behaviour with respect to gender, age and occupation as well
as the time of visit and there is need for these types of studies in different neighbourhoods
with different socio-economic backgrounds. Thus, first, this paper investigates the spatial
distribution of shopping malls according to the concentric zones of the city and then, the
relationships between the shopping mall space and income, population and distance to the
central business district (CBD) of the locations they serve are analysed by the use of
regression method. Also, trade areas of three major malls from different zones of Istanbul
are analysed and their consumer behaviours are compared. Spatial distribution of shopping
malls with respect to demographic and socio-economic characteristics of different zones is
given in the next section. Regression analysis of the factors which effect shopping mall
location such as income, population and distance to CBD, and trade area analysis of
three major malls and consumer behaviours are given in the third section. The final
section is devoted to a conclusion and suggestions for further research.

Background
Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey with a population of 10 million, is the country’s most
important socio-economic and cultural centre. The share of its gross national product
(GNP) is 22.1% of Turkey’s GNP (SIS, 1998). Istanbul’s tremendous growth after the
1950s can be attributed to both natural increase and the flood of rural migration which
effected socio-economic and cultural conditions, as well as the physical structure of the
city. Its population is growing 2.24% per year and population density is 20 persons per
hectare. Since the mid-1980s, transition to free market economy and the introduction of
foreign capital through partnerships with Turkish firms, which made possible the large
investments required to meet new consumer demands which was the result of new life
styles under the influence of global consumption patterns through internet, TV and increas-
ing exposure to other cultures and the growth of income and car ownership in Istanbul
(Erkip, 2003). Since then, the number of shopping malls has been rapidly increasing
with various international brands and leisure patterns to fulfil the higher standard shopping
space needs of these emerging classes influenced by global values. Continuous expansion
 146 O. Ertekin et al.

of the city, the development of a multi-centre urban structure, the decaying inner city,
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changes in population density and life styles have affected the spatial distribution of
needs, purchasing power and demand for retail facilities (Dokmeci & Berkoz, 1994).
This means that retail activities in the Istanbul Metropolitan Area have operated in a
market that has been driven not only by population expansion but also by income and
accessibility increase and by global forces. Although Istanbul has only 15% of Turkey’s
population, it has 34% of shopping malls due to its economic superiority. Although
characteristics of malls such as combining entertainment, shopping and eating already
exist in the traditional shopping streets of Istanbul and climate control in the historical
covered bazaars, they overcome their competitors as a novelty with their modern
design, lighting and colours and selling international products. However, the identity of
the traditional shopping streets and covered bazaars is a surplus, which is lacking in the
shopping malls. Malls stimulate conspicuous consumption similar to multi-story stores,
which was experienced by the newcomers and “nouveau rich” of large rapidly grown
industrial cities starting in the mid-nineteenth century, to prove themselves as part of
the urban life (Hart, 1991). Furthermore, shopping mall development of Istanbul indicates
the increasing control of corporate and global capital versus national capital and values.
Istanbul, being at the intersection of international trade routes and the capital of three
empires throughout history, has always had a variety of retail spaces ranging from
street shopping to the world famous covered bazaars. The aggregated market in the Istanbul
Metropolitan Area is the largest in Turkey. Most of the headquarter offices, the majority of
the financial institutions, and a dominant share of trade and business service activities are
located in Istanbul due to its international relationships and thus it reflects all aspects of
the evolution of commercial activity in the country (Dokmeci & Berkoz, 1994). In the
nineteenth century Westernization movement stimulated the consumption of foreign pro-
ducts which were displayed in the foreign shops on the main street of Istanbul (Dokmeci &
Ciraci, 1999). At present, although there are some large companies, the Istanbul Metropo-
litan Area is still dominated by relatively traditional retail stores trying to compete with
companies from France (Lacoste), Italy (Benetton), Spain (Zara), USA (Lewis),
England (Marks & Spencer) to stay alive (Tokatli & Boyaci, 1999). It is, therefore, the
place which reflects all aspects of the evolution of commercial activity within the
country. The chief determinant of market growth during the past few decades has been
population, income and production growth, and remittances sent by Turkish workers
from foreign countries. As a result of expansion of the city, construction of peripheral
highways in order to answer traffic needs of the peripheral districts redefined local
points of accessibility and stimulated the growth of subcentres furnished with necessary
retail facilities demanded by suburbanization of middle and upper income people. In
the 1990s, malls were also developed in the inner zones which are experiencing density
increase and did not have necessary modern retail facilities. Thus, recent social and econ-
omic changes together with necessary infrastructure are transforming the urban structure
into a new form consisting of poly-centres with unique characteristics (Dokmeci &
Berkoz, 1994). These commercial nodes, providing an interrelated system of retail and
consumer service activities, vary widely in size and market reach. The sales potential of
these commercial nodes is determined by the size of competing nodes as already shown
by Huff (1966). Since income is concentrated within a small number of extremely
wealthy households, retail structure is divided between a small number of expensive
subcentres and extensive areas served by traditional markets.
 Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in Istanbul 147

Although the Istanbul Metropolitan Area is a complex market, for market analytic
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purposes, it can be divided into three zones: The core area is taken up to 3 km from the
centre, which corresponds to the old CBD with a 3000 year of history and has since
been continuously redeveloped. It is possible to find buildings from different architectural
periods such as Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman, Modern and Post-modern. One of the
impressive aspects of Istanbul has been the recycling of streets and buildings from
ancient times into modern boutiques, business and residential uses which increases the
attractiveness of its historical core. This zone has 13.75% of the city’s GNP, has only
3% of the city’s population (SIS, 2002), 13.5% of the service sector and 15.6% of retail
employment (SIS, 1998). The core area is connected to the periphery by metro, rapid
train, buses and ferries and thus, it has the highest pedestrian traffic due to its traffic
exchange role. Its population has continuously decreasing due to the transformation of
housing into business. Despite some of its declining neighbourhoods, it continues to be
an active business centre with the help of successful national and international revitalization
projects, due to its central strategic location, and at the same time, being an internationally
well known unique tourist centre.
The first ring is from 3 km to 10 km (Figure 1), which covers the area occupied by the
city in the 1950s before rural migration started. Much of the major development of this
zone took place in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and the zone is now
linked closely to the core by subway, bus and ferry. This zone has 39.46% of the city’s
GNP, 30% of the population, 49.9% of the service sector and 35% of retail employment.
The second ring is taken as the peripheral area beyond the first ring (Figure 1) and it has
46.77% of the city’s GNP. This zone has 67% of the population, 45.6% of the service
sector and 49.4% of retail employment. However, in 1970, the spatial distribution of
retail employment was vice versa and the retail employment ratio was the highest in
the core, which shows the decentralization through time (Dokmeci & Berkoz, 1994).
Thus, the population is declining in the central locations-largely due to transformation
from housing to business and changing family structure and life styles- but growing
very rapidly in the peripheral districts together with the commercial centres to serve them.
The general characteristics of retail facilities in these zones are as follows:

(1) The downtown core consists primarily of traditional retail strips, covered bazaars and
passages.
(2) The first ring consists of attractive retail strip-corridors and malls associated with
office and residential developments and serving large market areas supplied by an
alternative transportation system. Forty-four per cent of the number of shopping
malls and 43% of leaseable space were located in this zone.
(3) The second ring also has some small retail strips, but mainly dominated by shopping
centres and malls. Fifty-six per cent of the number of shopping malls and 57% of lea-
sable shopping space were located in this zone. Thus, a larger ratio of the number of
shopping malls and shopping space is located in the periphery which owns the largest
ratio of population, employment and available land with lower prices.

Spatial distribution of population, services and shopping malls between Europe and Asian
sides of Istanbul divided by the Bosphorus illustrates the following pattern. While the
European side of Istanbul has 65% of the population, 74% of the service sector, 72%
retail employment, 75% of the number of shopping malls and 62% of shopping space,
Downloaded By: [ANKOS Consortium] At: 11:06 21 January 2008

148
O. Ertekin et al.
Figure 1. Spatial distribution of shopping malls in Istanbul
 Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in Istanbul 149

the Asian side has only 35% of the population, 26% of the service sector, 28% of retail
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employment, and 25% of the number of shopping malls and 38% of shopping space.
The European side of the city owns 71.2% of GNP of the city and the Asian side has
only 28.8%. Thus, development of shopping mall space follows mostly population and
GNP on both sides of Istanbul.
The locational decisions of new shopping malls within the metropolitan area of Istanbul
was also influenced by the government investment policy on both types of transportation
systems such as centralized commercial locations were supported by the construction of
subway versus decentralized shopping centres locations were supported by the develop-
ment of expressways as already explained by Diamond and Massam (1988). At the
same time, increased car production and automobile use to some extent supported the dis-
persion of commercial activity and intensified price competition, favouring peripheral
shopping malls. Thus, urban form and shopping malls were influenced by each other’s
development interactively with respect to the development of subcentres throughout the
city supported by side functions, modern housing projects, expressways, subways and
increasing car ownership.

Analysis of Spatial Distribution of Shopping Centres and their Trade Areas

in Istanbul
In this section, the factors which affect the location of shopping malls and analysis of their
trade areas and consumer behaviours are investigated. The hypothesis is that the leasable
space is a function of population, income and accessibility. The relationships between the
leasable shopping space and distance to CBD, population and income of the districts are
investigated by the use of regression analysis. Data is given in Table 1. A SPSS computer
program was used for the analysis. Table 2 contains a summary of the standardized coeffi-
cients of regression analysis. According to the results, income is the only factor to affect
the shopping mall space among the variables considered. Distance to CBD and the popu-
lation of districts are found not significant. These results are within the findings of Simkin
(1990) that the most important influence on the market within a given metropolitan area is
the level of household income, primarily because of its effect on purchasing power, and
secondarily because of variations in purchasing patterns that occur among income
groups. Income disparities between different parts of the Istanbul metropolitan area are
very obvious. Especially, in the suburban zone, for example, low-income squatter districts
contrast with the higher income residential suburbs nearby. Also, it is observed that there
is a high income sector extending to the north along the Bosphorus shores and along the
east and west Marmara sea coast which is followed by the development of malls
(Figure 1). Thus, income differences lead to local concentration of purchasing power
which effects mall location. Concentration of shopping malls in high income neighbour-
hoods in both inner and as well as peripheral zones is the general trend, unlike Western
cities where shopping malls are located mainly in the periphery where mostly high
income people live. Although there are few mall constructions started in the peripheral
working class squatter areas, their impact is not large enough to change the general
trend yet.
Furthermore, contemporary retail trade area analysis involves identification of the
spatial extent of a store trade area and determination of potential customers within
the boundaries delineated (Clapp & Messner, 1988).
 150 O. Ertekin et al.

Table 1. Spatial Distribution of leasable space, population, income and distance to the CBD
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Distance to
Districts Leasable space1 Population2 Income (million TL)3 the CBD (km)

1. Ring
Besiktas 53,389 190,813 66,045 4.80
Kadikoy 84,025 648,282 130,620 7.20
Uskudar 44,500 495,118 51,529 5.20
Sisli 85,308 270,674 153,304 5.70
Bayrampasa 11,079 246,006 38,620 8.57
Zeytinburnu 29,221 247,669 71,292 7.10
2. Ring
Bakirkoy 109,407 208,398 144,035 14.40
Bahcelievler 17,500 478,623 59,791 12.52
B. Cekmece 58,031 384,089 77,900 25.70
G.O.P. 14,000 752,389 49,628 12.00
Kartal 39,690 407,865 64,050 21.40
K. Cekmece 7000 594,524 49,997 21.00
Maltepe 60,500 355,384 33,640 14.85
Umraniye 48,930 605,855 37,052 11.52
Sariyer 14,565 219,032 20,853 18.50
Silivri 45,000 108,155 59,400 66.00
1
Shopping Centres and Retailers Association (2005), http://www.ampd.org.
2
SIS (2002).
3
SIS (1998).

For the analysis of trade areas, three malls are selected from the European side of the
city since the major malls of the Asian side were not interested in surveying their custo-
mers. Each is large enough to provide a good indication of the urban commercial environ-
ment in which it is located. The spatial data was collected from application of the
questionnaire on personal preference nature. Analysis of commercial structure is difficult
because many of the shopping malls do not permit the surveying of their customers.
The first shopping mall (Galeria) was chosen from the periphery located on the western
Marmara sea shore (Figures 1 and 2). In fact, it was the first shopping mall built (1988) in
Istanbul. It is located 14 km from the city centre and in a large modern housing complex,
Atakoy with 60,000 upper and middle income people. The housing establishment has been
ongoing investments in different phases with various qualities, targeting mostly the

Table 2. Regression analysis of the factors which effect shopping malls location

Variables Beta t Significance (Sig.)

Income 0.801 4.634 0.001

Population 20.102 20.577 0.574
Distance to CBD 0.057 0.317 0.756
R 2 ¼ 0.66
Adjusted R 2 ¼ 0.575
F ¼ 7.755
Sig. ¼ 0.004
 Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in Istanbul 151

upper-income citizens. It is well connected to the rest of the city by train, metro, buses and
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ferry. While construction of the shopping mall is satisfying the demand for international
brands, it also falls within the prominent purpose of the developer to create a modern life-
style since the starting date of the housing project in the 1960s (Bardo & Dokmeci,1990,
1992). Its surface area is 42,654 m2 and there are 130 stores. Surveying of 100 randomly
selected customers illustrate that 45% comes for shopping which is similar to the findings
of Erkip (2005) in an upper income neighbourhood of Ankara, 20% for entertainment,
14% for eating and 26% for strolling and window shopping. Eighty-six per cent of the cus-
tomers come from the European side and only 14% come from the Asian side of Istanbul.
Apparently, customers are reluctant to crossing the bridges loaded with heavy traffic
between European and Asian coasts. Eighty-three per cent of customers come from up
to 30 minutes distance, 17% 30– 60 minutes distance, 48% of it customers comes by
car, 38% by public transportation and 14% by walking. Thus, the majority of Galeria’s
customers come from the surrounding affluent neighbourhood and it is only able to
attract a smaller amount of customers from the rest of the city due to its location in the
far west end of the city and existence of other competitors. The relationship between
the number of customers, and distance to Galeria, income and population of the districts
is investigated by the regression analysis. According to the results, as it is expected,
income of the districts has a positive impact on the number of customers while there is
a negative relationship between the number of customers and the distance to Galeria
(Table 3). This result is within the concept of central place theory, Reilly and Huff’s
models.
The second shopping centre (Akmerkez) was chosen from the first ring zone (Figures 1
and 3). It was built in 1993 and located in a higher income neighbourhood. Its leasable
space is 34,600 m2 and there are 273 stores. Surveying of 100 randomly selected custo-
mers shows that 37.5% come for shopping, 25% for eating, 18% for entertainment and
19.5% for strolling and window shopping. Seventy-five per cent of its customers come
from the European side, 22% from the Asian side and 3% out of town. Fufty-three per
cent of customers come from up to 30 minutes distance, 44% 30– 60 minutes distance
and 3% more than 60 minutes distance. Sixty-two per cent of its customers come by
car, 33% by public transportation and 5% by walking. The relationships between the
number of customers and distance to Akmerkez and income of the districts are investi-
gated and no significant relationship was found. This shopping mall has more customers
and larger trade area than most of the peripheral shopping malls due to its size, inner zone
location and its accessibility to alternative transportation systems. This result is also within
the concept of central place theory, Reilly and Huff’s models.

Table 3. The factors which effect the number of customers to Galeria

Variables Beta t Significance (Sig.)

Distance to Galeria 20.978 24.731 0.09

Income 0.843 4.079 0.015
R 2 ¼ 0.869
Adjusted R 2 ¼ 0.804
F ¼ 13.282
Sig. ¼ 0.017
 152 O. Ertekin et al.
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Figure 2. The shopping mall Galeria

The third shopping centre (Mass) was chosen from a working class squatter district
(G.O.P.) which has the highest population of the city, and is located in the periphery
(Figures 1 and 4). It was built in 1998. Its leasable area is 14,500 m2 and it has 63
stores. Surveying 100 randomly selected customers illustrates that 39% come for enter-
tainment, 32% for shopping and 29% for strolling and window shopping. With respect
to its trade area boundaries, 93% of its customers come from 5– 30 minutes distance
and 7% from 30– 60 minutes distance. Thirty-one per cent of its customers come by
car, 45% by bus and 24% by walking. Thus, this shopping mall serves largely its neigh-
bouring two districts. This mall receives fewer customers and has a smaller trade area
than the previous malls due to its peripheral location, lower income, smaller size, acces-
sibility to fewer transportation facilities. This result is also within the central place theory
concept, Reilly and Huff’s models.
The results of the study illustrate that income of the districts is the most important factor to
effect the location of malls. With respect to trade areas of the shopping malls, large malls

Figure 3. The shopping centre Akmerkez

 Spatial Distribution of Shopping Malls and Analysis of their Trade Areas in Istanbul 153
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Figure 4. Mass Plaza

located in inner neighbourhoods and supplied with alternative transportation systems have
larger catchment areas than the mall located in the periphery, low-income neighbourhood
with limited transportation facilities. Moreover, as it is expected, the ratio of customers
which visits malls for shopping is higher in higher income neighbourhoods than the mall
located in squatter areas. While more customers come by car in wealthier neighbourhoods,
more customers come by walking in lower income neighbourhoods. Although there are
higher number of shopping malls in the periphery, income inequality and limited car
ownership does not allow any further decentralization in the peripheral districts.

Conclusion
Retail trade facilities of Istanbul are facing a rapid transformation due to tremendous
population increase, incomes and car ownership growth, restructuring of urban structure,
changes from central to free market economy, global forces and changing life styles. In
consequence, population decentralization, the rapid growth of peripheral zone with
modern housing projects, construction of highways and bridges between Asia and Europe
and globalization have been the chief forces changing the nature of the retail market.
An important segment of retail trade facilities consists of shopping malls. Shopping
malls provide modern colourful, climate controlled and guarded consumption and
leisure spaces which have customers from different income and age groups of Istanbul’s
society. Istanbul with its large population and its rapidly growing retail market offers a
great potential for the new investors. Despite the growing number of shopping malls,
there are still areas in the city, which are under supplied by the retail facilities. There
are 32 districts in Istanbul and 14 districts do not have any shopping malls yet (two old
districts with several traditional malls are excluded). In this study, the spatial distribution
of shopping malls, the factors which affect their location, their trade areas and customer
behaviours are investigated. The spatial distribution of shopping malls is analysed according
to concentric zones of the city. Although the first ring has only 30% of the city’s population,
it has 44% of the number of shopping malls and 43% of leasable shopping area. However,
the second ring has 67% of the city’s population, it has only 56% of the number of shopping
malls and 57% of the leaseable shopping area. Thus, since car ownership is still
 154 O. Ertekin et al.

approximately 20%, density of shopping malls is higher in the first ring which has more
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accessibility due to alternative transportation systems than the second ring.

Furthermore, the relationships between the leasable shopping space and distance to
CBD, income and population of the districts are investigated by the use of regression
analysis. According to the results, only income has an impact on the shopping space of
the districts at the city level. Thus, shopping malls are generally concentrated in higher
income neighbourhoods. Distance is not significant because malls are located in inner
zones served by alternative transportation systems reduces the importance of distance.
Population of the districts is not significant since malls serve not only the districts
where they are located but also several districts in their trade areas.
As a case study, three malls located in different districts with different socio-economic
characteristics and supplied with different transportation systems are investigated.
According to the results of the study, large malls located in high income neighbourhoods
and supplied with alternative transportation systems have larger catchment areas than the
malls located in the low-income peripheral neighbourhoods and supplied with limited
transportation facilities. However, despite the limited opportunities, the shopping mall
in the squatter neighbourhood by displaying a new way of life, stimulated commercial
activity and transformation, and increased land values in its surrounding areas, it is
expected that it will create high income clientele in its surroundings in the future. This
situation has been already observed in the old neighbourhoods where the shopping
malls stimulated the development of new subcentres in their regions. Despite the trans-
formation of consumer buying patterns from being location sensitive to being shopping
centre sensitive in the Western countries, the impact of distance is important on the deli-
neation of shopping centre trade areas in Istanbul due to lower ratio of car ownership.
Moreover, while there are more shopping purpose trips in the wealthy neighbourhoods
than the squatter areas where strolling or window shopping trips are more common in
lower income neighbourhoods.
Furthermore, surveying consumption pattern of three shopping malls in three different
locations illustrate that they are accessible not only by cars but also by public transpor-
tation by many segments of the city unlike shopping malls in some Western cities,
which are mostly accessible by cars.
Although shopping malls display a new way of life and more products as a result of glo-
balization to stimulate business, they generate a more price and quality competitive retail
environment in which only the more efficient and innovative retailers survive. As their
number increases, small stores will disappear by the thousands. This would be unfortunate,
because they do provide much of the livelihood of street life and jobs for the small traders.
Thus, for further research, detailed field work has been necessary to reveal the changing
nature and pattern of commercial structure in each district and in other cities by taking into
consideration their characteristics and comparing their social and economic results to
develop an efficient retail market without harming local business men and social values.

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