Chapter 10 Gas Volumes and Material-Balance Caiculations 10.1 Introduction, ‘This chapter presents methods for estimatiag original gas in place, ‘gas reserves, and recovery factors for a variety of reservoir drive Ieckanisms. The first section discusses Volumetric methods, in- sibilities shows that gases can be as much as 100 or even 1,000 times more compressible than relatively incompressible liquids, so simple gas expansion is a very efficient drive mechanism, often allowing up (0 90% of insplace gas to be recovered, ‘Separator Conditions Feta Pressure Temperature Production (psia) CA 59560 sevsTé =~ 200 62 415 sciSTB 14.7 60 147 60 +1950 STB/D Assuming a constant reservoir PV over the producing life ofthe reservoir, we can derive a materal-balance equation by equating the reservoir PV occupied by the gas at initial conditions to that, ‘occupied by the gas at some later conditions following eas produc tion and the associated pressure reduction. Referring to the tank- type model in Fig. 10.4, we write the material-balance equation as, GBy=(G-G, Bg. (10.26 Where GB,,=reservoir volume occupied by gas at initial reservoir pressure, fes bbl, and (G—G,)B, =reservoir volume occupied by ao2n eset ‘We can rewrite Eq. 10.26 as By oyeo(:-) By enone 7 i es (10.28) ond Farther, we can rewrite Eq. 10.28 as, a g sci sina wats nts a ol ete snuae Revkeagc tassios ret pte atl ea a SEP. soure nr pe le Soa ens itera tnbeenaree pean a wre ns caecis sccneae Peea fat 2 PP eae 7 (10.29) Example 10.5—Calculating Original Gas in Place Using Mate- rial Balance for a Volumetric Dry-Gas Reservoir. Estimate the original gas in place forthe reservoir described below using the ‘material: balance equation for a volumetric dry-gas reservoir where236 Cbg (G -Gp) By Init Condions(p =p) Later Conditions (p = eee (10.34) rn For constant-erminal-pressure conditions, poe (10.35) Pi-Pr “The dimensionless radius is defined in terms of 1, sr, (10.36). and for + in days, 00633 0.37) ‘van Everdingen and Hurst derived solutions to Eq. 10.33 for wo eservoir/aquifer boundary conditions ~constant terminal rate and ‘constant terminal pressure. The water influx rate for the constant- terminal-rate case is assumed constant for a given period, and the pressure drop atthe reservoir/aquifer boundury is calculate, For the constant-pressure case, the water influx rate is determined for ‘a constant pressure drop over some finite time period. Reservoir ‘engineers usually are more interested in determining the water in- flux than the pressure drop at the reservoir/aquifer boundary, SO Boe oe tig-m) z ta Ff a g 5 i * 3 % z ‘TIME PERIODS Fig, 10.9—Step-by-sep pressureshistory approximation used Inthe van Everdingen-Hurst™* model (after Craft and Hawkins?).230 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING [TABLE 10.4_PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR! | ‘AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.6 Time P (cays) (estay 0 3.783 ors, 3768 1830 3774 2745 3748 366.0 3709 4575 3.680 549.0, 3643 [TABLE 10.5—SUMMARY OF INTERMEDIATE RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.6 Tie Pap, 2 (days) toe (sia) (ps) Qyollond poe Te 4 7 0 1 918 151 a8 2B 10 | 2 wao 302 37 95 170 3 2785 459 «3748 028 4 360 604 ©3709 925 0280 5 4575 (755 «3680 340345 6 5490 908 3.643 409 320 \we will focus on water influx calculations under constant pressure conditions. Ref. 14 gives additional details on the constant-rate so- lution van Everdingen and Hurst derived the constant pressure soluit's in terms of a dimensionless water influx rate defined by — | Fig. 10.10—Linear geometry for the van Everdingen-Hurst * reservoir/aqulter model and end of the period. Thus, for an intial aquifer pressure, p,, the average pressure during the first time period is p,='4(p,+Py). ‘Similary, for the second time period. P= '5(p +2). In gener- al, for the mth time period, p=! Pq—1+Pr) ‘We can then calculate the pressure changes between time peri ods as follows Bergen the init Apo=P:—Pi=Pi— BLP, +D,)* VAL PLP) Similarly, between the first and second time periods, and frst time periods, = 4p) HCD, +P) Da Had LP —Pad = (10.38) tm general, for the (n—1) and rth time periods, 0S oroRap genera, forthe (=I) me BP n=Pat~Pa= "AU Pnt *Pa-i) 8 Pa-i $d Integrating both sides of Eq, 10.38 with respect ro time yields Poe ' ns ='(Pq-2-Pa) » 1 { ‘tto=(— : \(oe )(euae During each time increment, the pressure is assumed constant 4 o.00 7088p /\oncyr? / {(e., constant-pressure solution), and the cumulative water influx for m time periods is 1 : a en (10.39) 7 PiDpoltn~' L119¢c rapa Wey) z AP Qpo\ln—h-1)D» (10.44) tn matria-balance calculations, we are more interested 9M were B=|.1196cjh} ay ‘cumulative water influx than in influx rate. Therefore, because co: smulative water influx, W, is the angle subtended by the reservoir is less than 360° (Fig, 10.8), then Bi is adjusted as follows: We-| aude v0.40) ° 3 B=1.11960 HF 0.46) and dimensionless cumulative water infu is ‘The pressure change during each tne invement, as explained eyo | "ant (io.s1y above, te clelatod ith 3 (.-2-D det 12.-.0 047 we can combine Eqs. 1039 though 10.410 obtain and 7. Gal pressure. Each ap, in Eg. 10.46 is mut - Dlied by tn dimensionless cumulative water inl. Opp. evaluat (a0.42) data dimensionless time coresponding to the time fo which 3, (00 Ti8ecjihap fas been in effet. For example, ap, will have been in effect for , the total productive ie of he reservoir, so Opp wil be evaluated Thus, W,=1.1198¢/h2 870, (10.43) atta, Oho. In general, will have bee inet forthe time If the total productive reservoir life is divided into a finite num ber of pressure reduetions or increases, we can use siperposition (of the solution given by Eq. 10.43 to model the water-iniax be- havior fora given pressure history. This method assumes thatthe pressure history atthe original reservoir/aquifer boundary can be approximated by a series of step-by-step pressure changes. Fig. 10.9 shows the modeling of a pressure history Referring to Fig. 10.9, we define the average pressure in each period as the arithmetic average of the pressures atthe beginning period 1f,-, 80 Opp that multiplies 3, will be evaluated at (typo: To simplify calultions, Tables E-4 and En Appendix Epres- nt vals for dimensionless eumulative wate inf asa function of time for both infinite-actng and finite aquifers. © Alterative- Iy, forthe special case of infnite-cting aquifers, Bdwardson et <2? develops polynomial expression for ealcalating Q,. These expressions, Eg. 10.48 through 10.50, depend on dimensionlessGAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS. 239 TABLE 10.6—SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS, TABLE 10.7—PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR/ EXAMPLE 10.6 ‘AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.7 Time P We | pat Reserved 2 (days) sia) 8) t Aauiter Boundary 0 0 3.793 0 (cays (sia) len os 3788 nari 8 3.793 2 18303774 e2ia2e os 3.788 3 ems 3748 191374 1880 3774 + 3660 3.709 496.219 2745 3.748 5 4875 3.680 731.287 366.0 3.709 6 54903843 1.2121800 4575 31650 549.0 3.648 For tp <0.01, 0.006334 = 10.37) a ty a ener} 0 i 7 and for a linear flow geémetry, For 0.01 <1<200, < a9siy pon) 1.2838 + 1.19328rp +0.26987213? +0.0085529403 1 40,616599 5 +0.0813008%) 10.49) For tp >200, 4.29881 yotto) (10.50) cae In(tp) ‘Similarly, Klins et al.?! developed polynomial approximations for bok infiie-acting ad finite aguiers. "Te van Everdingen and urs method lo is aplcaleoinear flow geometries Pig. 10.10). For ine flow, we define a dimen- siones tine in terms ofthe reservoir length, Z, 38 0.006334 = (10.51) oneyL? Following a derivation similar to that presented for radial flow, we find that the cumulative water influx for n time periods is Wlig)=B ES AP: polty 1). (ae.s2) Where the parameter B is defined in terms of the reservoir length, 1786¢,hL. 410.53) Ref. 14 gives dimensionless cumulative production numbers, Opp. for this cas. "Derived from exact solutions to the diffusivity equation, the van Everdingen and Furst method models all aguifer low regimes (i.e. transient and peeudosteady-state) and is applicable to both infinite- ‘cting and finite aquifers. Example 10.6 illustrates the following caleulaton procedure 1. First, calculate the parameter B for radial Now, ‘ nea) ong 360 2 2, Calculate the pressure change, p;, between each time period, Api AC Pi-2~ Ps FAD. 3. Caleulate the fp that correspond to each time period on the production history, For a radial flow geometry, 4. For each tp computed in Step 3, calculate a dimensionless water cumulative influx, Q,p(¢p). For an infnite-acting aquifer, wwe can use Eqs, 10.50 through 10.52, use Klins e¢ al.'s?! equa tions, or read the values directly from Table B-4. For finite aqui fers, we must use Klins er al.'s equations or Table ES. 5. Calculate the water influx WG) (10.44) Example 10.6—Estimating Water Influx With the van Everdingen-Hurst Method. Calculate the water influx for the reser- voirlaquifer system given below. Assume an infinite-acting aqui fer. The estimated properties of the aquifer are given below; Table* 10.4 summarizes the reservois/aquifer pressure history. 1} = 0.208. w= 0.25 ep. 9 = 180° k= 275 md. & = 610-6 psia~! i= 19.2 8 7, = 5,807 fe Solution. 1, Caleulate B using Eq. 10.46: i aetasa( 4) 260. 180 = 1.119(0.209,6% 10-8)19.295,807)2( — 360 =454.3 RB/psi 2. For each time period, calculate Ap defined by Apq='8(Pq-2Pp)- or example, at n= 1 4p, =A p,~P,)= 4G.793~3,788)=2.5 psi For n=6, Ap6='4( pa=ps)™ 143,709 ~3,643) =33.0 psi 3. Calculate dimensionless times that correspond to each time ‘on our schedule, Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq. 10.37 for a radial system: (0.00633)275) (0.209)(0.25(6%10-6)(5,807)? 654.240 165(91.5 4, For cach fp computed in Step 3, cafeulate a dimensionless cu- smulative water influx. Because we are assuming an infnite-acting aguifer, we can use ether Eqs, 10.48 through 10.50 or Table E-4 For this example, we have chosen to use the equations. ‘The value of 1p determines which equation to use. For exam ple, at 91.5 days (v=1), tp=15.1, so we use Eq. 10.49, Qpoktn)= 1.28384) + 1.193284 +0.26987243" +0.0085520413 1 061659915F F0.0813008%) = [1.283815.1)+1.19328(15,1)+0.269872(15.132 ++0.00855204(15.1)2 [1 +0.616599(15.1) +0.0413008(15.1)] 104. Table 10.5 summarizes the ioermet through 4 5. Next, calculate W, using By, (0.44, Note that, although this calculation procedure assumes equal time intervals, the is applicable for unequal time intervals with slight modi For example, at 191.5 days, 1 te results from Steps 2 Wooo») =B LE Sp.Qpo\4~h-V0 For example, at n=1 Weap)=B LD 2PiPpolt.-t-199 BSP Opo{t,~t0)p1=B1AP Qpotto)1 =454.12.5)00.0) 11471 RB Sinilarly, for n=6, Walips)=8 E 8pOpolto--p BIAPOpolte 10) + AP2Opvlt6—1))0+APOpltoF2)0 +APAQpplte—1)0+APsOpolts—tan +P. pnlte—Hs)0l =BIAP\Opo\tps) + 4P2Qpo'tps)+ AP3Opptoa) +Ap4Qp0(-p2) +8PsQppttn2) +47Qp0ltp)) 454,312 5440.0) +(9.5134.5) + (2029.0) +82.5)23.1)+349(17.048310.D) =1,212,890 RB 6. Table 10.6 summaries the final resus. Carter-Tracy!S Method. van Everdingen and Hurst’s method was developed from exact solutions tothe radial diffusivity equa tioo and therefore provides a rigorously correct technique for cal culating water influx. However, because superposition of solutions {is required, their method involves rather tedious calculations, To reduce the Complexity of water influx calculations, Carter and Tracy proposed a calculation technique that does not require superposi tion and allows direct calculation of water influx. I we approximate the water influx process hy series of constant- rate influx intervals, then the cumafative water influx during the jth interval is E apeltons1 ton) (10.54) a0 Wiltpy Eq, 10.54 can be rewriten as the sum of the cumulative water {influx through the ith interval and between the ith and jth intervals: GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING E apsttons1—tond+ E dpn(ton+ ton) 0055) oF Weltpy)=Weltind+ E apnlten+1—tpn) (10.56) Using the convolution integral, * we also can express the eu rmulative water up to the jth interval as a function of variable pressure: m4 Weliyy)~B) "PO [Opt WI (10.57) Combining Eqs. 10.56 and 10.57, we use Laplace transform methods to Solve for the cumulative water influx in terms of the cumulative pressure drop, 4p, Bry Wood | Polton) toy Pitre) w0.ss) where B and ip are the same variables defined previously for the ‘an Everdingen-Hurst method. The subscripts and n= refer to the current and previous timesteps, respectively, and APa=Paa Pr (10.59) is function oft and for an iniite-actng auier, canbe computed from the following curve-fit equation?» 370,s291jf +137.582%p +5.69549r)7 328.B34-+265.4884,) +45.21571p +13? (10.60) Potto) In addition, the dimensionless pressure derivative, pp, can be approximated by a curve-fit equation, 2? > Pitt) 716.41 + 46,19844p! +270.038p +71.0098%3 1,296,861 -+1,204.73tp-+618.6 845" $538, 07g 4g? 10.61) Eqs. 10.60 and 10,61 model infinite-acting aquifers; however, Klins et al.?! developed similar polynomial approximations for both infinite and Gnite aquifers ‘We should stress that, unlike the van Everdingen-Hurst technique, the Carter-Tracy method is nor an exact solution to the diffusivity equation, but is an approximation. Research conducted by Agar- wal,® however, suggests tha de Carter-Tracy method isan accur= ate alternative 49 che more tedious van Everdingen Hurst calculation technique. The primary advantage of the Carter-Tracy method is the ability to calculate water influx directly without superposition. “The Carter-Tracy method, which also is applicable to infinite acting and finite aquifers, is illustrated with the following calcula- tion procedure and Example 10.7, 1. Firs, calculate the van Everdingen Hurst parameter B for adi- al flow, a(t a=tsiseeiet( 2.) (10.46) or for linear ow geometry. B=0.1789c AL 0.53) 2. Calulte the pressure change, Ap, fr each ime peri, SP a=PagiPa 10.59) 3. Calculate the van Everdingen-Hurst dimensionless times, fp, that correspond t each time period on the production history. For ‘radial low geometry,GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-GALANCE CALCULATIONS 2a ee _ ‘TABLE 10.8—SUMMARY OF INTERMEDIATE RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.7 2 (days) ton te a ° ieee aie 2 130 © 302 3 mms 453 4 3660 60.4 5 4575 755 6 949.0 906 0.006334 pe (90.37) ney? and for a linear flow geometry, 0.00633kr — (10.51) oneyL’ 4. For each tp computed in Step 3, calculate a pp and a pry For infinit-acting radial aquifer, we can use Eqs. 10:60 and 10.61 to calculate pp and pp respectively: 370.529 +137 5824p +5.6954918 (10.60) Potp)= Soe ESR +5 ONON 328.834-+265. 4884} +45.215TIp +18? and ptt) 116.481 446.7985)! +270.038p +71.000813 1,296.86 1f)+1,208.7314618.618132-+538.07273 +142.41r5” (10.61) aquifers, ‘We also can use Klins et al.'s?" equations. For fi ‘we must ase Klins et al.'s equations. 5. Calculate the water influx: Woy Bapy~Won-1Pitton) ] Pol'pn) n= 1P (Dn) (10.58) Example 10.7—Estimating Water Influx With the Carter-Tracy Method. Calculate the water influx for the eservoir/aquifer sys- tem described in Example 10.6 and compare the results with those from the van Everdingen-Hurst method. Assume an infinite-ating aquifer. The properties ofthe aquifer are given below; Table 10.7 summarizes the reservoir/aquifer pressure history. 0.209. 0.25 ep. 180" 275 md, 6X10-6 psia~) 19.2 &. 1p = 5,807 ft Solution. 1. Calculate the parameter B using Eq. 10.46: sesstea() cif es 54.3 RBIpsi.* 2. For each time period, calculate Ap, defined by Eq, 10.59: SPa™PaqimPa aps 5) Bolton) oO Stes eats Bae a ke 3238 0 Ber For example, at n=! Ap.=1 For SP2=PayiP: 3. Calculate dimensionless times that cortespond to each time ‘on the schedule. Use the dimensionless time defined by Eq. 10.37 for a radial geometry (0.00633ke (0.00633)275). pucyrt — (0.209)(0.2516x 10~6X5,807)? For example, at 91.5 days, 1) =0.165091.5) = 15.1 4. Calculate dimensionless pressures and pressure derivatives at each of the dimensionless ines computed in Step 3. The dimen- sionless pressures are calculated ‘ith Eq. 10.60. For example, at ip= 15.1, po =0.165 370,529) + 137 5821p +5.60549132 328, 8344265. 488 +45.21571p Hp Pottp)= 370,529(15.1)* +137.S82(15.1)+5.6954915.)82 328.834+265.489(15.1)! +45.2157(15.1)+(15.132 = 1.83. Similarly, the dimensionless pressure derivatives are calculated with Eq. 10.61. For example, at 1p = 15.1, Polto)= 716.441 +46,79881/% +270.038tp +71.0098137 1,296,861) +1 204.731, +618.61813? +538.072r5 +142.4178? = (716.441 +46.7984415.1)"*+270.038(15.1) +71,0098(15.1)92Y{1,296.86(15.1) + 1,208.73(15.1) +618.618(15,1)32 +538.072(15.1)? + 142.41(15.1)5?] = 0.0296 ‘Table 10.8 summarizes the intermediate results 5. Caleulate the water influx using Eq, 10.58: Bap, Wonton) Poon) tpn P\ton) Wey nto TABLE 10.9—SUMMARY OF FINAL RESULTS, EXAMPLE 10.7 Time (days) 915 1820 2785, 366.0 4575 519022 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING “Type of Outer ‘Sor Radial Flow J for Linear Flow Agile Boundary (STBDps) TBO BS) Finite, no tow ‘roa 5 20.01127Hh ‘in)~073) fl i recarsuae .90708h1 0/960) pu 9.901 127h wessure es fs 0070846000) a For example, at n= { Bapi—Wapotts) | Wa We +(tp1~H09)| ee Potton) ~toariatto,) 454.559)-0] 183-0 18,743 RB. For n=2, 8p:—Wewiltyn) Potton) —‘oiPitton) 454.519) 18,743(0.0155) '=18,743(15.)] ~~ 215-15.1(0.015 84,482 RB. 6. Table 10.9 gives the Final results Fetkovick'™ serhod. To silty water influx calculations fu ther, Fetkovich proposed a model that uses a pseudosteady-state aquifer Pl and an aquifer material balance to represent the system compressibility, Like the Crter-Tracy method, Ftkovich’s model eliminates the use of supesposition and therefore s mack simpler than van the Everdngen-Burst method. However, because Fet vie neglects the early transient time period in these ealeulatons, the caleuated water influx wil always be less than the values pre= dicted by the previous two models Similar to fluid flow from a reservoir toa well, Fetkovich used an inflow equation to model water influx fom the ager 10 the reservoir. Assuming consint presse a the original eservot/agui- fer boundary, the rate of water ifux is aw, 46 PagP 10.62) where n“exponent fr inflow equatio (or fo obeying Darcy's law, n=1; for fully tusbolene flow, n=0.5), Assuming thal the auifer low behavior obeys Darcy's law and isa pseudsteady-state conditions, n= 1. Based on an aquifer ma- ‘etal lance, the cumolative water inflax resulting from aquifer expansion is (Pays (10.63) Eg, 10.63 canbe rearranged to yield an expression forthe aver ge aquifer pressure (10.65) sinjoar4oKvenoy? 1,000, /0.0693Kt@u0, is defined as the initial amount of encrcachable water and repre sents the maximum possible aquifer expansion. After differentia ing Eq, 10.64 with respect to time and roaeranging, We have ae ap de (10.66) Combining Eas. 10.62 and 10.66 and integrating yields Foa_frg __'4 pees (hay (10.67) Pani PaamPr a Wai irae ey OF Pag Pe=(P, (10.68) ‘able 10.10 summarizes the equation for calculating the aquifer PI for various reservoilaquifer boundary conditions and aquifer geometries. Note that we must use the auifr properties to aleu- Tate J From Bq, 10.67, we can derive an expression f0 (Fg ~P,), a {following substi into Eq, 10.68 and rearranging. We have aw, et) we) dr ‘which is integrated 10 obtain the cumulative water influx, W, J} om Recall that we derived Eg. 10,70 for constant pressure atthe reser volr/aguifer boundary. In realty, this boundary pressure changes as pas Is produced from the reservoir. Rather than using superpo- sition, Fetkovich assumed that, ifthe reservoir/aquifer boundary pressure history is divided into a finite number of time intervals, the incremental water influx during the nth interval is ‘rin 5 Pans We AW p= —* (Fag v1 Pen || Pras wo ‘TABLE 10.11—PRESSURE HISTORY AT THE RESERVOIR! ‘AQUIFER BOUNDARY, EXAMPLE 10.8 : was) ° eis sea ans see ars S08GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS ole where Pygyat Pmt +P 2 Although it was developed for finite aquifers, Fetkovich's method ‘can be extended to infnite-acting aquifers. For infinite-actng aqui fers, the method requites the ratio of water influx rate to pressure ely constant throughout the productive life ‘of the reservoir. Under these conditions, we must use the aquifer drop to be approxi PL for an infinite-acting aquifer. ‘The following calculation procedure illustrates this method. |. Calculate the maximum water volume, W,, from the aquifer that could enter the gas reservoir ifthe reservorr pressure were re> duced to zero, Wem ePagiMir (10.65) where W depends on the reservoir geometry and the PV available to store water. 2. Calculate J. Note thatthe equations sums Gp GB,+W,3.)108,-8,). MMMscf 9 ton fora dry-gae reservoir with water Influx, Example 10. (6 - Gp) ony ay, Ve Initial Conditions (p=p) Later Conditions (p pg Later Conditions < pq) Vrevi Fig. 10.16—Material-belance mode! showing reservolr PV ‘occupled by ges and liquid hydrocarbon phases at Initial and | later conditions for a gas-condensate reservoir.(GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS reservoir. Above the dewpoint the vapor phase consist of not only hydrocarbon and inert gases but also water vapor. As the reservoir pressure declines, the water in the liquid phase continues to vapo- ize to remain in equilibrium with the existing water vapor, thus decreasing the saturation of the liquid water inthe reservoir and increasing the PV occupied by the vapor phases. As the reservoir pressure declines further, the amount of water vapor present inthe {as phase may increase significantly. However, as the reservo pressure decreases below the dewpoint, the fraction of PV avai able forthe vapor phases decreases as liquids condense from the hydrocarbon vapor phase. To develop a material-balance equation that considers the effects ‘of gas condensation and water vaporization requires that we include the changes in reservoir PV resulting from these phenomena. We ‘begin with a material-balance equation for gas-condensate reser voirs. We then extend this equation 10 include the effects of con- nate water vaporization. In addition, because changes information ccompressbilities often are significant in these deep, high-pressure 28 reservoirs, we include geopressured effets. Gas-Condensate Reservoirs. We derived the material-balance ‘equations in previous sections for dry pases with the inherent a sumption that no changes in hydrocarbon phases occurred during pressure depletion. Unlike dry-gas reservoirs, gas-condensate reser voirs are characteristically rich with intermediate and heavier hydrocarbon molecules. At pressures above the dewpoint, gas con- ddensates exist sa single-phase gas; however, asthe reservoir pres sure decreases below the dewpoint, the gas condenses and forms ‘a liguid hydrocarbon phase. Often, a significant volume of this com: Aensate is immobile and remains in the reservoir. Therefore, cor rect application of maerial-balance concepts requires wat we consider the liquid volume remaining in the reservoir and any liq Lids produced at the surface. ‘Assuming that the initial reservoir pressure is above the dew= ‘point, the reservoir PV is occupied initially by hydrocarbons in the gaseous phase (Fig. 10.16), or Vo Pi 10.92) The reservoir PV occupied by hydrocarbons in the gaseous phase also can be written as Vi = GB yr (10.93) where Gy includes gas and the gaseous equivalent of produced con densates and B,, is defined by Eq, 10.7, {At ater conditions following a pressure reduction below the dew: point, the retervoir PV is now occupied by both gas and liquid hhydrocarbon phases, or V5=Vine+ Van (10.94) where V,=reservoir PV at later conditions, RB; Viy = reservoir volume decupied by gaseous hydrocarbons at later conditions, RB; and Vay =reservoir PV occupied by liquid hydrocarbons at later ‘conditions, RB, Eq. 10.54 assumes that rock expansion and water vaporization are negligible. In terms of the condensate saturation, S,, We can write Vea -S,¥p (10.95) and Vig "5. (10.96) In addition, the hydrocarbon vapor phase a later conditions is Vay(Gr-Gyn By, aos, where B, is evaluated at Inter conditions, Equating Eqs. 10,95 and 10.97, the reservoir PV is (Gr-GynBy a-s,) Substituting Eq. 10.98 into Eq. 10.95 and combining with Eq 10.97 yields an expression forthe reservoir PV at later conditions: SsGr-Gn8, (Gr- G11, nl 1-5, (10.98) 140.99) 289 Now, combining Eqs. 10.92 and 10.99 yields the following SAGr-GynBy 6 Bg =(G1—Gyp B+ (10.100) 1s, or, if we substitute By/B, =p: arrange, Mp2) into Eq, 10.100 and re (-s, (10.101) which suggests that a plot of (1—S, Xp) vs. Gp will be a straight line from which Gr can be estimated. Correct application of Ea, 10.101, however, requites estimates of the liquid. hydrocarbon volumes formed as 2 function of pressure below the dewpoint. The ‘most accurate source ofthese estimates is a laboratory analysis of| the reservoir fluid samples. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of uid samples often are aot available ‘An alternative material-balance technique is G Bayi (Gr- Gyr Bags (10.102) where GB), reservoir PV occupied by the total gas, which in- cludes gas andthe gaseous equivalent ofthe produced condensates, at the initial reservoir pressure above’ the pg) Later Conditions > pg) Fig, 10.18—Materia-balance model showing reservar PV ox. | Caled by hydrocarbons and water oil and later condi | tions tora gas-condensote reservoir with water Pressure, psia Fig. 19.17—Example of equilibrium and two-phase gas devi ation factors for a gas-condensate reservoir.» ‘Similarly, we can express the initial reservoir volume of the vapor phases as Hum SudVy 10.106) Now, we define the fraction of the initia! vapor phase volume that is water vapor as Yui Panl Voi 10.107) and the fraction occupied by the hydrocarbon gases as Yi) Pas (410.108) where V5 intial reservoir PV occupied by water vapor, RB, and Vigi initial reservoir PY occupied by hydrocarbon vapor, RB. ‘Substituting Eq. 10.106 into Eq. 10.108 gives an expression for the hydrocarbon vzpor-phase volume in terms ofthe initial reser- voir PV. Vig “Vp lS) Ya (10.109) Finally, because te inal hydrocarbon vapor phase isthe original gas in place, Y= OB, ei (10.110) By, (1-5, 90-98) ‘The form of the material-balance equation a some pressure lower than te inital reservoir pressure depends on the value of the dew point, Therefore, we will develop materil-balance equations for ‘depletion at pressures above and below the dewpoint ‘Depletion at Pressures Above the Dewpoint. Because the reser- voir pressure is still above the dewpoint, no hydrocarbon gas has condensed. However, as the pressure declines, more of the liquid ‘water vaporizes, thus reducing the liquid water saturation. There- fore, the volume of liquid phase becomes (Fig. 10.18) V2 Se¥p ao.12) where S,,=current value of connate water saturation, Similarly, the volume of the vapor phase is V=-S.Mp ao.) In adition, we define the faction ofthe vapor phase thats water vapor as then Vp: ao. da Val My (19.114) and the fraction of vapor phase that is hydrocarbon as, ay) =P ly (0.115) Ie we substitute Bg. 10.113 into Eg. 10.115, we can write an expression for the hydrocarbon vapor phase in terms of the cur- rent reservoir PV: Vigo ¥p(l-S0—Ye). (10.116) ‘The curtent hydrocarbon vapor phase is Vy =(G-G,)B,. 0.117) Combining Eqs. 10.116 and 10.117 gives the current reservoir Py. (G-G)pB, 1-530 ¥9) Like geopressured gas reservoirs, deep, high-pressured gas condensate reservoirs often experience significant changes in PV during pressure depletion. Therefore, using a method similar to that presented in the section on geopressured gas reservoirs, we can express the change in reservoir formation (rock) volume in terms of the formation compressibility as 7 0.118) EPP (1S) In terms of Eq. 10.119, the material-balance equation for pres- sures above the dewpoint becomes ay, = (10.119) Bg (G=Gy)By EA Pi=PIGB C=S,00- Ya) ISO Ye) OSI Yacd 10.120) Rearranging terms gives G-S.) U-y0) » ony) Pe 1 -a(p,-p)l=0-G,. 10.121) 1-5) OY Bp Substituting BIB, =peyip2 ito Fy. 10.121 and rearranging yields 0-8) Uy PPPS t-a(p-pie = 2, 0.122) 0-59 Card ea, ag ‘he form of Eq, 10.122 suggests that plot of (1=$,) yn) 2» eH pipe vs. Gy =54) 9a) 2 will bea siraight line witha slope equal to ~p;/2;G and an inter- cept equal to pilt;. At plz=0, G,=G, so extrapolation of the ‘straight line to p/2~0 provides an estimate of original gas in place. [Nate that, ifthe water saturation remains constant during the life of the reservoir (.e., S'S and y,.m),j) and when formation ‘compressibility is negligible, Eq. 10.122 reduces to Eq. 10.29 for Volumetric dry-gas reservoir.GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS -—> Gp. Np Vier Vie Vow Vw Varn Vaet Vwi “AV, Initial Conditions @ > Pp) Later Conditions @< py) ‘model showing reservoir PV ox- ‘cupled by hydrocarsone and water at Initial and later condl- | tions for agas-condensate reservoir with water vaporization. | pia | Fig. 10.20—piz plot for Exercise 10.3. Depletion at Pressures Below the Dewpoint. When reservoir pres- sures decrease below the dewpoint, the ges phase condenses. In ‘many gas-condensate reservoirs, the liquid hydrocarbons formed in the eservoir remain immobile. Therefore, we must modify Eq 10.120 to include this additional liquid phase (Fig, 10.19) ‘Adding the liquid phase gives (G-G,)B, FAPi-PIGB C-SyXA-Y) A-SI) ASL 410.123) where 5, =Iiquid hydrocarbon phase (ie., condensate) saturation, After rearranging Eq, 10.123, we write @ material-balance equa- tion similar in form to Eq. 10.122: (-S.-5) =v) = 5y) (Yi) PP mG a U-7(0.-p)} (10.124) ‘Again, the form of Eq. 10.124 suggests that a plot of (1-545) U-y0) > En, P-W. Gy d-Sy) will bea straight line with a slope equal to ~p/z)G and an inte ro) cept equal to pt. Aat pis=0, Gp=G, so extrapolation of the Slraigh ine to p/z=0 provides an estimate of original gas in place. ‘Again, the gas deviation factors in Eqs. 10.122 and 10.124 should bbe two-phase z factors representing both gas and liquid hydrocar- ‘hon phases inthe reservoir. In addition, gas production should in- clude not only production from all separators and the stock tank but also the gaseous equivalent ofthe preduced condensates, ‘The water vapor content of a gas has been shown! wo be de- ‘pendent on pressure, temperature, and gas composition. Gas comt- position also has more effect on water vapor content at higher pressures. Unfortunately, laboratory analyses of gs usually do not «quantify the amount of water vapor, however, as discussed in Chap. 1, empirical methods®? are available for estimating the water ‘vapor content of a gas. ‘Correct application of Eq. 10.124 also requires estimates of the liquid hydrocarbon volumes formed at pressures below the dew- point. The most accurate source ofthese estimates isa laboratory analysis of the reservoir fuid samples. These liquid saturations are dbiained from a constant-volume depletion study.27.28 Note that this type of laboratory fluid study assumes thatthe liquid hydrocar- bons formed inthe reservoir are immobile. This assumption is valid for most ga-condensate reservoirs; however, some Very rich gas- condensate fluids may be characterized by mobile liquid saturations For these cottons, compositional imelators are requized to model the multiphase flow and predict future performance accurately 10.4 Summary Reading this chapter should prepare you to do the following. * Calculate original gas in place in a volumetric dry-gas reser- voir using volumetric methods * Calculate gas reserves and recovery factor for a gas reservoir with water influx using volumeuric methods * Calculate original gas in place and condensate in place for a volumetric wet-gas reservoir using volumetric methods, * State the principle of conservation of mass and derive a gener- al material-balance equation from that principle. * Calculate original gas in place using material balanc® fora volu- metic dry-gas reservoir. ‘« Estimate water influx using the van Everdingen-Hurst, Carer- ‘Tracy, and Fetkovich methods and state the assumptions and limi- {ations of each method + Estimate original gas in place using material balance fora dry- ‘gs reservoir with water influx * Estimate original gas in place using material balance fora volu- metric geopressured gas reservoir. ‘* Determine average formation compressibility and original gas in lace simultaneously using material balance in a volumetric ge~ opressured gas reservoi ‘* Derive material-balance relationships for volumetric gas- ‘condensate reservoirs, gas-condensat reservoirs with water vapori- zation, gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion at pressures above the dewpoint, and gas-condensate reservoirs with depletion a pres- sures below the dewpoin Questions for Discussion 1, Your company is planning to drill a wildcat well in an area believed to have great potential for natural gas. In planning forthe well (and assuming gas is discovered), what data should be gathered?” Why? 2. The well does discaver gas. Using information from the dis covery well alone, you are asked to estimate reserves and forecast future production, What methods wll you use? What addtional data will you need? 3. Several additional wells are planned. What sort of informa- tion should be obtained from these wells? Why? 4. Two years after the discovery well was drilled, the field is highly developed. You are again asked to estimate feserves and forecast future production, What methods will you use? What data will you need? 8. How would your strategy be affected if the reservoir is ge- pressured? Isa retrograde gas reservoir? Has a waterdrive? Is the 8s cap of ail reservoir, a fact discovered only much later? How can you determine whether any of these possibilities is a fact? 6. How would you determine optimal well spacing? Optimal depletion plan? In answer to both these questions, what data would ‘you need, and what study methods would you use? 7. What are the potential errors in the volumetric method? The material-balance method?252 GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING TABLE 10,19—PRODUCTION AND PRESSURE HISTORIES, | EXERCISE 10.4 ‘Cumulative Gas Production Pressure z __ttantset ttctee ° o7aa 10 0739 20 O37 | 30 0742 2 O74? 50 0.785 a ‘TABLE 10.20-PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.5 Time Reservoi/Aquifer Pressure aays) (sia) 9 3793 ons, 3,788 | 1830 3774 2745 3,748 | 3660 3709 4575 3.680 5490, 3843 TABLE 10.21—PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.6 Time Resorvoi/Aquiter Pressure (aaye) psa) ° 3793 os 2768 1830 a7 274s 3748 3860 31709 4575 3.680 5490 3609 ‘TABLE 10.22—PRESSURE HISTORY, EXERCISE 10.7 Time Reservot/Aquiter Pressure (oays) wos) ° 37% 15, 3788 1830 3774 zs 3748 366.0 3,708 4575 3,680 549.0 3.643 8, What are typical recovery factors for volumetric gas reser- voirs? How may we estimate abandonment pressure to calculate recovery factor? At what point does abandonment pressure enter the recovery factor caleyation? 9. Compare typical recoveries in waterdrive gas reservoirs with those from volumetric gas reservoirs and explain the reasons for the difference. 10. Explain two methods for improving the recovery trom Watetdrive gas reservoirs 11. Describe the differen types of aquifer that may be in associ dion with a reservoir 12, How does the aquifer offset pressure decline inthe reservoir? 13. If the time elapsed since production began doubled, do you think the amount of water influx into a gas reservoir would dou- ble? Or would itbe more or less than double? Why? If additional information is required to answer this question, what is that addi- tional information? Exercises. 10.1 For the reservoir data given below, calcutate the total eu- Sealing Fault Fig. 10.21—Reservolr configuration for Exercise 10.10. ‘mulative gas production and the recovery Factor at pg =500 sia, where By, =6.45 RBIMsc. Py = 3.150 psia, (A = 640 acves. i G 0 8.882 «108 Msef. 022. Sui = 0223. B,, = 0.947 RBIMsct, 10.2 For the reservoir data given below, estimate the gas reserves and the rocovery factor using the volumetric method. p; = 3,150 psia : (640 acres, 10 f. 0.947 RBMsef, 0.22. i = 0.23. St, = 0.40. BE = 1.48 RBIMsc! 10.3 Using the date given below and the plot of pz ¥S. Gy in Fig. 10.20, estimate the cumulative gas production at an sban~ donment pressure of 500 psa, In addition, estimate the racov- ery factor at the abandonment pressure 4,000 psia 10.4 Using the reservoir pressure and cumulative gas production given below, estimate the original gas in place, 8 reserves at pg=500 psia, and the gas recovery factor by = 2.751 psi fa * O92. Pa ™ 663 psi. Table 10,19 gives the reservoir production and pressure histories Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (Le, 1=274.5 days) for dhe reservoir/aquifer system described below. Use the van Everdingen-Hurst method and assume an infinite- acting aquifer. 6 = 0.208. losGAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS: 106 107 ‘TABLE 10.23—PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10. 283 Reservoir Cumulative Gas Pressure Production ple (si) (Moet (6siay 11446 Q 7,650 10674 9,920 723 10,131 281620 7282 9.253, 53,600 6.957 874 77670 6.698, 101.420 6428 120,360 6191 145,010 0 \ 0 | 0 | 215.660, 236.740 245.900 Bett ~ (CS 40/110) PM ~S yl] (ose) 7.650 7276 7.008 6561 6.202 5,839 5,539 5229 ‘TABLE 10.24—PLOTTING FUNCTIONS, EXERCISE 10.9 Gna Coat Gas Pressure, Production Wp, ~ pp ,pizz,)— 1) GAD, py p,pizz,) (psia) (MMscf) 10“*psi~* (Msctipsi 3 Si Rise ie 28 oe 2 28 re Se EY Ea tes How so 283 ne 2 2m Seo re a3 ‘Soon 3 as a 2m 2 aie Bo ed 4,170 (245,900 11,7, 61,300 2 me aaa Reagan Eide ETE ee TAGLE 1025 PRESGURE WTORY, ENERGIE To. Fy = 5,807 ft a ReservoiriAquiter Pressure Table 10.20 gives the pressure history at the initial | (ays) _ (sia) seer ae 5 a Caine Seni insopn=3 Ge 02743 3 3m Sy forte rearooqit se hen eo, Us t PY 3m Corer Tn ml daunting sie co ate | Table 10.21 gives the pressure history at the initial reservoir-aquifer interface. Calculate the water influx at timestep n=3 (ie., 1=274.5 days) forthe reservoir/aquifer system given below. Use the Fetkovich method and assume a finite aquifer. ‘Table 10.22 gives the pressure history atthe inital reser- voir/aquifer interface. The cumulative water influx after 183 108 109 For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana.*? esti rate the original zas in place using the material-balance method for geopressered reservoirs. Also use the materal- balance method for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and ‘compare the intial gas estimates from both equations. The plosting functions for both materal-alanee methods are tbu- late in Table 10.23. Pe = W444 psia 6 = 195x106 psia~! Soi = 0.22. Cy = 3.2%10-6 pola! For the following gas reservoir offshore Louisiana? est- mate the original gas in place and formation compressibility Using the material-balance method for geopressured reser~ voirs. In addition, use the materal-balance method present= cd for a normally pressured gas reservoir, and compare the inital gas estimates from both equations, The ploting fune- tions are tabulated in Table 10.24.» Swi 10.10 The reservoir shown in Fig 10.21 is undergoing edgewater {influx The pressure hasbeen measured atthe resevoie/qui- fer boundary afer several time perio, and this pressure history is given in Table 10.25. The reservoir rau is 1,000 andthe aquifer radius is 10,000 ft. The aquifer has a posi ty of 10%, a permeability of 10 md, anda thickness of 600 fA. The water has a compressibility of 1105 psia~! and a viscosity of 0.6323 cp. ‘A. Caleulate B. B. Calculate the relationship between dimensionless ime and time in days €. Caeulate 4p, for 10 days D. Calevlate Apy for 500 days. B, Caleulate water influx in reservoir barels afer 500 days. Nomencteture A = well drainage area, L?, + = intercept van Evendingen-Hurst consent, RB/pst gas FVF, RB/Msct = gas FVP at reservoir abandonment pressure and temperature conditions, RB/Mscf gas FVF at initial reservoir pressure and temperature, RB/Mset By = water FVF, RBISTB Bz, = gas EVE based on two-phase gus deviation factor, RBMscf Bay, = gas FVE based on two-phase gas deviation factor at initial reservoir pressure and temperature, RBIMscf (© = water influx constant from mattil-balance calculations, RB/psi 7 = in-situ formation compressibility, L12/m, psia~! = total aquifer compressibility, c+ cy, Lt®/m, psia~! water compressibility, L:2/m, psia™! volumetric sweep efficiency, rection J = fraction of reservoir gas produced as quid at surface, fraction sas recovery factor original gas in place, L, Mscf G, = gas in place at reservoir abandonment, L, Mscf umulative gas production, L3, Mscf dvitional gas production from secondary separator and stock tank, L3/L, sc/STB = cumulative gas production from primary and acres ier secondary separators, stock tank, and the gaseous equivalent of produced condensates, L?, Mscf Gp, = cumulative gas production from primary separator, 1, Msef ccuriulative gas production from secondary separator, L, Msef sumulative gas production rom stock tank, L3, Msef reservoir volume occupied by gas trapped by encroaching water, L3, Mscf otal intial gas in place, including gas and gaseous equivalent of produced condensates, L, Msef = net formation thickness, Ly ft = aquifer Pl, L!vm, STB/D'psi reservoir permeability, L2, md length of lineas-shaped reservoir, L, ft = slope M,, = molecular weight of stock tank liquids, m, Tb/lbm-mol number of moles of gas [N = original oil (Condensate) in place, L3, STB GAS RESERVOIR ENGINEERING. cumulative oil (condensate) production, L3, STB reservoir pressure, m/L2, psia Pa ™ sbandonment pressure, m/Lit?, psia Pay = aquifer pressure, m/Lt?, psia inital aquifer pressure, m/Lt?, psia ddewpoint pressure of gas-condensste reservoir, m/Lt, pia Pp, = dimensionless pressure i) = dimensionless pressure derivative ital reservoir pressure, n/t, pi Pa = presure at time interval n, m/LE2, psia Pr = pressure at aquifer/teservoir interface, m/Lt?, psia pressure at standard conditions, m/Lt2, psa difference between inital aquifer pressure and pressure at original reservoiiaquifer boundary, miL?, ps dimensionless water influx rte water influx rate, L?/t, STB/D np = dimensionless cumulative water infux 7 = radius of aquifer, L, fe outer radius of reservoir, L, ft radius to aguifer/reservoir interface, L, ft ‘universal gas constant, 10.73 psia-f/lbm-mol R, = total gas/stock-tank liquid ratio, scf/STB Ry = ratio of high-pressure separator gas volume to stock- tank liquid volome, L/L, scf/STB Ry = ratio of low-pressure separator gas volume to stock- tank liquid volume, L3/L3, scf/STB ratio of stock-tank gas volume to stock-tank liquid volume, L3/L3, se/STB ital gas saturation, fraction residual gas saturation, fraction condensate saturation, fraction connate water saturation, fraction water saturation at abandonment conditions, fraction = initial connate water saturation, fraction time, t, days ‘dimensiones time reservoir temperature, T, °R Tre = temperature at standard conditions, T, *R Vig = vapor equivalent of primary separator liquid, L¥/L3, sef/STB reservoir formation (rock) volume, L?, res bbl gas volume at inital conditions, L3, res bbl volume of hydrocarbon liquids, L3,'res bbl volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl ial volume of hydrocarbon vapors, L3, res bbl Vy = reservoir PV, L3, res bbl initial reservoir PV, L3, res bbl ‘gas Volume at standard conditions, L3, res bbl volume of vapor phase. L3, res bbl = inital volume of vapor phase, L3, res bbl volume of water, L3, res bbl intial volume of water, L3, res bbl volume of water vapor phase, L, res bbl = initial volume of water vapor phase, L3, res BBL AV © change in reservoir formation (rock) volume, 1, res bbl ‘change in water volume, L3, res bbl With of linear reservoir, L, ft W, = cumulative water influx volume, L?, res bbl W,, = initial “enccoachable" volume of water in aquifer, Les bbl W; = initial volume of water in aquifer, L3, res bbI W, = cumulative water production, L!, STB _¥4 = fraction of total vapor-phase volume tha is water ‘ya; = initial fraction of total vapor phase volume that i water Pa(GAS VOLUMES AND MATERIAL-BALANCE CALCULATIONS = gas compressibility factor, dimensionless zg = 828 compressibility factor at abandonment, dimen- sionless ‘2; = 888 compressibility factor evaluated at initial condi- tions, dimensionless Zqe = a5 compressibility factor at standard conditions, dimensionless ‘= two-phase gas compressibility factor, dimensionless two-phase gas compressibility factor evaluated at ini- tial conditions, dimensionless specific gravity of condensate (water=1.0 g/em?) Yo ~ ‘te = specific gravity of reservoir gas at reservoir condi- tions (air= 1.0) ‘1 © specific gravity of high-pressure separator gas (ir=1.0) ‘12 = specific gravity of low-pressure separator gas cet specific gravity of stock-tank gas (air angle encompassed by aquifer, degrees dummy integration variable for Eq. 10.57 = viscosity, m/Lt, ep = porosity, fraction 0) Subscript ‘aq = aquifer Superscript ‘average 1. Amyx, 1.W., Boss, D.ML, and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, Physical Properties, MeGraw-Hil Book Co. Inc. New York City (1961). 2, Craft, B.C. eal: Applied Petroleum Reservoir Ergincering, second slition, Prentice-Hall Ic, Englewood Cliffs, NI1991) 3. McCain, W.D. 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B22, ‘GPSA Engineering Dau Book, 1th edition, Gas Processors Supplies ‘Assn, Tulsa, OK (1989) ‘MeKeta, 1. and Wehe, A.H.: “Use This Char for Water Vapor Con- tent of Natural Gases, Petroleum Refinr (Avg. 1958) 153~ Bulacek, RF: “Equilibrium Moisture Comet of Naural Gases,” Ist of Gas Technology Bulletin (1955 8