Effects of Flour Extraction Rate, Added Water, and Salt on Color
and Texture of Chinese White Noodles
Yili Ye,1 Yan Zhang,1 Jun Yan,1,2 Yong Zhang,1 Zhonghu He,1,3,4 Sidi Huang,5 and Kenneth J. Quail5
ABSTRACT
Both cultivar and noodle composition and preparation have important
effects on noodle quality. In this study, the effects of flour extraction rate
(50, 60, and 70%), added water (33, 35, and 37%), and salt concentration
(0, 1, and 2%, w/w) on color and texture of Chinese white noodle (CWN)
were investigated using flour samples from five leading Chinese wheat
cultivars. The five samples showed large variations in protein content, ash
content, flour color, farinograph, and extensigraph parameters, and starch
pasting properties. Analyses of variance indicated that cultivar, flour ex-
traction rate, level of water addition, salt concentration, and the interac-
tions had significant effects on color of raw noodle sheets and color and
textural properties of CWN. Cultivar and water addition were more im-
portant sources of variation than flour extraction rate and salt concentra-
tion. The brightness (L*) and redness (a*) values of raw noodle sheets
Oriental noodles are one of the most important wheat products
consumed in many Asian countries, including China. However,
noodles vary widely in composition and preparation, and prefer-
ences for appearance and eating quality vary across regions. Noo-
dles are made mainly from wheat flour, water, and other
ingredients such as common salt (sodium chloride), kansui (mix-
ture of sodium and potassium carbonates), and occasionally so-
dium hydroxide (Edwards et al 1996; Morris et al 2000).
Appearance includes color, brightness, and surface characteristics
such as degrees of flatness, speck and rupture (flatness requires
that the noodle surface is flat and the shape of the strips are regu-
lar and uniform, and degree of speck means there are no or just a
few apparent bran specks on the surface, and rupture is mainly
considered that the strips have no cracks), and eating quality in-
cludes smoothness, firmness, elasticity, and flavor (Moss 1971;
Oh et al 1985a; Shelke et al 1990; Liu et al 2002; Lei et al 2004;
Zhang et al 2007). In addition to sensory testing performed by
trained panelists, instrumental evaluations are also used to assess
noodle quality. A considerable number of studies have investi-
gated factors relevant to quality of Japanese and Korean style
udon noodle and ramen. Flour refinement or flour extraction rate,
level of added water, and ingredients all affect processing charac-
teristics and noodle quality attributes (Oh et al 1983, 1985a,b,c,
1986; Misklly 1984; Misklly and Moss 1985; Moss et al 1986;
Lee et al 1987; Toyokawa 1989a,b; Kruger et al 1992, 1994a,b,
1995; Baik et al 1995; Edwards et al 1996; Hatcher et al 1999,
2000; Morris et al 2000; Solah et al 2007), However, very little
information is available on the effects of these factors on Chinese
white noodle (CWN) quality.
Flour extraction rate has an important influence on noodle at-
tributes, especially color. Studies on dried, white salted Korean
noodles showed a decline in brightness and increase in yellow-
ness with increased extraction rate. Changes were more signifi-
1 Institute of Crop Science/National Wheat Improvement Center, Chinese Academy
of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing 100081, China.
2 Institute of Cotton Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Anyang,
Henan 455112, China.
3 CIMMYT China Office, c/o CAAS, Beijing 100081, China.
4 Corresponding author. E-mail: zhhe@public3.bta.net.cn
5 BRI Australia Ltd, PO Box 7, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia.
doi:10.1094 / CCHEM-86-4-0477
© 2009 AACC International, Inc.
Cereal Chem. 86(4):477–485
were significantly reduced and increased, respectively, as flour extraction
rate increased from 50 to 70%, and noodle scores were slightly higher at
flour extraction rates of 50%. Water addition showed different effects on
raw noodle sheet color at 2 and 24 hr, and a significant improvement was
observed for noodle appearance, firmness, viscoelasticity, smoothness,
and total score as water addition increased from 33 to 37%. L* of raw
noodle sheets, and firmness and viscoelasticity of cooked noodles, were
significantly improved, but noodle flavor significantly deteriorated as salt
concentration increased from 0 to 2%; 1% salt produced the highest noo-
dle score. Thus, the recommended composition for laboratory preparation
of CWN is 60% flour extraction, 35% water addition, and 1% salt con-
centration.
cant during the first hour after noodle sheet preparation and to a
large extent leveled off thereafter, but textural properties of
cooked noodles were not affected to any large extent by different
flour extraction rates (Oh et al 1985c; Lee et al 1987; Kruger et al
1994). Discoloration, reduced brightness, and visual appeal are
thought to involve the enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and
peroxidase (POD), and subsequent autooxidation products. The
enzymes are largely located in the bran; hence, enzyme activity
increases exponentially with increasing flour extraction rate (Tay-
lor and Clydesdale 1987; Hatcher and Kruger 1993, 1996). Bright
whiteness is preferred for CWN, and flours with extraction rates
of 60–70% are commonly used to produce CWN although occa-
sionally a 40% extraction rate is employed to produce very high
quality noodle flour in China.
Noodle properties are significantly affected by the amount of
added water (water addition) used in dough preparation. The op-
timum water absorption of specific flours for noodle production
was traditionally determined by how well the dough could be
processed into noodles during sheeting and cutting. Insufficient
absorption formed stiff dough that appeared nonuniform with
streaks of flour on the surface. Excessive absorption produced
slack dough that was too extensible and stuck to rolls during
sheeting and cutting. High quality noodles were prepared within a
narrow range of water addition that was ±2 percentage points
from optimum (Oh et al 1985b, 1986). Water absorption also
played an important role in discoloration of yellow alkaline and
white salted noodles; brightness (L* value) decreased, yellowness
(b* value) increased significantly, and redness (a* value) in-
creased slightly with increasing water absorption (Baik et al 1995;
Hatcher et al 1999; Morris et al 2000; Solah et al 2007). Edwards
et al (1996) showed that water absorption significantly influenced
the elasticity of noodles. Hatcher et al (1999) found that textural
characteristics, recovery, resistance to compression, and maxi-
mum cutting stress of white salted noodles declined significantly
with increasing water absorption. Therefore, it is crucial to deter-
mine the optimum water additions for different types of wheat in
noodle testing programs. However, there are also different opin-
ions on optimum water additions for laboratory preparation of
CWN. A 44% water absorption (WA) as measured by farinogragh
was recommended as the optimum water addition in the official
method (SB/T10137-93) released by the Chinese Ministry of
Commerce. Liu et al (2002) reported that optimum water addition
varied among cultivars: optimum water addition was 50% WA for
Vol. 86, No. 4, 2009 477
high WA cultivars (WA ≥ 65%), 55% WA for medium WA culti-
vars (55% ≤ WA ≤ 65%), and 60% WA for low WA cultivars (WA
≤ 55%). Measurement of WA from farinograph is a labor- and
time-consuming activity and is not a practical laboratory proce-
dure for breeding programs. Zhang (1998) recommended an op-
timum water addition of 30–35% of the flour weight, whereas Lei
et al (2004) indicated that the optimum water addition should be
determined by targeting a final dough water content of 35%.
Therefore, much more work is needed to determine the optimum
water addition for testing different cultivars in breeding programs.
Salt addition decreases water absorption (Salovaara 1982; Chung
and Kim 1991) but increases the optimal dough development time
(Galal et al 1978; Danno and Hoseney 1982). Noodles containing
salt are expected to have reduced oxidase activity (Moss et al
1971; Oh et al 1985c). Dexter et al (1979) reported that 2% salt
resulted in a smoother and more uniform gluten structure in com-
parison with unsalted dough. Edwards et al (1996) found that
after compression and reduction sheeting of dough containing salt
or kansui, there was a uniform protein matrix with endosperm
particles fused together. The added salt may have increased com-
petition for available water, resulting in delayed protein hydration
and matrix development, contributing to the toughness of the
noodle dough during sheeting. Miskelly (1981) reported that in-
creasing salt concentration increased yellowness of noodles but
decreased brightness, whereas generally, salt improved the texture
of noodles (Rho 1988) and enhanced flavor (Kubomura 1998).
Shelke et al (1990) found that addition of salt to noodle dough
had no effect on firmness of partially cooked noodles. High salt
levels (≥3%) resulted in deterioration of raw noodle rheological
properties. Levels of <2% salt are recommended when making
white salted noodles with high quality flour (Wu et al 2006). Salt
was often added in laboratory noodle processing procedures but
the amounts varied greatly. Some added no salt in noodle prepara-
tion (Zhang et al 1998; Zhang et al 2000; Li et al 2001; Liu et al
2002; Lei et al 2004), whereas others added 1% salt for making
CWN (Lan et al 2001). Salt was the main additive for dry white
Chinese noodles because it led to avoidance of strand breakage
and improved sensory evaluation scores, particularly for noodles
made from low quality flour (Shi et al 2002). However, salt was
not commonly added for raw CWN in China. In general, salted
noodle is not preferred in China, although salt is added in the
production of dry white Chinese noodles (named Guamian in
Chinese). A salt taste is not preferred and water after cooking
noodles is traditionally served as a drink. Therefore, it is impor-
tant to understand the effect of salt concentration on CWN.
Approximately 40% of Chinese wheat is used for noodle pro-
duction and many types of noodles are consumed in different
parts of the country. In addition to instant noodles, dry white and
raw noodles are the most popular noodle types. The international
community has a confused concept of Chinese noodles. Yellow
alkaline noodles (ramen) were named Chinese noodles in English
but they were mostly consumed in Japan and other southeastern
Asian countries. A different type of yellow alkaline noodle is con-
sumed in parts of northwestern and southwestern China including
Gansu and Sichuan. However, most of the previous studies fo-
cused on Japanese and Korean style udon noodles and yellow
alkaline noodles, thus results from these studies may not be di-
rectly applicable to Chinese white noodle (CWN) because CWN
is different from Japanese noodles in several aspects. Japanese
udon noodles are more cream-white color and softer in texture;
more weight is given to color, appearance, taste, and flavor in the
quality scoring system (Zhang et al 2005). Thus they require soft
wheat flour with low protein and high starch viscosity. Starch
quality is the determining factor for udon noodle quality (Toyo-
kawa et al 1989a,b; Crosbie 1991; Crosbie et al 1992). Bright
yellow color and medium to high viscoelasticity are desirable for
ramen, thus medium to high protein content, medium to high
dough property, and high starch viscosity are required (Konik et
al 1994; Ross et al 1997; Crobie et al 1999). Compared with udon
and ramen, bright whiteness, moderate firmness in texture, and
medium to high viscoelasticity are desirable for CWN. Therefore,
flour from medium-hard to hard wheat, high flour whiteness,
medium protein content, and medium to strong gluten type is
considered suitable for making CWN (Huang and Morrison 1988;
Huang 1996; Liu et al 2003; He et al 2004). In addition to these
aspects, much less or even no salt is added in the production of
raw CWN. In general, quality aspects of traditional CWN remain
largely unexplored. Thus, the objectives of this study were to in-
vestigate the effects of flour extraction rate, water addition, and
salt concentration on color and texture attributes of raw CWN
using wheat cultivars differing in physical properties and to de-
velop an optimized laboratory procedure for preparation of CWN.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Wheat and Flour
Samples of five leading Chinese winter wheat cultivars, includ-
ing three hard wheats (Zhongyou 9507, Jimai 20, and Jimai 21),
one medium hard wheat (Wenmai 6), and one soft wheat (Yumai
18) were used in this study. The grain sample of Zhongyou 9507
was collected from Beijing, samples of Jimai 20 and Jimai 21
came from Shandong, and samples of Wenmai 6 and Yumai 18
came from Henan. All five samples were from the 2004-05 crop-
ping season and were free of sprouting damage. A 50-kg sample

TABLE I
Physical Properties of Five Flour Samples at Flour Extraction Rate 60% and Xuehuafen
Character Zhongyou 9507 Jimai 20 Jimai 21 Wenmai 6 Yumai 18 Xuehuafen
Protein (%) 15.8 12.9 13.0 13.0 11.6 12.3
Ash (%) 0.51 0.50 0.48 0.52 0.50 0.36
Color
L* 91.2 91.8 91.7 92.1 92.3 91.7
a* –0.6 –1.0 –1.1 –0.7 –0.8 –0.9
b* 8.0 8.2 8.3 6.1 5.9 8.0
PPO (U/g) 4.16 2.62 2.88 2.61 2.75 3.10
Farinograph
Water absorption (%) 65.4 64.0 63.6 58.3 59.3 58.5
Stability (min) 13.4 11.0 8.1 3.2 1.0 10.5
Extensigraph
Extension area (cm2) 128 102 88 32 19 93
Extensibility (mm) 189 178 177 172 168 153
Max. resistance (BU) 523 449 389 128 64 487
RVA
Peak viscosity (RVU) 226 207 216 246 268 242
Breakdown (RVU) 72 57 69 81 96 77

478 CEREAL CHEMISTRY

of each wheat cultivar was cleaned and tempered overnight. Hard,
medium, and soft wheats were tempered to ≈16.5, 15.5, and
14.5% moisture content, respectively. All samples were milled on
a laboratory mill (MLU 202, Buhler Bros, Uzwil, Switzerland)
according to Approved Method 26-21A (AACC International
2000) to give flours with three extraction rates (50, 60, and 70%).
Weight of all streams was added to determine total product weight
and determine the needed product weight of 50, 60, or 70% ex-
traction rate, then determine which streams would give the appro-
priate total in the order of B1-R1-B2-R2-B3-R3 (from the cleanest
stream to the darkest one).
Analytical Methods
Grain hardness and moisture were determined using the Single
Kernel Characterization System (SKCS 4100, Perten Instruments,
Sweden). Flour protein content (14% mb) was recorded (NIR
Analyzer Foss-Tecator 1241, Högänas, Sweden). Flour color was
measured using a chromameter (CR 310, Minolta Camera, Japan)
with the CIE 1976 L*, a*, b*color space equipped with a D65
illuminant. L* is the brightness from 0 (black) to 100 (white), a*
is a function of the green to red difference, and b* is a function of
the blue to yellow difference. Ash content, farinogragh, and ex-
tensigraph parameters were obtained using Approved Methods
08-01, 54-21 and 54-10, respectively (AACC International 2000).
Starch peak viscosity and breakdown were obtained using a Rapid
ViscoAnalyser (RVA-3D, Newport Scientific) as described by
Konik et al (1994). Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity was meas-
ured according to Demeke and Morris (2001) with some modifi-
cations: absorbance readings (475 nm) at 30 min after mixing 2 g
of flour with 15 mL of 10 mM L-dopa solution. One unit of PPO
activity was defined as the increase of 0.001 A 475 in 1 min.
Noodle Preparation
Noodle preparation and quality evaluation were performed ac-
cording to Zhang et al (2005). Noodles were produced and tested
from five cultivars at three flour extraction rates (50, 60, and
70%), three water addition levels (33, 35, and 37%), and three salt
(NaCl) concentrations (0, 1, and 2%, w/w). Therefore, 135 com-
binations were assessed for noodle sheet and cooked noodle per-
formance in two replicates. Flour (200 g, 14% mb) was mixed
with the appropriate water and salt additions using a pin mixer
(Kenmix, Japan). Salt was dissolved in distilled water and added
to flour during mixing. For sensory evaluation of noodle quality,
six samples were tested at each panel session including a well-
known Chinese commercial flour (Xuehuafen) as the control,
which showed a relative consistency in noodle quality score in the

TABLE II
Sums of Squares from ANOVA for Cultivar, Flour Extraction Rate, Water Addition, Salt Concentration, and Interactions
on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters of Chinese White Noodlesa,b
Source df L* 2 hr a* 2 hr b* 2 hr L* 24 hr a* 24 hr b* 24 hr Color
Cultivar 4 430.7** 86.5** 739.3** 926.4** 160.8** 2,374.9** 441.0**
Flour extrac rate 2 63.2** 9.6** 46.1** 179.5** 36.4** 7.6** 41.5**
Water 2 88.0** 1.3** 574.0** 124.3** 6.9** 264.0** 5.9**
Salt 2 21.8** 0.1* 60.4** 71.8** 4.8** 10.2** 12.0**
C×F 8 30.8** 2.7** 31.1** 47.0** 5.4** 34.1** 21.2**
C×W 8 14.3** 0.6** 95.1** 58.6** 4.0** 174.3** 16.2**
C×S 8 0.8 0.1 9.8* 10.3** 0.5 12.6** 15.4**
F×W 4 3.2** 0.1* 8.6** 6.7** 0.7* 9.4** 5.5**
F×S 4 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.5 0.2 1.3 1.5
W×S 4 7.3** 0.5** 14.5** 17.6** 1.1** 8.5** 3.1
C×F×W 16 5.3** 0.4** 18.1** 21.4** 1.1 31.2** 9.5*
C×F×S 16 1.0 0.1 3.1 7.0 0.8 5.0 6.1
C×W×S 16 2.4 0.1 8.1 8.6* 1.1 3.4 7.6
F×W×S 8 0.7 0.1 2.5 3.1 0.4 1.5 1.8
C×F×W×S 32 3.1 0.1 12.3 16.1** 1.4 6.2 21.6**
Error 14.4 1.4 59.4 34.9 7.4 79.0 43.2
a C, cultivar; F, flour extraction rate; W, water; S, salt.
b *and** indicate significance at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, respectively.

TABLE II (continued)
Sums of Squares from ANOVA for Cultivar, Flour Extraction Rate, Water Addition, Salt Concentration, and Interactions
on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters of Chinese White Noodlesa,b
Source df Appearance Firmness Viscoelasticity Smoothness Flavor Total Score
Cultivar 4 13.2** 79.8** 226.7** 34.7** 11.3** 1563.6**
Flour extrac rate 2 1.9** 12.5** 16.2** 4.3** 0.8* 151.7**
Water 2 19.2** 179.1** 345.4** 246.5** 2.3** 3040.1**
Salt 2 2.0** 17.4** 31.8** 1.8* 3.8** 182.9**
C×F 8 18.4** 23.8** 64.1** 25.1** 5.0** 87.8**
C×W 8 8.9** 30.9** 72.8** 12.3** 2.5** 248.6**
C×S 8 1.7 10.4 36.8** 0.9 1.0 89.8**
F×W 4 4.2** 10.3* 17.2* 1.4 1.0 45.3**
F×S 4 1.5 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.2 6.4
W×S 4 7.6** 33.5** 40.3** 8.9** 0.3 177.6**
C×F×W 16 6.2* 33.4** 69.7** 16.5** 7.1** 282.8**
C×F×S 16 6.5* 27.7** 35.6 2.8 2.1 143.0**
C×W×S 16 5.5* 20.0 59.1** 8.2* 6.0** 108.9**
F×W×S 8 0.9 24.0** 24.9* 1.6 0.5 32.3
C×F×W×S 32 5.5 56.3** 62.1 12.9 5.8* 145.4
Error 26.2 101.9 188.2 38.5 16.0 419.0
a C, cultivar; F, flour extraction rate; W, water; S, salt.
b *and** indicate significance at P = 0.05 and P = 0.01, respectively.

Vol. 86, No. 4, 2009 479

sensory tests, and at least five panelists compared the samples
with the control for six parameters (color 15, appearance 10,
firmness 20, viscoelasticity 30, smoothness 15, and taste-flavor
including taste and mouthfeeling 10) and assigned a score to each,
then a total score for each sample was obtained. The scores of six
parameters for control are always 10.5, 7, 14, 21, 10.5, and 7,
respectively, under uniform lighting with temperature of the sen-
sory evaluation laboratory was controlled at 20 ± 1°C.
Color Measurements of Noodle Sheet
Colors of the noodle sheets was measured with the Minolta
chromameter CR 310 with the CIE 1976 L*, a*, b* color space
equipped with a D65 illuminant. The noodle sheet was measured
on a Royal Australian Cereal Institute (RACI) standard backing
tile, with three measurements being made on each side of the
noodle sheet. Noodle sheets were stored in sealed plastic bags at
25°C for 24 hr, and measurements were made at 2 and 24 hr.
Statistical Analyses
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using PROC
GLM in the Statistical Analysis System (SAS Institute, Cary, NC)
for wheat quality traits and noodle quality parameters. All effects
were treated as fixed, including cultivars, treatments, and their
interactions, except for replicates, used as random variables.
Fisher’s F-protected least significant difference (LSD) method
was used to compare means.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characterization of Flour Samples from Five Cultivars
As expected, ash content, a* and b* values, PPO activity, pro-
tein content, farinograph water absorption, and extensigraph ex-
tension area showed slight increases as flour extraction rates
increased from 50 to 70%, but L* value showed slight decreases;
changes of other parameters were inconsistent among cultivars
(detailed data not presented). As shown in Table I, Zhongyou
9507 was a hard type with high protein content, good flour
brightness, high PPO activity, high water absorption, strong glu-
ten, good extensibility and medium peak viscosity and break-
down. Jimai 20 and Jimai 21 were also hard types, with medium
protein content, good flour brightness, low PPO activity, medium
to strong gluten strength and low peak viscosity and breakdown.
Wenmai 6 was characterized by soft kernels, excellence in flour
brightness and low PPO activity, medium protein and gluten
strength and medium peak viscosity and breakdown. Yumai 18
was characterized as a soft type with excellent flour brightness

TABLE III
Effect of Flour Extraction Rate (F) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar F (%) L* 2 hr a* 2 hr b* 2 hr L* 24 hr a* 24 hr b* 24 hr Color
Zhongyou 9507 50 82.1a 1.5c 23.5b 78.0a 2.5c 25.9a 10.0a
60 81.4b 1.9b 24.1a 76.5b 3.2b 25.7ab 9.0b
70 81.0c 2.1a 23.9ab 75.3c 3.7a 25.3b 8.9b

Jimai 20 50 84.3a 0.4c 22.7b 80.0a 1.5b 27.0b 11.5b

60 84.0b 0.5b 23.6a 79.8a 1.6b 28.2a 12.5a
70 83.8c 0.6a 23.3a 79.3b 2.0a 27.5b 12.2a

Jimai 21 50 83.2b 0.4c 24.3a 79.5a 1.4b 27.1b 11.6a

60 83.4a 0.5b 24.3a 79.5a 1.5b 27.1b 10.7b
70 82.9c 0.7a 24.6a 78.4b 2.0a 28.2a 10.4b

Wenmai 6 50 82.9a 1.2c 20.5c 78.0a 2.8c 21.2a 10.4a

60 81.4b 1.6b 21.2b 76.1b 3.4b 21.2a 9.5b
70 80.7c 1.9a 22.1a 75.3c 4.0a 21.6a 9.5b

Yumai 18 50 81.3a 1.3b 19.0c 75.9a 2.8c 20.5b 8.9a

60 80.9b 1.3b 19.8b 75.1b 3.0b 20.3b 8.5b
70 79.4c 1.8a 21.2a 73.1c 3.7a 21.3a 8.0c
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05; different letters indicate significant differences at P = 0.05.

TABLE III (continued)

Effect of Flour Extraction Rate (F) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar F (%) Appearance Firmness Viscoelasticity Smoothness Flavor Total Score
Zhongyou 9507 50 7.6a 13.2a 20.1b 10.1a 7.2a 68.1a
60 7.1b 13.0a 20.7ab 9.9a 7.1a 66.9b
70 7.2b 13.2a 21.0a 10.2a 7.2a 67.7ab

Jimai 20 50 7.8a 14.4a 21.3a 10.5a 7.4a 73.0a

60 7.8a 13.8a 21.3a 10.8a 7.2a 73.5a
70 7.4b 13.8a 20.7a 10.4a 6.8b 71.4b

Jimai 21 50 7.7a 13.6b 19.5b 10.7a 6.9ab 69.9a

60 7.1c 14.6a 20.6a 9.9c 7.1a 70.0a
70 7.3b 13.6b 19.2b 10.2b 6.8b 67.5b

Wenmai 6 50 7.2a 12.8a 20.1a 11.1a 7.3b 68.8a

60 7.4a 13.0a 19.8a 11.1a 7.5ab 68.4a
70 7.5a 12.0b 19.5a 9.9b 7.6a 65.9b

Yumai 18 50 7.2a 14.0a 18.0b 11.1a 6.8b 66.1a

60 7.1a 13.4b 18.3b 10.8b 7.1a 65.1ab
70 6.5b 13.2b 18.8a 11.3a 6.9ab 64.7b
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05; different letters indicate significant differences at P = 0.05.

480 CEREAL CHEMISTRY

and low PPO activity, low protein content, very weak gluten
strength, and high peak viscosity and breakdown. Xuehuafen as
the control was characterized with medium protein content, low
ash content, good flour brightness, medium PPO activity, medium
to strong gluten strength and medium peak viscosity and break-
down.
Analysis of Variance
The analysis of variance showed that cultivars, flour extraction
rates, water addition and salt concentrations significantly affected
all color parameters of raw noodle sheets and most quality pa-
rameters of cooked noodles. Cultivars were the most important
source of variation for raw noodle sheet color, flavor and total
score of cooked noodles. Water addition was the most important
source of variation for color, appearance, firmness, viscoelasticity,
and smoothness of cooked noodles. Interactions between cultivar
and flour extraction rate (C × F), cultivar and water addition (C ×
W), and between cultivar, flour extraction rate, and water addition
(C × F × W) also significantly affected variation in color, appear-
ance, firmness, viscoelasticity, smoothness and total score, although
other interactions were also significant sources of variation for
noodle sheet color and parameters of cooked noodles (Table II).
Effect of Flour Extraction Rate on Noodle Color
and Texture
Flour extraction rate (F) had significant effects on the color of
noodle sheets (Table III). At both 2 and 24 hr, raw noodle sheet
brightness (L*) decreased significantly, and a* and b* values in-
creased significantly as F increased from 50 to 70%. As expected,
all five cultivars showed the best color performance at F 50%.
Both a* and b* values increased, but L* decreased at 24 hr, com-
pared with 2 hr, in agreement with Oh et al (1985c) and Kruger et
al (1994). At 2 hr, L*, a* and b* values of Jimai 20 for F 50%
were 84.3, 0.4, and 22.7; values at 24 hr were 80.0, 1.5, and 27.0,
respectively. However, the changes in b* values for noodle sheets
at 2 hr for Zhongyou 9507, Jimai 20, and Jimai 21 did not differ
significantly as F increased from 60 to 70%. The changes in b*
values of noodle sheets from four flour samples at 24 hr were not
significant when F increased from 50 to 60%.
CWN score showed a slight decrease when F increased from 50
to 70% and had the highest noodle score at F 50%, although no
significant differences were observed for noodle scores for four
cultivars when F increased from 50 to 60%. In general, cooked
noodle color had a slight decrease except Jimai 20 with a slight
increase when F increased from 50 to 70%, but no significant dif-

TABLE IV
Effect of Water Addition (W) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar W (%) L* 2 hr a* 2 hr b* 2 hr L* 24 hr a* 24 hr b* 24 hr Color
Zhongyou 9507 33 82.1a 1.7c 22.0b 76.2b 3.4a 25.6b 9.7a
35 81.1c 1.9a 24.7a 76.0b 3.2b 26.2a 8.8b
37 81.3b 1.8b 24.8a 77.6a 2.7c 25.0c 9.3ab

Jimai 20 33 84.9a 0.4b 20.6c 80.3a 1.8a 25.1b 11.8b

35 83.8b 0.5a 23.6b 79.1c 1.8a 28.8a 12.3a
37 83.4c 0.4b 25.4a 79.7b 1.5b 28.8a 12.6a

Jimai 21 33 84.0a 0.4b 21.8c 79.6a 1.7a 25.3b 10.2b

35 82.9b 0.5a 25.1b 78.5c 1.7a 28.7a 10.4b
37 82.6c 0.5a 26.3a 79.2b 1.5b 28.5a 10.9a

Wenmai 6 33 82.4a 1.4c 19.7c 76.6b 3.3b 20.8b 9.6b

35 81.0c 1.6a 22.6a 75.3c 3.6a 22.7a 10.0a
37 81.6b 1.5b 21.6b 77.5a 3.3b 20.5b 10.1a

Yumai 18 33 81.4a 1.2b 18.4c 75.0b 3.0b 19.9b 8.4a

35 79.6c 1.6a 21.6a 73.0c 3.5a 22.4a 8.5a
37 80.5b 1.5a 20.1b 76.1a 3.0b 19.9b 8.4a
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05.

TABLE IV (continued)
Effect of Water Addition (W) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar W (%) Appearance Firmness Viscoelasticity Smoothness Flavor Total Score
Zhongyou 9507 33 7.2a 12.0c 19.8c 9.3c 7.0b 64.9c
35 7.2a 13.2b 20.7b 9.8b 7.1b 66.9b
37 7.5a 14.2a 21.6a 11.0a 7.4a 70.8a

Jimai 20 33 7.1c 13.2b 19.5b 9.5c 6.9b 68.1c

35 7.6b 14.2a 21.6a 10.8b 7.3a 73.9b
37 8.1a 14.8a 21.9a 11.4a 7.2a 75.9a

Jimai 21 33 6.9b 13.0c 18.9b 9.0c 7.0a 64.9c

35 7.6a 14.0b 20.7a 10.4b 6.9a 70.0b
37 7.8a 14.6a 20.7a 11.6a 6.9a 72.5a

Wenmai 6 33 7.2b 10.8c 17.1c 9.3c 7.4a 61.3c

35 7.6a 12.6b 20.1b 10.8b 7.5a 68.7b
37 7.2b 14.2a 22.2a 12.0a 7.5a 73.2a

Yumai 18 33 6.4c 12.8b 17.0c 9.8c 6.7b 61.0c

35 7.0b 13.8a 18.9b 11.1b 7.1a 66.6b
37 7.4a 13.8a 19.3a 12.5a 7.0a 68.6a
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05.

Vol. 86, No. 4, 2009 481

ference was observed for cooked noodle color for five cultivars
when F increased from 60 to 70%. Noodle appearance showed a
slight reduction as F increased from 50 to 70% although no sig-
nificant differences were apparent for Jimai 20, Wenmai 6, and
Yumai 18 at 50 and 60%. This is consistent with a previous report
for other noodle types (Lee et al 1987; Hatcher et al 2000). No clear
trends were observed for other parameters of cooked noodles.
Overall, raw noodle sheet color significantly declined as flour
extraction rate increased from 50 to 70% and noodle score was
the highest when flour extraction rate was 50% although only
slight differences occurred at the 50 and 60% rates. Therefore,
60% flour extraction is recommended for laboratory preparation
of CWN because sample size is always a limiting factor for qual-
ity testing in breeding programs.
Effect of Water Addition on Noodle Color and Texture
As shown in Table IV, the L* value at 2 hr was the highest for
all five cultivars with water addition of 33%; however, an increase
in water addition from 33 to 35% resulted in a decrease in L* and
an increase in b* values of raw noodle sheets at 2 and 24 hr, but
an increase in the a* value of raw noodle sheets for all five culti-
vars at 2 hr. The L* values decreased and b* values increased for
all five cultivars but changes in a* values were different in the
various cultivars at 24 hr when water addition was increased from
33 to 35%. Also, no consistent changes in L* and b* values of
noodle sheets were observed for different cultivars at 2 hr with
water addition >35%. An increase in water addition from 35 to
37% resulted in decreased a* value at 2 hr and an increased
L*value and decreased a* and b* values for all five cultivars, ex-
cept for the b* value of Jimai 20 where a small increase occurred
at 24 hr. This was similar to the report of Solah et al (2007). Color
stability was also affected by water addition. A further decrease in
loss of brightness, redness, and yellowness was observed with
increased water addition. For example, the loss of brightness (2 hr
L*minus 24 hr L*) of Zhongyou 9507 at water additions of 33,
35, and 37% was 5.9, 5.1, and 3.7, respectively.
Water addition had significant effects on all cooked noodle pa-
rameters except flavor. In general, significant increases in noodle
appearance, firmness, viscoelasticity, smoothness, and total score
occurred when water addition increased from 33 to 37%. Cooked
noodle color had no significant changes for Zhongyou 9507 and
Yumai 18 but showed a slight increase for Jimai 20, Jimai 21, and
Wenmai 6 when water addition increased from 33 to 37%. The
changes in noodle viscoelasticity for Jimai 20 and Jimai 21 were

TABLE V
Effect of Salt Concentration (S) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar S (%) L* 2 hr a* 2 hr b* 2 hr L* 24 hr a* 24 hr b* 24 hr Color
Zhongyou 9507 0 81.1c 1.9a 24.6a 75.9c 3.2a 26.0a 9.0a
1 81.6b 1.8ab 23.8b 76.5b 3.1ab 25.6ab 9.3a
2 81.9a 1.7b 23.2c 77.3a 3.0b 25.2b 9.4a

Jimai 20 0 83.7c 0.5a 24.0a 79.3b 1.8a 27.9a 11.9b

1 84.1b 0.5a 23.1b 79.8a 1.6b 27.5ab 12.4a
2 84.3a 0.5a 22.6c 79.9a 1.6b 27.2b 12.4a

Jimai 21 0 82.8c 0.6a 25.3a 78.5c 1.8a 28.0a 9.1b

1 83.2b 0.5ab 24.2b 79.1b 1.7b 27.5b 10.4a
2 83.4a 0.4b 23.8b 79.7a 1.5c 27.0c 10.2a

Wenmai 6 0 81.3b 1.7a 21.5a 75.9b 3.6a 21.1a 8.4b

1 81.8a 1.6b 21.3a 76.6a 3.5a 21.3a 9.2a
2 81.8a 1.5ab 21.0a 76.9a 3.2b 21.5a 8.0b

Yumai 18 0 80.0b 1.4a 20.5a 73.6c 3.4a 20.8a 7.8c

1 80.7a 1.4a 19.8b 74.8b 3.2b 20.7a 8.4b
2 80.7a 1.4a 19.7b 75.6a 2.9c 20.6a 9.2a
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05.

TABLE V (continued)
Effect of Salt Concentration (S) on Raw Noodle Sheet Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 18) of Chinese White Noodlesa
Cultivar S (%) Appearance Firmness Viscoelasticity Smoothness Flavor Total Score
Zhongyou 9507 0 7.3a 12.4b 19.5b 10.1a 7.2ab 65.5b
1 7.3a 13.2a 21.3a 10.1a 7.3a 68.5a
2 7.3a 13.6a 21.0a 9.9a 7.0b 68.6a

Jimai 20 0 7.4b 13.6b 20.4b 10.6a 7.2a 71.2c

1 7.7a 14.2ab 21.9a 10.6a 7.2a 74.1a
2 7.7a 14.4a 20.7b 10.4a 6.9b 72.6b

Jimai 21 0 7.4a 13.6b 20.1ab 10.1b 6.9b 68.9a

1 7.3a 13.6b 20.7a 10.5a 7.1a 69.7a
2 7.5a 14.4a 19.5b 10.4ab 6.8b 68.8a

Wenmai 6 0 7.2a 13.8a 19.2a 10.7a 7.6a 67.0b

1 7.5a 13.6a 19.8a 10.8a 7.6a 68.5a
2 7.4a 14.2a 20.1a 10.7a 7.3b 67.7ab

Yumai 18 0 6.7b 13.2b 18.4a 11.0a 6.8b 64.0c

1 7.0ab 13.4b 18.3a 11.1a 7.1a 65.4b
2 7.1a 14.0a 18.4a 11.1a 6.9b 66.6a
a Means followed by the same letters are not significantly different at P = 0.05.

482 CEREAL CHEMISTRY

smaller than the other three cultivars. However, significant im-
provements in noodle smoothness and total score were observed
for all five cultivars when water addition increased from 33 to
37%. For example, the noodle scores of Zhongyou 9507 at water
additions of 33, 35, and 37% were significantly different: 64.9,
66.9, and 70.8, respectively.
Although, water addition showed different effects on raw noo-
dle sheet color at 2 and 24 hr, 37% water addition produced the
highest scores for most cooked noodle parameters, including total
noodle score. However, during noodle preparation 37% water
addition gave excessive absorption in all five flour samples, par-
ticularly Zhongyou 9507 and Yumai 18. This resulted in slack
doughs that were too extensible to maintain the same thickness of
noodle sheet, and gave increased problems in noodle sheeting and
cutting. Water addition at 35% appeared to produce optimum
absorption for Jimai 20, Jimai 21, and Wenmai 6, slightly more
acceptable than for Zhongyou 9507 and Yumai 18. Based on more
than 500 samples tested in our lab for the last three years, 35%
water addition was suitable for ≈95% of the samples. It could be
slightly modified based on water absorption from farinograph if
the data is available. Therefore, 35% water addition was consid-
ered optimal for laboratory preparation of CWN.
Effect of Salt Addition on Noodle Color and Texture
Salt concentration had significant positive effects on noodle
sheet color (Table V). Salt concentration increases from 0 to 2%
produced increases in L* and decreases in a* and b* values of
noodle sheets at 2 and 24 hr except for yellowness of Wenmai 6 at
24 hr. For example, the brightness values for Jimai 21 at 0, 1, and
2% at 2 hr were significantly different at 82.8, 83.2, and 83.4,
respectively, whereas the corresponding values at 24 hr were 78.5,
79.1, and 79.7. Although 2% salt concentration was more effec-
tive in increasing the brightness of noodle sheets, there was no
significant difference between 1 and 2% salt on the color of noo-
dle sheets made from Wenmai 6 and Yumai 18 at 2 hr and from
Jimai 20 and Wenmai 6 at 24 hr. This agrees with Morris et al
(2000), whereas Miskelly (1981) reported that increasing NaCl
concentration increased noodle yellowness but decreased light-
ness and Shelke et al (1990) found that NaCl had no significant
effect on color.
Slight changes in noodle appearance, smoothness, and viscoe-
lasticity were observed as salt concentrations increased from 0 to
2%. Cooked noodle color was improved significantly as salt con-
centration increased from 0 to 1% and the changes of color were
not significant for three hard cultivars (Zhongyou 9507, Jimai 20,
and Jimai 21) as salt increased from 1 to 2%.
Firmness significantly increased and flavor significantly de-
creased as salt increased, thus 1% salt gave the highest noodle
scores for four of the five cultivars except for soft wheat Yumai
18. A 2% salt addition produced more extrusion resistance during
sheeting and cutting, especially with hard wheat flour which is in
agreement with a report for spaghetti (Wei et al 1998). Therefore,
1% salt was recommended for laboratory preparation of CWN
because the overall majority of noodle consumers prefer no salt or
low salt levels.
Effect of Cultivar on Noodle Color and Texture
As shown in Table II, cultivar was the most important source of
variation for raw noodle sheet color and flavor and total score of
cooked noodles. Jimai 20 gave excellent noodle sheet color, color
stability, cooked noodle color, and the highest noodle score (Ta-
bles III, IV, and V). The noodle sheet color and textural properties
of cooked noodles under recommended conditions (60% flour
extraction rate, 35% water addition, and 1% salt) for all five culti-
vars compared with Xuehuafen are presented in Table VI, con-
firming that Jimai 20 had excellent CWN quality. Jimai 20 is
currently a leading cultivar in the northern parts of the Yellow and
Huai Valleys including the provinces of Shandong, Hebei, and
northern parts of Henan, Jiangsu, and Anhui. Thus, Jimai 20
could be a useful parent in crossing programs aimed at improving
the flour color and noodle qualities of Chinese wheats, in agree-
ment with the report of Liu et al (2007).
CONCLUSIONS
Cultivar, flour extraction rate, water addition, salt concentra-
tion, and their interactions had significant effects on color of raw
noodle sheets and cooked noodle, and textural properties of
CWN. Cultivar and water addition were more important sources
of variation in comparison with flour extraction rate and salt con-
centration. Brightness (L*) and redness (a*) of raw noodle sheets
were significantly reduced and increased, respectively, as flour
extractions increased from 50 to 70%. Significant improvements
in noodle appearance, firmness, viscoelasticity, smoothness, and
total score occurred with increasing water addition. Brightness of
raw noodle sheets, and firmness and viscoelasticity of cooked
noodles significantly improved but noodle flavor significantly
deteriorated, as salt concentration increased from 0 to 2%. The
recommended composition for laboratory preparation of CWN is
60% flour extraction, 35% water addition, and 1% salt concentra-
tion. Jimai 20 excelled in noodle sheet color, color stability, and
noodle score among the five tested cultivars.

TABLE VI
Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 2) of Chinese White Noodle at 60% Flour Extraction, 35% Water Addition and 1% Salt
Cultivar L* 2 hr a* 2 hr b* 2 hr L* 24 hr a* 24 hr b* 24 hr Color
Zhongyou 9507 81.2 2.1 25.5 77.7 2.8 24.5 8.4
Jimai 20 83.4 0.4 25.8 80.3 1.1 29.2 12.7
Jimai 21 82.7 0.5 26.5 79.4 1.4 28.1 8.1
Wenmai 6 81.7 1.5 20.8 77.8 3.2 19.9 10.5
Yumai 18 80.7 1.4 20.0 77.1 2.7 19.2 8.6
Xuehuafen 85.4 0.3 17.9 80.3 1.3 23.2 10.5

TABLE VI (continued)
Color and Sensory Parameters (n = 2) of Chinese White Noodle at 60% Flour Extraction, 35% Water Addition and 1% Salt
Cultivar Appearance Firmness Viscoelasticity Smoothness Flavor Total Score
Zhongyou 9507 7.3 13.0 24.0 10.0 7.2 69.8
Jimai 20 8.5 13.8 23.3 11.3 7.7 77.2
Jimai 21 7.0 14.5 23.6 10.1 7.0 70.3
Wenmai 6 7.5 12.0 22.5 11.5 7.5 71.5
Yumai 18 6.7 13.3 19.2 11.1 7.7 66.7
Xuehuafen 7.0 14.0 21.0 10.5 7.0 70.0

Vol. 86, No. 4, 2009 483

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to two anonymous referees for valuable suggestions
and comments, and to R. A. McIntosh, University of Sydney, and Craig
Morris, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, for kindly reviewing this manuscript.
This project is supported from the international collaboration project and
the earmarked fund for the Modern Agro-industry Technology and Re-
search System of Chinese Ministry of Agriculture.
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