x30! J2,.3RS REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Second Edition W. F. Stoecker Professor of Mechanical Engineering University of Minow at Urbana-Champaign J. W. Jones Associate Professor of Mechantcal Engineering University of Texas at Austin McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York St. Louis San Fracisco Auckland Bogots (Caracas. Lisbon London Maisid Mexico City Milan ‘Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore ‘Sydney Tokyo Torontowi conTENTS: 240 a 212 243 aaa Das 2416 27 218 219 2.20 221 222 2.23 Chapter 3 34 32 33 34 35 Chapter 4 44 42 43 “4 45 46 47 48 49 Isentropic Compression — Bernoulli's Equation Heat Transfer Conduction Radiation Convection ‘Thermal Resistance Cylindrical Cross Section Heat Exchangers Heat-Transfer Processes Used by the Human Body Metabolism Convection Radiation Evapor Problems References Psychrometry and Wetted-Surface Heat Transfer Importance Psychzometric Chart Saturation Line Relative Humidity Humidity Ratio Enthalpy Specific Volume Combined Heat and Mass Tranafer; the Straight-Line Law [Adiabatic Saturation and Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb Temperature Deviation between Enthalpy and Wet-Bulb Lines Wet-Bulb Thermometer Processes Comment on the Basis of 1 kg of Dry Air ‘Transfer of Sensible and Latent Heat with a Wetted Surface Enthalpy Potential Insights Provided by Enthalpy Potential Problems References Heating- and Cooling-Load Calculations Introduction Health and Comfort Criteria ‘Thermal Comfort Air Quality Estimating Heat Loss and Heat Gain Design Conditions ‘Thermal Transmission Infiltration and Ventilation Loads ‘Summary of Procedure for Estimating Heating Loads 40 40 40 a2 a 43 4a 46 47 48 49 50 St 3 33 54 55 56 582 410 at 412 413 414 pada eee ae arararrdes > Chapter 6 6 62 63 4 65 66 or ‘Components of the Cooling Load Internal Loads > Solar Loads through Transparent Surfaces Solar Loads on Opaque Surfaces ‘Summary of Procedures for Estimating Cooling Loads Problems References Air-Conditioning Systems ‘Thermal Distribution Systems Cassie Single-Zone System Outdoor-Air Control Single-Zone-System Design Calculations Multiple-Zone Systems Terminal-Reheat System Dual-Duct or Multizone System Variable-Air-Volume Systems Water Systems Unitary Systems Problems References Fan and Duct Systems Conveying Air Pressure Drop in Straight Ducts Pressure Drop in Rectangular Ducts Pressure Drop in Fittings ‘The ¥2p/2 Term Sudden Enlargement ‘Sudden Contraction ‘Tums Branch Takeofts Branch Entries Design of Duct Systems ‘Velocity Method Equal-Friction Method Optimization of Duct Systems ‘System Balancing (Centrifugal Fans and Their Characteristics Fan Laws Air Distribution in Rooms Circular and Plane Jets Diffusers and Induction Problems References Pumps and Piping, Water and Refrigerant Piping Comparison of Water and Air as Heat-Conveying Media CONTENTS vil 1 1 B ” a 85 86 38 88 39 90 92 95 95 96 7 100 101 101 102 103 103 103 106 109 109 110 i 1B na 16 17 ut 118 19 120 120 123 14 12s 7 127 129 130 130 1316 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING tional vehicles, tractors, crane cabs, areraft, and ships. The major contstutor 7 tional ing loadin many of these vehics is heat from yolar radiation, and, jn he ure of public transportation, heat from people. The leads are also characterized Sa rapid changes and by a high intensity per unit volume in comparison fo building air conditioning. 116 Food storage and distribution Many meats ish, frat, and vegetable are perish aes eet hei storage life can be extended by refigeraticn. Fruits, many vegeta: apie cexsed meat, such 35 sausages ae stored at temperatres just slighty shove rae ere'te prolong ther life, Other meats, fish vegetables, and fits are fronen 20 eer e cay months at low temperatures until they are defrosted and cooked by the “ire jozen-food chain typically consists of the following links: freezing, strase sn cofngerated warehouses, display ina reigerated case a food markets, and Finally ar regen the home freezer or frozenfood compartment of s domestic rfsges\0r Home tay attempts to feeze food resulted ina product laced with ie crystals Freeing Jos dscovered that the temperature must be plunged rapidly throvah, ihe Hreering vone. Approaches!® to freezing food ineiode atrblast freezing, Where 8 ronunately -30°C is blown with high velocity over Fackages of food stashed Oy arr wallets; contact freecng, where the food is placed between metal plates 8 or Timmersion freezing, where the food is placed n ¢ lowtemperatre brine: sees od icezing, where the individual particles are cased along 3 convey" Dek ae in suspension by an upward-drected stream of sol ir (Fig1-S)iand free dng with eryogenie substance such as nitrogen of carbon dioxide. ening peas on a fidied bed conveyor ball (Lewis Reieaion Compan) Figure 1SAPPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 7 Figure 1-6 A refrigerated warehouse. (International Assocation of Refrigerated Warehouses) Storage Fruits and vegetables should be frozen quickly ater harvesting and meats frozen quickly after slaughter to maintain high quality. Truckloed and rallearioad lots are then moved {o refigerated warehouses (Fig. 1-6), where they ae stored at -20 to -23°C, perhaps for many months. To maintain a high quality is fish, the storage tem perature is even lower. Distribution Food moves from the refrigerated warehouses to food markets as needed to replenish the stock there. Inthe market the food is kept refrigerated in display cases heldat 3 t0 °C for dairy products and uifiozen fruits and vegetables at approximately 20°C for frozen foods and ie eam. In the United States about 100,000 refrigerated Aisplay cases ae sold each year. The consumer finally stores the food in a domestic refrigerator or freezer until used, Five milion domestic refrigerators are sold each year in the United States, and for several decades styling and first cost were paramount considerations in the design band manufacture of domestic refrigerators. The need for energy conservation, how: ‘ever, has brought back the engineering challenge in designing these appliances.{8 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1:7 Food processing Some foods need operations in ion 9 freezing and refriger- 17 sEeoage ana these processes ental refrigeration 2892) ep produers ‘The chief dairy product are mils 8 Oar ‘and cheese. To pas- Dairy Pek se temperature is elevated to approximately "73°C and held for about 20 tea that process the mik is cooked and ultimately refiigerated to 3 or 4°C for Sorage, In manufacturing ice cream’ the iapesion ot first pasteurized and thor- roy ned. Then, refrigeration equipment cooks He to about 6°C, whereupon aaa aa freezer. The freezer drops the temperature ~5°C, at which temperature i ent ffens but remains fuid enough to flow fro a conlsine- From this point une rece cream i stored below freezing temperatures, he fs evatpundreds of varieties of cheese, cach pera BY © Aifferent.process, tut typical steps include bringing the temperate ‘of milk to about 30°C and then but Seal cubstances, including 2 cheese starter ont sometimes rennet. Part of adding tore alii into the curds, from which the awit ‘whey is drained. A curing evo’ in refigerated rooms follows for most cheeses at temperature of the order of 10°C. 1 aes Refrigeration is esenial in the production of such beverages as concen Beverage ye, beer, and wine, The taste of many drinks cP ‘be improved by serving, them cold nce qoenteates are popular because of thes hich geal and reasonable cost this le expensive to concentrate the jue close 601 orchards and ship it in its fro res ce than to sip the raw fruit, To preserve the Oe ‘of juice, its water must be serena a Low temperature, requiring the entre Poses 1° ‘be carried out at pres: sores much below atmospheric sree brewing industry refigeration controls the ferment reaction and pre: serve, some ofthe intermediate and final products. ANY eet fn the production of seal is Fermentation, an exothermic reaction, FOr producing a lagertype beer Fr sleoion should proceed at 8 temperature between ® fand 12°C, which is maintained ty refdgeration. From this point on in the Prosi he beer is stored in bulk and wlti ~ wy bottled or kegged (Pia, 1-7) in sfrigerated space: pear reason fr cefigerating bakery products 1% provide a better match ‘perween production and demand and thus prevent ‘Many breads and pastries are betwee lowing baking to prowde a longer shel! 1% ‘before being sold to the con: ftonen tq practice that provides freshly baked produc (and the enticing aroma as saranda supermarkets but achieves some Of OF advantages of high produc weld prepare the dough ina central locaton, fez fand then transport it to the Supermarket, where it is baked as needed rath geal and (006 products ae preseted Dy fm ‘rying, in which the produet frozen and then the water i remonee OY ‘ublimation (direct transition from rod water vapor), Te process takes place in a CHU “while heat is carefully appli vee svprodvet to provide the heat of sublimation. Some manufacturers of instar Ceaiee use the freeze-drying proces. 118 Chemical and process industis The chemi] ang PISS industries include th 18 ufacturers of chemicals petroleum refiners, ‘petrochemical plants, paper and pul martes, ete. These industsies require good engineering for their refrigeration sin. [APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9 Figure 1-7 Refrigeration is eset in such beverage Indust a Drewes. (Anhewser Busch | Company, Inc) almost evry installation is diferent and the cost of each instalation is so high. Some important functions served by refigeation® in the chemical and process industries | are) separation of gases, (2) condensation of gases, (3) solidification of one sub- Stance in's mixture to separate it from others, (4) maintenance ofa low temperature Statored lguid so that the pressure will ot be excessive, and (S) removal of heat of reaction. "A mixture of hydrocarbon gates can be separated int its sonstituents by cooling the mixture so thatthe substance with the high-temperature boiling point condenses and can be physically removed from the remaining gas. Sometimes in petrochemical plants (Fig. 18) hydrocarbons, such as propane, are used asthe refrigerant. Propane Ir telauvely low in cost compared with other refigerants, andthe plant is completely equipped to handle flammable substances. In other applications separate refrigeration Units, such asthe large packaged unit shown in Fig. 1-9, prove refrigeration forthe proces. 419 Specal applications of reftigeation Other uses of refrgetion and air condition ing span sizes and capacities from small appliances tothe large indostal scaleAND AIR CONDITIONING 10 REFRIGERATION ‘ompresior house. cal Corp) a1 29°C, (Refrigeration et tergeation iit for condensing COp Figure 1.9 Twostage packs Enpneering Corporation).[APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 11 Drinking fountains Small refrigeration units chill drinking water for storage and use ss needed, - Denumdigiers An appliance to dehumidify air in homes and buildings uses a refriger- aavmvnit by fist passing the air to be dchumidifed through the cold evaporator col ae system, whefe the air is both cooled and dehumidified, Then this ool ar lows ver the condenser and is discharged tothe room. se anes ‘The production of ie may take place in domestic refrigerators ice makers wee ng restaurants and motes, and lage industrial fe makers serving food processing and chemical plants sre gurng rinks. Skaters, hockey players, and curlers cannot rely upon the weather to weevide the cold temperatures necessary to freeze the wate in ther fee nis, Pipes rng cold refrigerant or brine are therefore embedded infil of sid or sawdust ver which water fs poured and frozen." aoe vitrton: Refrigeration is sometimes used to freeze sol to fclitate excavations. A Coiresee of refrigeration is in cooling huge masses of concrete! (the chemical rea snwhich occurs during hardening gives off heat, which must be removed so that it vio we cguse expansion and stress the concrete) Concrete may be cooled by chilling sears gravel wate, and cement before mixing, asin Fig, 140, and by embedding chilled-water pips in the concrete saimieny of seawater One of the methods available for desalination of seawater’ is aeine edatwely saltire ice from the seawater, separate the ice, and remelt it to redeem fish water. 140 Precooling materia for concrete in a dam. (Sulzer Brother. Ine)12. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1410 Conelusion The refsgeration and air-condition industry is characterized by Ttay growth. It isa stable industry in Which replacement markets join with new ap- plications to contribute tits health. tons cot of energy since the 1970s hss een a Seni factor in stim- lating technical challenges for te indvidual nest Innovative approaches to wating elficieney which once were considers) impractical now receive serious imprcving co and often prove to be economically jstied. A example is the re cosy of low-temperature heat By elevating the femesrame level of this energy with coreey Sump (which is cefiigeration system). THe Gaye ‘of designing the system of snest st cost with lite or no consideration of the oPaLN cost now seem to be past. REFERENCES 1. “ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume Ames £008 of Heating, Reaigeratns, as Conditioning Engineers. Atlanta, Ga 1981 ana ten nope Fundamental” Asdemic New Yo 2 ae tnt iE, Woods: Development of « Hostal Ensy Management Index, MIRAE Trans, vol. 84 pt 2, 1978. ASHRAE Dont priation of Hah emer Iie Sones Hee systers, 3. SiRAb Trans, v0l. 82, pt 1, pP- 31-37. 1976 ASTRA ral nnd Pans, Symp. PHA191, ASHRAE Trans, vol 85. Pt} pp 307-333, 1978. 6: meaohmental Conta fr the Research Laboratory SYP Ag-18-3, ASHRAE Trans. Gaept 1. pp. $11-860, 1978. 1 eRe tabmal Consideration for Laboratory Asim SYP 1B0-15-8, ASHRAE Tron. vol 81, pt. 2, 1975. 0. eke Rooms, ASHRAE Syme. DE-ST-= Cae pdivoning Engncets, Atlanta, Ga 1967, 9 eat Simulation sfdeling of Automobile Com Fw 17, no. 5, pP- 53-85, May 1975 vo oe Prcguct Dect, Applications Volume” P33 society of ‘Handoeuating and A-Condioning Enon Ane 1998, 11 Raed. th Wats Down on, Refligatan, nd AE ‘Conditioners, Symp CH-77-13, RAE Trans, vo. 83, 1s PP. 793-838, 1977 IRAE Tr roa itor, Appcaons Votunes oP: Sg Society of a roe snd nirCondioning Engines, Attn C22 9278 rating ad No mil Mocs ins,” 4th oy McGraw NO American Society of Heating, Reftissating, a8 fort Cooling Requirements, ASHRAE Heating, 13, RN. Shreve an ‘York, 1977. a AETE ana wrotuct Dietor, Apbntions Yann et 55, American Society of “ranabon Tig and AurCondonig Ege Mans Oo 15, Brn Bar Conte Costing on Dam Consrvcton fs WoHls ingest Hydrosectie Power | een Tech. Rev, Yo. 61-80: 1,PP. 319.1979 16, WE, Johnson: Survey of Desain m1 ering Status and Potent, Nel, Water SuP- Ny inpran Aure J rok 40: 2,RP 2-14 Za 197 ; pefore 1981 the actual place of pubeaton for ASS material was New York, batt | queda sare sien for he conennce of readers who HAY Mth wo order from the society. |~ CHAPTER TWO Ohl. THERMAL PRINCIPLES 21 Roots of refrigeration and air conditioning Since a course in air conditioning and {efvigeration might easily be titled Applications of Thermodynamics and Heat Trans- fer, iti desirable to begin the technical portion of this text with a bref review of the basic elements of these subjects. This chapter extracts some of the fundamental prin- Ciples that are important for calculations used inthe design ané analysis of thermal Satems for buildings and industrial processes. The presentation ofthese principles is ittended to serve a very specific purpose and makes no attempt to cover the full range fof applications of thermodynamics and heat transfer. Readers who feel the need of a tore formal review are directed to basic texts in these subjects.‘~* "This chapter does, however, attempt to present the material in a manner which establishes a pattern of analysis that will be applied repeatedly throughout the re- mainder of the text. This process involves the identification of tie essential elements of the problem or design, the use of simplifications or ideaizations to model the sys tem to be designed or analyzed, and the application of the appropriate physical laws to obtain the necessary result. 2-2 Concepts, models, and laws Thermodynamics and heat transfer have developed from a general set of concepts, based on observations of the physical world, the spe- cific models, and laws necessary to solve problems and design systems. Mass and nergy are two of the basic concepts from which engineering science grows. From our ‘own experience we all have some idea what each of these i but would probably find it difficult to provide a simple, concise, one-paragraph definition of either mass or en- ergy. However, we are well enough acquainted with these concepts to realize that they fare easental elements in our description of the physical world in which we live, ‘As the physical world is extremely complex, itis virtually impossible to describe it precisely. Even if it were, such detailed descriptions would be much too cumber- some for engineering purposes. One of the most significant acccmplishments of engi neering science has been the development of models of physical phenomena which, although they are approximations, provide both a sufficiently accurate description and 8 tractable means of solution, Newton's model of the relationship of force to mass land acceleration is an example. Although it cannot be applied universally, within its ‘ange of application it is accurate and extremely useful 1314 REFRIGERATION AND AIK CONDITIONING Models in and of themselves, however, ae of lite value unless they can Be © presed in appropriate mathematical tems. The mathemati! expressions of modes Provide the basic equations, or laws, which allow engineering science 40 xPsin Pretict natural phenomena, The fint and second laws of thermodynamice and {he preaitunafer rate equations provide pertinent examples her. In this text we shall be Meing the use of these concepts, models, and laws in the description, desi, and “analysis of thermal systems in buildings and the proces industries * 443 Thermodynamic properties Another essential element in the analysis of thermal 23cm i the identification of the pertinent thermodynamic properties. A ropen) is 2s characteristic or attribute of matter which can be evaluated quantitatively. Ye sataure, pressure, and density are all properties. Workand heat transfer can bs eal aersn eerms of changes in properties, but they are not properties themselves. property i something matter “has.” Work and heat traf are things that a “Con rrorerim to change its properties. Work and heat can be measured only ‘he Koundary of the system, and the amount of energy transfered depends on how = siven change takes place. "a thermodynamics centers on energy, all thermedynamic properties are related to engy, The thermodynamic sate or condition of asystem is defined by the vali ose weoperties. In out considerations we shall examine eqlibium states and Find hat eo imple substance two intensive thermodynamic properties define the ste rae ree teture of substances, e., dry alr and water vapor, its necessary to define thace thermodynamic properties to specify the state, Once the state of the substance rae se Jetermined, all the other thermodynamic properties can be found since they are not all independently variable, "the thermodynamic properties of primary interest in this text are temperature, pressive, density and specific volume, specific heat, enthalpy, enteopy, and the gut ‘vapor property of state Tonperoure ‘The temperature + of a substance indeates its thermal sate and 4 eine to exchange energy with a substance in contact with it, Thus, a substance with a iigher temperature pases energy to one with a lower temperature. Reference point aes Celsos scale ae the freezing point of water (O°C) and the boiling point of water (100°C). " Geolute temperature Tis the number of degress above absolute zero expressed sn kelvine (K); thus T=1°C +273, Since temperature intervals on the two sles are lddential, differences between Celsius temperatures are stated in kelvins srenuie’ pressure p is the normal (perpendicular) force exerted by a fluid per wit area against which the force is exerted. Absolute pressure i the measure of PrESSS sibove sero: gauge pressure is measured above existing atmospheric pressure, “The amit used for pressure is newtons per square meter (N/m), also called @ ‘pascal (Pa). The newton i a unit of force ‘Standard atmospheric pressure is 101,325 Pa = 101.3 kPa. Pramuves are measured by such instruments as pressure gauges Or manometers, shown schematically installed in the air duct of Fig. 2-1. Because one end of the ma aoa open to the atmosphere, the deflection of water in the manometer indicates gauge pressure, jut asthe pressure gauge does.Figure 24 THERMAL PRINCIPLES 15 Manometer Lt Deflection (PY) resi se Air indicating the gauge pressure of air 2 duct with a pressure gauge and a manometer Density and specific volume The density p of a fluid is the mass occupying @ unit volume; the specifi fc volume » is the volume occupied by a unit mass. The density and seeeie volumes are reciprocals of each other. The density of rat standard atmo here pressure and 25°C is approximately 1.2 kgm? Example 2 What is the mass of air contained in a room of dimensions 4 by 6 bby 3 mif the specific volume of the airs 0.83 m?/kg? Solution The volume of the room is 72 m?, and so the mass of arin the room is nr = 86.7 amie Specific hear The specific heat of a substance isthe quantity of eneray requted to sreeihe temperature of a unit mass by 1 K. Since the magnitude of this quantity is influenced by how the process is eared out, how the heat is added or removed must a doceribed, The two most common descriptions are specific Heat at constant volume ¢, and specific heat at constant pressure Cy ‘The second is the more useful to us be Chuse it applies to most of the heating and cooling processes experienced in sir com ditioning a ind refriger ‘The approximate specific heats of several important substances are 4.19 kS/kg-K liquid water 10 KiykgK dry air 1188 KifkgK water vapor where J symbolizes the unit of energy, the joule. Example 2-2 What is the rate of eat input toa water heater if 0.4 ka/s of water ‘enters at 82°C and leaves at 93°C? Solution ‘The pressure of water remains essentially constant as it flows through the heater, 50 is applicable, The amount of energy inthe form of heat added to each kilogram is (4.19 ki/ke-K)(93 ~ 82°C) = 46.1 K/h,16 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “The units on opposite sides of equations must balance, Dut the °C and K do can- el becuse the specific heat implies «change in terperctre expres kkelvins and Saga is change in temperature of 11°C. A change of tempers Celsius degrees 3e given magnitude isthe same change in Kelvns, To comes ‘Example 22, con- orn eietpt that O Kgl lows through the heater, The ate of heat input then is (044 kals) (46.1 kif) = 18.44 Kfs = 18:44 KW zs Enthalpy Ff the constant-presure process introduced above is further restricted by permitting no work to be done on the substance, ¢. ‘a compressor, the amount of Ferre or removed per Unit mas ithe change in enthalpy ofthe snes ‘Tables: ae orenthalpy h are avaable for many sbstanecs, Thete ental values are aaa emgnscd on some arbitrary chosen datum plane, For exam, the datum plane weeedtier and steam isan enthalpy value of 2x0 for liqud waved 8 (°C. Based on that 1 wa ese enthalpy of Liquid water at 100°C is 417.06 KI/kg and ‘of water vapor (tear) at 100°C is 2676 kd/ ke ae Ghonge in enthlpy s that amount of est added or remowl Pe unit rasa constant pressure procest, the change i enthalpy of 16 NT! Example sree ig kslkg. The enthalpy property cal also exeress the rates of heat transfer fox proceses where there is vaporization or condensation, € i" 8 ‘water boiler or an airheating coil where steam condenses. Example 2 A flow rate of 0.06 kas of water enters» Bole! 3 90°C, at which eranuaure the enthalpy is 3769 Uke. The water leaves a8 scan at 100°C. What is the rate of heat added by the boiler? “Solution ‘Te change in enthalpy in this constant-presure Process Ah = 2676 - 377 Ki/kg = 2299 KSI ‘The ate of heat transfer to the water in convertingit co steam (0.06 kas) (2299 ki /kg) = 137.9 KW Entropy AXthough entropy + bas important technies! and philosophical connotations Ero Pe oe tia. property ina specific and limited mannes, Pavone does appear in we ay charts and tables of properties and is mentioned hex £0 that it will not be un- rant ae The following are two implications ofthis property: 1. tf a gas or vapor is compressed or expanded fictonesly WNIT adding oF re wr cune eat during the process, the entropy ofthe substance constant. 2 mete proces deseribed in implication 1, the change in ealalPy represents the we enn of work per unit mass required by the compression Of delivered by the expansion. ‘use we shall have for entropy isto read lines of constant Possibly the greatest practical vat compression in vapor-compression 1 entropy on graphs in computing the work frigeration cycles.THERMAL PRINCIPLES 17 Liquid-vapor properties Most heating and cooling systems use substances that pass. between liquid and vapor states in their cycle. Steam and refrigerants are prime ex- amples of these substances Since the pressures, temperatures, and enthalpies are key ‘properties during these changes, the relationships of these propertis ar listed in tables br displayed on charts, e., the pressure-enthalpy diagram for water shown in Fig. 2-2. “The three major regions on the chart are (1) the subcooled-quid region to the Jeft, (2) the liquid-vapor region in the center, and (3) the supetheated-vapor region on the sight. In region 1 only liquid exists, in region 3 only vapor exists, and in repfon 2 both liquid and vapor exist simultaneously. Separating region 2 end region 3 is the ‘aturated-vapor line. As we move to the right along a horizontal line at constant pres- Sure from the saturated-liquid line to the saturated-vapor line, the mixture of liquid fand vapor changes from 100 percent liquid to 100 percent vapor. ‘Thre lines of constant temperature are shown in Fig. 22, ¢= 50°C, t= 100°C, and £7 150°C. Corresponding to our experience, water boils at » higher temperature when the pressure is higher, If the pressure is 12.3 KPa, water bails at $0°C, but at standard atmospheric pressure of 101 kPait boils at 100°C. “Also shown in the superheated vapor region are two lines of constant entropy. 500 00] 200] 200] Sot Liqui'vapot raion ed liquid region 0% 100 80 Presure, KPa 8 50 40 20 Supers heated Taper “TI heen Sarat os OF 10 12 1a 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Enthalpy, Mike Figure 22 Skeleton presurcenthapy diagram for water.18 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Example 2-4 If 9 kes of liquid water at SO"C flows into boiler, s heated cared superheated to a temperature of 150°C andthe entre proces takes vince a standard atmospheric presure, what i the rte of heat transfer to the water? Solution “The process consists of thre distin parts: (1) bringing the femperatre sae rabcooled water up to its saturation temperature, (2) converting liquid’ at OA gre inte vapor at 100°C, and (3) supetheating the vapor from 100 to 150°C: sae ce of heat transfer isthe product of the mass rate of flow multiplied by the Thenpe iv enthalpy. The enthalpy of entering water at SOC and 101 KF is 209 ‘Cine wich can be rad approximately from Fig. 27 or detemined more pe: eee ern Appendix Table A-. The enthalpy of superheated steam at 150°C Gnd 101 kPa is 2745 ki/kg. The rate of heat transfer is (9 kg/s) (2745 = 209 kikg) = 22.824 KW Derfect4os law As noted previously, the thermodynamic propertis of substan Nt Peete ependently vaable But ate fixed by the state ofa substance, The iealzed rota at as behavior which ielates the presse, temperatre, and specific volume of a perfect gas provides an example T where p= absolute pressure, Pa ‘y= specifie volume, m°/kg [Re ges constant = 287 I/kgrK for sir and 462 I/keK for water ‘T= absolute temperature, K For our purposes the perfect-gas equation is applicable to iy ar and to highly supe or et ter vapor and. not applicable to water and refrigerant vapors close to thei saturation conditions. Example 2-5 What is the densty of dry air at 101 kPaand 25°C? Solution The density pis the reciprocal ofthe specific volume v, and s0 P 101,000 Pa RT (287 Skg'K) QS +273 K) 18 kgim? 4-4 Thermodynamic processes In discussing thermodynamic properties, we have Fea ay ntrodueed several thermodynamic process (ating and cooling), Pt already ow several more definitions andthe basic models and laws we shal se Before ‘Expanding this discussion to a wider range of applications. mine gy is the central concept in thermodynamics, its fendamental models 394 inns have ben developed to facilitate energy analyses, 10 describe energy conten’ wae nergy transfer. Energy analysis fundamentally an accounting procedure, 20 an ety procedure whatever itis that is under consideration must be clearly ident LayTHERMAL PRINCIPLES 19 fied. In this text we use the term system to designate the object or objects considered in the analysis or discussion. A system may be.as simple as a specified volume of a homogeneous fluid or as complex as the entire thermal-distribution network i a large pulding In most cases we shall define a system in tens of a specified region in space (Gometimes refered to as a contol volume) and enticely enclosed by a closed surface, (Sferred to a3 the system boundary (or control surface). The sizeof the system and the rape of the system boundary are arbitrary and ae specified for cach problem so thet they simplify accounting for the changes in energy storage within the system or energy ronafers across a system boundary. Whatever is not included in the system is called the environment. ‘Consider the simple flow system shown in Fig. 2-3, where mass is transferred rom the environment to the system at point 1 and from the system to the environ- nent at point 2. Such a system could be used to analyze something as simple as 2 Frump of as complex as an entice building, The definition of the system provides the vamework for the models used to describe the real objects considered in thermody: namic analysis ‘The next step in the analysis is to formulate the basic laws sc that they are appl cable to the system defined. The laws of conservation of mass and conservation of nergy provide excelent examples, as we shall be applying them repeatedly in every tapect of air-conditioning and refrigeration design. 2.5 Conservation of mass Mass is a fundamental concept and thus is not simply de- fined. A definition is often presented by reference to Newton's law av Force = ma =m —— @ where m= mass, ke acceleration, ms? V= velocity, m/s = time,s ‘An object subjected to an unbalanced force accelerates ata rate dependent upon the mapnitude of the force. n this context the mass of an object is conceived of as being characteristic of its resistance to change in velocity. Two objects which undergo the same acceleration under action of identical forces have the sare mass. Further, our 6m, im, Figure 23. Consernation of mass in a simple flow system.——_ 20 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING concept of mast holds thatthe mass of two COIS taken together isthe sum of their Gonespt ones and that cutting a homogen#Ous Body nto two identical parts pro indigo identical asses, each half of the oil mas. ‘Ths idea is the equivalent of the law of conservation of mast. vine present context the principle of comseryaice cof mass states that mass is neither ereated nor destroyed in the processes ‘alyzed. Tt may be stored within 8 SYS; tem or transferred between a system ‘and its environment, but it must be accounted for ter gays procedure, consier Fig, 23 asa TH the system may change ia ato mass flows into oF out of the system. ASUS, that during a time incre- ore yok mass bm, enters to system and a inseTen “bmp leaves. Ifthe mass in Ta ystem a time is mig and that at time 0+ 150 is my » go. conservation of Mass requires that amg +m, = My «50 * M2 Dividing by 60 gives If we express the mass flux a5 om 56 wwe can write the rate of change at any instant a8 im a ifthe rate of change of mass within the system 8 2612, am a 20 and ry =r and we have steady flow. Steady flow will be encountered frequently in our analysis + SteadySlow energy equation In most a-conditong and refrigeration systems eng from one instant to the next (Orit Ney do, the rate pay be assumed to be steady. In the system ipestated as follows: the rate of ® point | pls the eat of energy added a heat mits cof energy leaving at point 2 ‘The mathematical expression energy entering with the stream af ener maf energy pesforming work and minus We Te tual the rate of change of energy i the contol volume. for the energy balance is 4 -(, 8 a apie Demo y+ Pteea)-W en‘THERMAL PRINCIPLES 21 aw Figure 24 Enerey balance on a contzol volume experiencing steady flow res where *h= mass rate of flow, ke/s athalpy, Ike. V= velocity, mis = elevation, m ravitational acceleration = 9.81 m/s? te of energy transfer in form of heat, W rate of energy transfer in form of work, W E= energy in system, 1 Because we are limiting consideration to steady-flow processes, there is no change of E with respect to time; the dé/d0 term is therefore zero, and :he usual frm of the steady-flow energy equation appears . we B salt, + Bee, Joa (ny Bae) 02) ‘This form of the energy equation will be frequently used inthe following chap- ters. Some applications of Eq. (2-2) will be considered at this point. 27 Heating and cooling In many heating and cooling processes, g., the water heater in Example 2-2 and the boiler in Example 2-3, the changes in certain of the energy terms are negligible. Often the magnitude of change in the kinetic-energy term V2/2 and the potential-energy term 9.812 from one point to another is negligible compared with the magnitude of change of enthalpy, the work done, or heat transferred. If no work is done by a pump, compressor, of engine in the process, W=0. The energy equation then reduces to tinh, = tity or = 7h, ~hy) 4, the rate of heat transfer equals the mass rate of flow multiplied by the change in enthalpy, as assumed in Examples 2-2 and 23 Example 2-6 Water flowing at a steady rate of 1.2 kgls is to be chilled from 10 to 4°C to supply a cooling coil in an air-conditioning system. Determine the neces- sary rate of heat transfer.——_—_— 22. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘solution From Table A-1, at °C h= 1680 ka/ke and at 10°C A= 41.99 kof. ‘Then - qth, hy) = (12k (1680 ~ 41.9) - 30.23 KW 8 Adiabatic processes Adiabatic means that no heat By transferred; thus @= ae that are esentally adiabatic occur when the wails 9f system are ther very aiated. Even when the walls are not insulated Oe throughput rates of ay ine large in elation tothe energy transmitted to from the environment in ere Pn of heat, the process may be considered adiabatic, 2.9 Compression work An example of process which => vapor 120°C, 250 kr — . Cc IN 101.3 kPa Presute 013 ir reducing valve LAtaaanannrnsen} = seit” Figure 214 Pressuezeducing valve in Problem () What is the state of the water entering the vale (subcooled liquid, saturated Liquid, oF vapor)? XG) For each kilogram that enters the pressure-educing valve, how much leaves the separating tank as vapor? Ans, 0.0375 2.2 Air flowing at a rate of 2.5 kes is heated in a heat exchanger from -10 t0 30°C: ‘What is the rate of heat transfer? Ans. 100 kW 23 One instrument for measuring the rate of airflow is a venturi, as shown in Fig, isc where the cross-sectional area is reduced and the pressure difference between postions 4 and B measured, The flow rate of air having a density of 1.15 kelm? isto Permeasused in a venturi where the area at position A is 0.5 m? and the area at B is bee 2 The deflection of water (density = 1000 kg/m?) in a manometer is 20 mm The Tiow between A and B can be considered to be frictionless so that Bernoulli's equation apples. (a) What isthe pressure difference between positions A and B? (b) What is the airflow rate? Ans. 12.32 m/s 24 Use the perlect¢as equation with R = 462 I7ke* K to compute the specific ZShume of saturated vapor water at 20°C. Compare with data of Table A:I. Ans Deviation = 0.19% 28 Using the relationship shown on Fig. 26 for heat transfer when a fluid flows in = aide a tube, what is the percentage increase or decrease in the convection heat-transfer oetticient hy ifthe viscosity of the Muid is decreased 10 percent? Anz, 4.3% inerease ‘2s What is the order of magnitude of heat release by convection from a human body sohen the air velocity is 0.25 m/s and its temperature is 24°C? Ans, 60 W 3:7 What is the order of magnitude of radiant heat transfer from a human body in ¢ ‘Comfort air-conditioning situation? Ans. 40 W ae Aistgw + te 20mm ee a 4 pa iiskaim? —_* Figure 215-A ventrl for measuring ac fow,‘THERMAL PRINCIPLES 39 28 What isthe approximate rate of heat loss due to insensble evaporation ifthe skin temperature is 32°C, the vapor pressure is 4750 Pa, and the vapor pressure of air is 1700 Pa? The latent heat of water is 243 MI/Kg; Cayy = 1.2 X 10™? g[Pa +s» m? Ans. 18W REFERENCES 1. G. J. Van Wylen and R. E. Sonntag: “Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics," Wiley New York, 1978 2. W. D. Reynolds and H.C, Perkins: “Engincering Thermodynamics" McGraw-Hl, New York, 1970. K. Wark: “Thermodynamics,” 2d ed, MeGrawtill, New York, 1976 J.P Holman: "Heat Transfer,” 4th e, MeGra0 Hil, New York, 1976 F.Kreith and W, Z, Black: “Basic Heat Transfer Hayper & Row, Nex Vork, 1980. [ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume,” chap. 8, American Society of Heating, Refi erating, and Air Conditioning Enginers, Adana, Ga, 1981(CHAPTER " THREE ee PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTED-SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER 44.4 Importance Paychrometty is the study of the BOPeTS, of mixtures of air and donee, The subject is important in airconditioning Pacts because atmospheric water waPor pletely dry but a mixture of arand watt vapor. oh airconditioning proceses water is removed from the a-waieh Pet mixture, and ia others water i rineal Payehrometric principles are applied in ates Sapir this book, eg. to load saat og, airconditioning systems, coolingand debumiciNing ‘oils, cooling towers, and evaporative condensers ramon equipment there is a heat and masetransier Pst ‘between air and a wetted sorface, Example include some types of hunidiier, ‘dehumiaifying and cool- eg us and waterspray equipment such as cooin O¥% and evaporative condens ine ie convenient reatons can be developed toexpees ee fof heat and mass ity potent, discussed Iter in his chapter, But fist psychro tuansfer using enthal by property, followed by a discussion of the most metric chart is explored, property Common air-conditioning processes. ‘32 Paychrometric chart Since charts showing perchromeltt properties are readily 32 Peteag 31), why should we concern ourselves with te ‘development of a chart’ sae me fe to become aware of the base ofthe chat a ‘be able to calculat a ats of conditions, eg, nonstandard barometic Pes is epbyatep development of the psychrometsc hat that follows will mak ase of a few simplifying assumptions. They wil be point or ‘long the way wit a mote accurate caesatin, The chart that can Be deve properties at recommendations42 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 4 ‘Watervapor presse, KPH | ‘Superheated vapor “Temperture, °C Figure 32 Sevration line oped using simple equations is reasonably accurate and an BE used in most engineer sep caleulations, but of course the most accurate chart or date ‘auilable should be used. We srration line The coordinates chosen forthe payehrometrc Shae presented in ae Shapter are the temperature ¢ for the abscss ané tempor the water-vapor pressure p, fr the ovdnat. Fist consider the chat to PIAS water alone. The sat- aa ge can now be drawn onthe chart (Fg. 3:2) Data for the startet line ean bration es deely rom tables of saturated water (Table 4-1) The 10 the vier of the saturation line represents superheated water vapos f superheated vapor amsoled at constant pressure, it wil eventually teach the saturation line, where it begins to condense. a coy sic has been present with the water vapor. What the ef Fig, 4.2 ue ig present? Ideally, none, The water vapor coatinus o Beh ‘though no i; weve present. At a given water-vapor pressure, which fs n0W A partial pressure, cor air were Pes atthe sre temperature as it woul i no at were Prag ‘There erty ba alight interaction between the molecules of 2s and Wt M001, which panes the steam-table data slighty. Table A-2 presents he ‘properties of air alt= nang sh water vapor. A comparison of vapor pressures of the Yous! the air mix: cated wpe, A with that of pure water shown in Table Ac eves practically no idifference in pressure at a given temperature ‘Tipure 3.2 ean now be considered applicable to wm ar-water vanes sixture. The portion of the chart now of significance is bounded by the saturation line and the orto the condition of the mixture les onthe saturation ling 0° 2 stid to be see eds meaning that any decrease in temperature will resi condensation of Seated yapor into liquid. To the ight of the saturation line the at fs unsaturated, Tripoint A represents the condition of the ai, the temperate of that mixture Wl ie ts be reduced to temperature Bin order for condensation to Bi. Air at “Fis sad to have a dew-point temperature of B. “44 Relative humidity The slative humidity ¢ is defined as the TNS of the mole Teotion of water vapor in moist air tomole faction of water vapor saturated alr at yo2909 22939990PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTEDSURFACE MEAT TRANSFER 43, Saturation tine Watervapor pressure, KPa Tetatve humidity 6 = 05 Temperature, Figure 33. Relativehumiity tine. the same temperature and pressure, From perfectgas relationships another expression for dis existing partial pressure of water vapor Jaturation pressure of pure water at same temperature Lines of constant relative humidity can be added to the chart asin Fig. 3-3; by mark: ing off vertical distances between the saturation fine and the base of the chart. The felative humidity of 0.50, for example, has an ordinate equal to one-half that of the saturation ine at that temperature 35 Humidity ratio The humidity ratio W is the mass of water interspersed in each Jblogram of dry alt. The humidity ratio, lke the next several properties to be studied enthalpy and specific volume-is based on 1 kg of dry at. The perfect-gas equation can be summoned to solve for the humidity ratio. Both water vapor and air may be Goumed to be perfect gases (obey the equation py= RT and have constant specific heats) in the usual air-conditioning applications. Airis assumed to be a perfect gas because ils temperature is high relative to its saturation temperature, and water vapor fe asumed to be a perfect gas because its pressure is low reative to its saturation pressure kgof water vapor _,VIR,T __ PylR, [porary air, VIR,T (,-P)IR, a where W= humidity ratio, (kg of water vapor)/(kg of dry ar) V-= arbitrary volume of air-vapor mixture, m? y= atmospheric pressure =p, + Py, Pa partial pressure of dry ar, Pa gas constant of dry air= 287 3/kg*K gas constant of water vapor = 461.5 J/kg*K absolute temperature of ai-vapor mixture, K44 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Hamidi ration, KaPe8 fo Figure 34 Humidity ratio W as 2 ‘other ovat "Temperature, Substituting the numerical values f Ry and R, ito Ea. (3-1) Bes oat yo 2 Pe wasn Pe on has now appeared on the soent, and from this point on rhrometric chart the chart willbe unigue f0 8 Be? in sine pressure. Equation (32) shows the relationship be'wer the humidity ratio ara re terapor pressure, so that companion seals can be DOW” ‘ordinates of ihe poyehtometic chart, a8 ilustrated in Fig. 3-448 "a (G2) shows, the relation be: ire Pi and p, isnot perfectly Hear. n Fig. 3-1 and tn ost psychrometsic charts eee eg Sued linearly, which makes the Psa sighly ontnes ‘The atmospheric pressure Pr jn the development of the Ps) 60 percent relative humidity Example 3-1 Compute the humidity ratio of sir at ssure is the standard value of chan the temperature is 30°C. The barometric, res 101.3 kPa. at 30°C is 4.241 kPa from ressure of saturated air ‘the water-vapor pressure of Solution The water-vapor le A-L. Since the relative humidity is 60 percent, rao i 0.60 (4.241 KPa) = 2.545 kPa. From Eq,(3-2) 2545 = 00160 kek 545, oe ‘This esult checks the value read from Fig. 31. 446 Enthalyy The enthalpy ofthe mixture of dry ar ard wales the sum of a Mthalpy of the dry air and the enthalpy of the watet per” Enthalpy values are {hee pased on some datum plane, and the zero value of dry air is chosen a8 air alvaye bigs sur walu of the water vapor is satucated bguid wet (°C, the same oe pane that i used for tables of steam. An equation fr the ‘enthalpy is d290d 39999392‘ PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTED SURFACEMEAT TRANSFER 45 Saturation line of superheated vapor Tine of constant temperature Enthalpy, Kk Enwopy, Kika K Figure 35 Line of constant temperature shows that the enthalpy of superheated water vapor i approximately equal to the enthalpy of saturated vapor at the sme tempers, ft Wh, klk dry air G3) were ¢, © specific heat of dry alt at constant pressure = 1.0 kS/kg-K, temperature of airvapor mixture, °C fn, = enthalpy of saturated steam at temperature of ai-vaper mixture, kJ/kg Equation (33) gives quite accurate results, although several refinements can be made. ‘The specific heat c, actually varies from 1.006 at 0°C to 1,009 at SO°C. The enthalpy cof water vapor fy fs for saturated steam, but the water vapor in he aivapor mixture js likely to be superheated. No appreciable error results, however, because of the for- tunate selationship of enthalpy and temperature shown on the Mollie diagram of Fig 35, A line of constant enthalpy can now be added to the psychrometsc chart, as in Fig. 36. Suppose, for example, that the 95 kJ/kg enthalpy line is to be constructed ‘Several arbitrary temperatures. can be chosen and the humidity ratio computed at 95 k/kg using Eq. (3-3). The humidity ratio thus computed and the temperature Jocate one point on the line of constant enthalpy. Homiaity 0, Keke Tine of constant enthalpy Temperature, °C igure 34 Line of constant enthalpy.46. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Example 32 Locate the point on the 95 kkgenthalry ine where the tempera ture is 50°C. ‘Solution At 1= 50°C, hy (8.3) for h= 95 KS/kg gives 592 ks/kg from Table A-!. Solving for W from Ea 95 - 1.0(50) 951.009) _ 90 p Foy 700174 Kelle ‘The lines within the confines of the saturation line and the axes on Fig. 3-1 are rnot the lines of constant enthalpy but lines of constant wet-bulb temperature (See. 3.9), which deviate slightly from lines of constant enthalpy. Lines of constant en ‘halpy are shown to the left of the saturation line in Fig, 3.1, and ther continuations arevown at the right and bottom borders of the chart. The procedure for reading tnthalpy values off the psychrometric chart wil be explained later. 3.7 Specific volume The perfect gas equation is used to calculate the specific volume atthe airvapor mixture. The specific volume isthe number af cubic meters of mixture fet kilogram of dry ir. It could just 8 well be the cuble mes of ry air o the bi peters of mixture per kilogram of dry air, since the volumes occupied by the individ tual substances are the same, ‘From the perfect gas equation, the specific volume vis RIT_RT 3 yal AeX ong dry at G4) Py Pro Ps ‘To establish points on. line of constant specific volume, 0.90 m3/kg for example, sub- Jyats 0.9 for », the barometric pressure for p,, and at arbitrary values of T solve for dy The pairs ofp and values then deserbe the line of constant asin Fig. 37. Example 33 What isthe specific volume of an at-water-vapor mixture having 3 temperature of 24°C and a relative humidity of 20 percent at standard barometric pressure? Tomy rato, Ka Figue 3-7 Line of constant specifi "Temperature," volume,ae od = — 9 11 tempenties, . ee ‘ater TE td sta Solution The water-vapor pressure of saturated air at 24°C is, from Table A-1, 2.982 kPa; so the vapor pressure with a relative humidity of 20 percent is 10.2(2.982) = 0.5964 kPa = 596.4 Pa. Applying Eq. (3-4), we get 287(24 + 273.15) 101,300 596 ‘This result checks the value from Fig. 3+ = 0.85 m?/kg dry at 3.8 Combined heat and mass transfer; the straightdine law The final psychrometric property to be considered is the wet-bulb temperature, but in order to improve our nderstanding of this property a short detour will be made. It leads into the combined process of heat and mass transfer and proposes the straight-line law. This law states that when air is transferring heat and mass (water) to or from a wetted surface, the Condition of the air shown on psychometric chart drives toward the saturation line at the temperature of the wetted surface. If air flows over a weited surface as in Fig. 13:8, the condition of air passing over differential area dA changes from condition 1 to ‘Condition 2 on the psychrometric chart, Fig. 3-9. The straightline law asserts that point 2 lies on a straight line drawn between point 1 and the situration curve at the ‘wetted surface temperature ‘tis no surprise that the warm air at 1 drops in temperature when in contact with ‘water at temperature f,,. It is also to be expected that the ai at 1, having @ higher Figure 39 Condition of air drives toward saturation line at temperature of wetted Temperate, "© surface48 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING i, sony. n ik ipa, q i ne@) Temas tas woh meets nem NY Sythe igure 340 Adiabatic saturation. vapor pressure than the liquid at temperatare fw will transfer mass by condensing are eager vapor and dzopping the humidity rato of Me ‘ir. What is unique is that some wate peat and mast ansfer are so elated thatthe Fath a straight line diving ‘be ted the saturation line atthe wetted surface expert ‘This special property is Reto the value of unity of the Lewis relation, a ‘dimensionless group that will be © plained in Sec. 3-14. +39 Adiabatic saturation and thermodynamic wet bulb lenperir, ‘An adiabatic sat 38 Aa(tag. 510) isa device in which ai lows throygh 0% fof water. The water wifi eontinvousy, andthe spray provides #0 UC ‘surface area that the ait leaves Srey chamber in equibsurm with the water, WN espect to both temperature toe par pressure. The device i adiabatic in that He walls of the saturator are inst ane apt no heat is added to, or extracted from, We WO Tine that circulates the Ite om the sump back tothe sprays In order 0 Pern the process itis neces: wie provide makeup water to compensate fo 6 Fmount of water evaporated int sy Foe temperature of this makeup water is contelled that it is the same 25 ‘that in the sump. aeros the adiabatic saturator has achieved a steady 05 ‘condition, the temper ure indicated by an accurate thermometer immeney it the sump is the thermody’ cr ver bulb temperature. Certain combinations oF 2 conditions wall result im & ‘jren sump temperature and can be defined by “writing an energy balance about the en aris energy balance, waten onthe basi of Wt mash flow of air, is ay they (y= MD @s) winery's the enbaly of saturate iui a the Sun oF thermodynamic wee-bulb temperature.PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTEDSURFACE HEAT TRANSFER 49 Line of constant enthalpy Line of constant wet-bulb temperature Figure 311 Line of constant ‘thermodynamic wet-bulb tem “Temperature, °C perature Wer-bu temperatere— | (On the paychrometric chart in Fig. 3-11, point 1 lies below the line of constant ‘enthalpy that pastes through point 2. Any other condition of ai that results in the ‘same sump temperature, such as point 1’, has the same wet-bulb temperature. This line is straight because of the straight-line law, which states that the entering air at point 1 drives toward the saturation line at the wettedsurface temperature. The straight ine between points 1 and 2 represents the path of the ai as it passes through the saturator. ‘Lines of constant wet-bulb temperature are shown on psychrometric charts, as in Fig. 3-1, but lines of constant enthalpy are rarely shown. The enthalpy scale tothe left of the saturation line apples to air that is saturated. For unsaturated air the en- thalpy scale on the left must be combined with the enthalpy scale shown at the right and bottom borders of the chart. The deviation between the enthalpy and wet-bulb- temperature lines will be explained next. 3-10 Deviation between enthalpy and wet-bulb lines As Fig 311 indicates, readings of enthalpy obtained by following the wet-bulb line to the saturation curve specify ‘values of enthalpy that are 100 high. The psychrometric chart, Fig 3-1, shows lines bf constant thermodynamic wet-bulb temperature and not ins of constant enthalpy. ‘The enthalpy scale shown at the left applies only to the conditons on the saturation line, and both the scale at the left and the scales at the right and bottom borders shouldbe used for more precise determinations of enthalpy. ‘To check an enthalpy deviation, compare the chart reading witha calculation for sir having a dry bulb temperature of 40°C and a relative humidity of 41 percent. The wet-bulb temperature of air at this condition is 28°C. In Fig. 31 straightedge can beset at 40°C dry-bulb temperature and 41 percent relative humidity and pivoted about that point until the enthalpy values on the left and right enthalpy sales match. That value is 89 K/kg. Equation (3-5) permits calculation of the enthalpy of the point in question, fy, by comecting the value of h (the enthalpy of saturated air at the same wet-bulb temperature) ‘hy = 89.7 kk (Wy ~ M4)50 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Wes ® o gue 3:12 (0) The wetulbempertre, and (0) the procs on Paehromsi al were Wy = 0.019 klk Wh = 0.0241 kelks hiy= gat 28°C = 117.3 Kk nf = $0.7 ~ 117 3(0.0241 - 0018) 9.1 kik, 4411 Wet-ulb thermometer Although the adiabatic saturator of Fit 3410 is not a a omient device for routine measurement, a thermometer NeVinE wetted wick, as cane, would be convenient, We must therefore desermine Whether the wetbulb in Fie aly indicates the thermodynamic wetbulb temperate: te wetted {herr e wik I finite, rather than infinite Like the saturator fo Te 3-10, s0 the strange in state of air passing over the wetted bulb can 2° represented by process 1-2 Seg. 3-12b. Since the energy balance about the bulb is iy Wyle hy * Way points | and 2 ie on the same thermodynamic wet bulb line, The important ques- potnts Mvcver is: What isthe temperature of the water on {he ‘wick? The answer, tion, ower rom the application of the straight law is that the conten of the eng at point 1 has been driving toward the saturation line 2 temperature ai ara rarface in order to reach pint 2. Had rove wet’ ‘surface been avail: Shi 'ue state of the air would contin to dive along the straight line toward the saturation curve. ei his pioneer paper on paychrometry, assumed that 2 temperature of water on a wet-ulb thermometer was the same ax that in 9 ‘adiabatic saturator. ot ae ofo2 grouped the terms that bear his name and conelvde that a value of aly of this dimensionless group results in identical temperate cof a wetted wick wr Giabatic spray. In 1933 Lewis? demonstrated that it ‘atmospheres other than a aiater vapor the reading of a wet bulb thermometer nd ‘he saturated spray si aifroven, We shall hereafter consider the tempersture of he wet-bulb thermom- ate dierene adiabatic spray to be the same and drop the quaificaion “thermody: a the wet bul temperature, simply eaing it she we-bl temperature. DEL pr29009PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTED SURFACE HEAT TRANSFER SI ami tale Figure $13 Sensible heating or cooling Figure 3:14 Humiliation 3.12 Processes Processes performed on air can be plotted on the psychrometric chart for quick visualization, OF even more importance isthe fact thatthe chart can be used to determine changes in such significant properties as temperature, humidity ratio, and enthalpy for the processes. Some of the basic processes will now be shown, including i) sensible heating or cooling, (2) humidification, adiabatic and nonadiabatic, (3) cooling and dehumidification, (4) chemical dehumidification, and (5) mixing. 1. Sensible heating or cooling refers to a rate of heat transfer attributable only to a change in dry-bulb temperature of the air. Figure 313 shows a change in dry-bulb temperature with no change in humidity ratio. 2. Humidification, as shown in Fig. 3-14, may be adiabatic a shown in process 1-2, or with addition of heat, asin process 1-3. 43. Cooling and dehumidification results ina reduction of both the dry-bulb tempera: ture and the humidity ratio (Fig. 3-15). A cooling and dshumidifying coll pet~ forms such a process. The refrigeration capacity in kilowatss during cooling and ‘dehumidifying process is given by Refsigeration capacity = w(hy ~ty) ‘where w isin kilograms per second and fy, and ty in klojoules per kilogram. Figure 3.15 Cooling and dehumidifcation52 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 3999909 aN sishumidiea nidiy ati, ks 39933399 “Temperatures Figure 3:16 Chemical dehumidification 44, In the process of chemical dehumidifiction (Fig. 346) the water vapor from the iris absorbed or adsorbed by a hygroscopic material, Since the process, if ther, nally iolated, is essentially one of constant enthalpy, and since the humidity Tato decreases, the temperature of the air must increase. 5. Mixing of two streams of air is a common process in sir conditioning, Figure 3.17 Shows the mixing of w, kg[s of air at condition 1 with w kg/s of air at condition 2 The result is condition 3, shown on the psychroretsic chart in Fig. 3-17. The fundarnental equations applicable to the mixing process are an energy balance and ‘a mass balance. The energy balance is : why # Wolly = OF, # Was G6) ‘and the balance of the mass of water is 1, My wy My = (or, + WM en "Temperature," © © agement of mixing process. () Mixing proces on psychrometsc } Figare 3.17 (@) Schematic 2 chart < ‘PSYCHROMETRY AND WETTED SURFACEHEAT TRANSFER 53 Equations (3-6) and (3-7) show that the final enthalpy and humidity ratio are weighted averages of the entering enthalpies and humidity ratios. An approxima- ton used by many engineers is that the final temperature and humidity ratio are weighted averages of the entering values. With that approximation, the point vn the psychromettic chart representing the result of # mixing proces lis on Straight line connecting the points representing the entering conditions. Further, rare, the ratio of distances on the line, (1-3)/(2-3), equals the rato of the flow rates, wa/Wy. The error of this approximation is caused by the variation in spe- Cifc heats of moist air and is usualy les than 1 percent. 3.13 Comment on the basis of 1 kg of dry air The enthalpy, humidity ratio, and spe- ‘ie volume are all based on 1 kg of dry air, and it may seem strange to speak of, say, he mass of water in 1 kg of dry al. (Correctly the humidity rato should be expressed ir the mass of water associared with I kg of dry ar.) A review of some of the processes presented in Sec. 3-12, however, shows the usefulness ofthe tasis of dry ar. Inthe Processes shown in Figs. 3-14 to 3-16 the total mass changes throughout the process aretusr of the addition or extraction of water. If total mass of mixture were used as te basis, it would be necessary to recalculate the mass flow ate after each of these processes, The flow rate of dry air, however, remains constant trough the processes 3.14 Transfer of sensible and latent heat with a wetted surface When air flows past etted surface, 23 showin in Fig. 3-18, there is a likelihood of transfer of both sensible wei atent heat. If there is a difference in temperature between the air fg and the ttted surface f, heat wil be transfered. If there is difference in the partial pres Wie of water vapor in the ar p, and that of the water 7, there wil be a transfer Sf mass (water) This transfer of mass causes a thermal-energy transfer a well, ecause Sf vapor condenses from the aig the latent heat must be removed at the water. Con- ‘Tesely, if some liquid evaporates from the water layer, the latent heat ofthis vapor- ined water must be supplied to the water. The rate of sensible-heat transfer from the water surface to the alr q, can be cal- culated by the convection equation aq, 2h, 4A (Gt) Gs) where qy= rate ofsenible-heat transfer, W ‘hg = convection coefficient, Wim?+K ‘A= area, m? ae Figure 3-18 Heat and mass transfer between at lan! nda wetted susface—— $4 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING \ rere onan ann he wert operon oe scene tence, yy ag econ 35 Howe hat he ely ees i i vapor psu, and sa coneponding popetonal <2 be established rate of mass tansfor= hip 4A(W,-,) els “where hp = proportionality constant, kg/m? Mp Riya of murda tweed suis tempera since eed too fom the wae anes» wane of eat due 19 he Sondensation or evaporation, a, = hy 44, WH 6s) te of latenttheat transfer, W I= att heat of water a PKB cif naugh may sem to determin acute aus of the cone Af gra particular situation, many more dat =r oe ete he fot & ble ent teaser tha fr the masstransfe roressonst costes nartely the ansport mechani athe wel ES controls the stant replat afr ie same one that cons the ae 9 nat transfer. ae on indeed des, ost proportional ean between hp oA ‘Some These shes ofthe boundary layer analy are ivenn Ref, 4. This proportionality is expressed by where ap G10) i fom wher Gp the specific heat of mess ai, KE Tp cheat of molt alts based on 1 Kg of dry ais ands thus the sum of the specific heat of dry air and that of the water vapor 1 com = op* Moe eu) i 4.48 Entiapy potent The concept of entaipy pont is weal ons ST i 2. he ruse of total est eae ps nt in os Pore ‘nnd compo: \ yng the ay ect contact bebwen air and water, The xDreton transfer qi ae ae ta ou a ferential aan dis avalible fom a combiason of Eas. G8) and 9) dag = dq, + da hg AA 4) HA MMe “Applying the expression for hp from Ea. 3-10) ves h \ cA td MO WhipPSYCHROMETRY AND WETTEDSURFACE HEAT TRANSFER 5S Substituting Eq, (3-11), we get Weepgti* Wyhyg) G12) haa 4, = egt+ Wg) Cytet Mbp om ‘The final approximation is to add to Bg. (3-12) an expression that is almost nepigible compared with the other terms. That expression is W/ty- Wah, where hy” B'ihe enthalpy of ssturated Ligud water at temperature f, Equation (12) then becomes Aaa legis + My + gl ~ Leyla + Maly +g 6, p40) 13) ‘the expresion in the ft se of brackets of a, (3-19 prey the enthalpy of are creat th wetted ifn temperature end the expeston in the second set St pctets i precy the enthalpy ofthe ar inthe ie ean, The unt of both haha are ous per klograr of ry ar Thus a A 4-4) Gs) Spm ‘The name enthalpy potential originates from Eq. (3-14) tecaise the potential for the transfer of the sum of sensible and latent heats i the dierence between the enthalpy of saturated air at the wetted surface temperature h, and the enthalpy of ar inthe fee steam h, "The specific heat of molt air py is expresed by Eq. (311), but for states of, sir near those of normal room conditions a value of 1.02 Ki K may be used. For example, with air at 25°C and 50 percent relative humidity, ¢, = 1.00 ki/ke-K, 10.011 Kehkty py = 188, and Gym = 1.0207 KS /kg“K. 3.16 Insights provided by enthalpy potential In addition to helping quantify the calculations of heat and mass transfer in cooling and dehumicifying coils, sprayed coils, evaporative condensers, and cooling towers, the enthalpy potential provides a ‘qualitative indication of the direction of total heat flow. Thee different cases are illustrated in Figs. 3-19 to 3-21. Air at condition a isin contact with water at three different temperatures in cases 1,2, and 3. In case 1 aa, >t {iq} is from the air to the water sine W, > W, a m>h and since both da, and day, are from the air to the water. In case 2 dq, is from the air to the water since fy > f day, is from the water to the air since W, —_—_— 56 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING y i RN | Re { ¢ SS Ss i ‘ water tenperaie p 1 PS | oem ta? ——e Tame sigue 319 Cue gion a0 pie 120 Ca 2.4 om ow x 5 { “li I 4 eninarmnal fu Figure 3:21 Case 3,4, fiom the water ta. Before the concept of enthalpy potential was developed, we were unable to Gost ‘mine immediately which way magnitudes of da, and day,..Nov In case 3 da, dq, was flowing because we did not know the relative wo the relative values of h 21d h provide the clue. {s from the air to the water since ty > tr dd, is from the water tothe air since My < Mi {2qy, is from the water tothe airsinee ty nd (35), ealulate (a) the humidity ratio if this irs aiabatically saturated, (5) the enthalpy of the air if it is adiabatically saturated, (c) the humidity ratio ofthe sample sing Eg. (35), (d) the partial pressure of water vapor in the sample, and (e) the rela- tive humidity. Ans. (@) 0.0201 ke/kg, (5) 76.2 ki/ke, (c) 0.0180 ke/ke, (4) 2840 Pa, (67%. 3.3 Using humidity ratios from the psychrometric chart, caleulate the error in cor dering the wet-bulb line to be the line of constant enthalpy at the point of 35°C ddsy-bulb temperature and 50 percent relative humidity. Jd An airvapor mixture has a dry-bulb temperature of 30°C and a humidity ratio aHoots. Calculate at two different barometric pressures, 85 and 101 kPa, (a) the Shthalpy and (b) the dew-point temperature. Ans. (a) 68.3 and 68.3 Kis, (8) 17.5 and 20.3°C. 35 A cooling tower is a device that cools a spray of water by passing it through a Jieeam of ai If 15 m?/s of air at 38°C dry-bulb and 24°C wetbulb temperature and sNvaemospherie pressure of 101 KPa enters the tower and the sir leaves saturated at S1°C. (a) to what temperature can this airstream cool a spray of water entering at 3a°C with 0 flow rate of 20 kg/s and (b) how many kilograms per second of makeup ater must be added to compensate for the water that is evaportted? Ans. (a) 31.3°C, (0) 0.245 els 36 In an airconditioning unit 3.5 m3/s of air at 27°C dry-bult temperature, 50 per aac relative humidity, and standard atmospheric pressure enters the unit. The leaving SShaition of the airs 13°C dry-bulb temperature and 90 percent relative humidity. Uning properties from the psychrometrc chart, (o) calculate the refrigerating capacity in kilowatts and (8) determine the rate of water removal from the air. Ans. (a) 88 kW, (@) 0.0113 kels. 5:7 A stream of outdoor air is mixed with a stream of return airin an air-conditioning arrtcmn that operates at 101 kPa pressure. The flow rate of outdoor aris 2 ke/s and its cretion is 35°C dry-bulb temperature and 25°C wet-bulb temperature, The flow rate = Sfiretumn air is 3 ke/s, and its condition is 24°C and 50 percent relative humidity. = Botermine (a) the enthalpy of the mixture, (2) the humidity ratio of the mixture, (e) the dry-bulb temperature of the mixture from the properties determined in parts (@ and (0), and (2) the dry-bulb temperature by weighted average of the dry-bulb temperatures of the entering streams. Ans. (2) 59.1 ki/ks, (8) 0.01198 ke/ks, (¢) 28.6°C, d) 28.4°C. 38 The air conditions at the intake of an alr compressor are 28°C, $0 percent relative humidity, and 101 KPa. The air is compressed to 400 kPa, then sent to an intercooler. If condensation of water vapor from the compressed air is to be prevented, what is the tninimum temperature to which the air can be cooled in the intercooler? Ans. 40.3°C. 3.9 A winter air-conditioning system adds for humidification 0.0025 ke/s of saturated steam at 101 KPa pressure to an airflow of 0.36 ke/s. The airs initially at a tempera- ture of 15°C with a relative humidity of 20 percent, What are the dry- and wet-bulb temperatures of the air leaving the humidifier? Ans. 16.0 and 138°C. 3:40 Determine for the three cases listed below the magnitude in watts and the direction of transfer of sensible heat (using Eq, (3-8)), latent heat (using Eq. (3-9)], fand total heat {using Eq, (3-14)]. The area is 0.15 m* and h,= 30 W/m?-K. Air at 30°C and 50 percent relative humidity is in contact with water that is at a tempera~ ture of (@) 13°C, (B) 20°C, and (¢) 28°C. Ans. (a) ~16.5, -423,-120.4 Wi (0) 45.0, 15.1, -29.6 W; (6) -9.0, 116.5, 113.8 W,———_ 58 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING REFERENCES sien, Wh: Rational Payee Forme, ASME me wl 33.1, 1008041 Ra Pom of Liu into a Ga, rs. ASME, vl 97551977 g ii 1367, September 1933. 968. WA The Evaporation of «Lig info» Gat-A Coesin, Meck ‘Eng, vol. 55, 1567, Septem pes for Ale Conditioning Pact,” Inlet Ines NOW York,(CHAPTER FOUR HEATING- AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 41 Introduction Buildings are built to provide a safe and comfortable internal en- vironment despite variations in external conditions. The extent to which the desired intesior conditions can be economically maintained is one important measure of the ‘success ofa building design. Although control of inside conditions is usually atributed to the active heating and cooling system, the design of heating, ventilating, and air ‘conditioning (HVAC) must start with an examination of the thermal characteristics of ‘the envelope. They influence both the equipment capacity and the energy required for its operation, ‘The primary intent of this chapter is to examine procedures for evaluating the im- pact of the thermal characteristics of the building envelope on the design of the HVAC ystems used to maintain comfort. As the objective of the system is to provide com fort, however, itis advisable to begin with a brief discussion of the factors which in- fluence comfort. 42 Health and comfort criteria "The human body is an amazingly adaptable organism. With long-term conditioning the body can function under quite extreme thermal ‘conditions. Variations in outdoor temperature and humidity, however, often go be- ‘yond the normal limits of adaptability, and it becomes necessary to provide modified Conditions indoors in order to maintain a healthy, comfortable environment. 43 Thermal comfort Figure 4-1 illustrates the factors that influence thermal com- fort. First, body heat is generated by metabolic processes to maintain body tempera- ture. Metabolic processes are influenced by such factors as age, health, and level of60 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITH Convection nasties) contin —— factor ‘surface temperature Human heat 1oss onING Evaporation “Thermabconort factors igre 4-1 Factor afuencing thermal comfort setvty, For example, a given range of sepals ina space occupied by a healthy Pers ‘but uniceeptable for one who is ill sereptseopte are wing 0 adjust their dres habits ‘with the changing seasons, they find that they are than they would expe "The body is contin constant body temperature. The jomfortable over a br ct Ai motion Radiation Activity Physiological € ne Mar Heath environmental conditions might be quite Trader range of environmental conditions ‘aously generating heat, which must be dissipated to maintain @ carpus mechanisms by which temperate control it consplished were desorbed in Sec. 219 and sr ‘shows in Fig. 4-1. For a person at weet or doing light work in a conditions faees that are at alower temperature Of heat dissipation accounts for API tion, from both 1 Ae environmental conditions or levels For example, if a person ‘anism will be evapora Convection (castied away bY tion. a space, the boty dissipates heat primasily PY “an gurrounding a’) and radiation (to surrounding °° "han the Body surface). Each of these components proximately 30 percent ofthe heat Jos. Eyap0re Mariration and perspiration, accounts for the ‘emaining 40 percent. ier activity change these percentages will Vary onsing strenuous work, the primary heat-dissipation mech> 3 HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 61 Four environmental factors influence the body's ability to dissipate heat: air temperature, the temperature of the surrounding surfaces, humidity, and air velocity. ‘The amount and type of clothing and the activity levels ofthe occupants interact with these factors. In designing an air-conditioning system we turn our attention to the control of these four factors. Ifa person is wearing appropriate dothing, the following ranges should usually be acceptable:* . Operative temperature. 20 t0 26°C Humidity. A dew-point temperature of 2 to 17°C ‘Average alr velocity. Up t0 0.25 m/s “The operative temperature is approximately the average of the air dry bulb tempera ture and the mean radiant temperature as long as the mean radiant temperature is less than 50°C and the average air velocity is less than 0.4 mys. The mean radiant tempera- ture is the uniform surface temperature of an imaginary black enclosure with which an Secupant would have the same radiant energy exchange as in the actual nonuniform Space. A person wearing heavy clothing may be comfortable a: lower temperatures; conversely, lighter clothing and higher air velocity may provide comfort despite higher temperatures. The temperatures of surrounding surfaces have an influence on comfort fs great as that of the air temperature and can not be neglected. 44 Air quality Air quality must slso be maintained to provide a healthy, comfor table indoor environment, Sources of pollution exist in both the internal and external ‘environment. Indoor air quality is controlled by removal of the contaminant or by Gilution. Ventilation plays an important role in both processes. Ventilation is defined {s supplying air by natural or mechanical means to a space. Normally, ventilation js made up of outdoor air and recirculated air. The outdoor air is provided for dilution. Jn most casts odor and irritation of the upper respiratory tract or eyes are the reason for ventilation rather than the presence of health-threatening contaminants. The pos- sibility of contaminants cannot be overlooked, however Reference 2 prescribes both necessary quantities of ventilation for various types of occupancies and methods of determining the proportions of outside air and te- circulated air. If the level of contaminants in outdoor air exceeds that for minimum sirquality standards, extraordinary measures beyond the scope of this text must be used. For the present discussion it will be presumed that outdoor-air quality is satis: factory for dilution purposes. Table 4-1 presents outdoor air requirements for ventila- tion for three occupancy types listed in the standard. As noted in the table, much larger quantities of air are required for dilution in areas where smoking is permitted. ‘Veatilation imposes a significant load on heating and cooling equipment and thus is a major contribution to energy use. Space occupancies and the choice of ventilation rates should be considered carefully. For example, if smoking is permitted in part of a ‘building but restricted in another part of the building, ventilation rates for smoking should not be assumed uniformly. Also, the prospect of filtering and cleaning ait for recirculation must be examined carefully. The use of recirculated air will conserve62 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 4-1 Outdoorair requirements for ventilation - Ontdorar semen’ penn, Lis imate goupuncy omnes 7 0 2s Weigand walingspact 6D ins 3s tent $0 23 23 penbien energy whenever the outdoorair temperature is extremely high or ow. The ASHRAE ‘Standard? provides the following procedure for determining the allowable rate for recirculation Pei, where rate of supply ac for ventilation purposes, Us J, =recrealtion aerate, Lis Fore outdoors tat for specie cxpany, for example th non sane valu fom Table 41-but never than 25 (sper person ¥- E where V, = outdoor-air rate from Table 4-1 for specified occupancy (smoking or non- smoking, a appropriate), Lis _E=elfcieney of contaminant removal by airsleaning device, The efiiency fhust be determined relative to the contarinant o be removed. Table 42 provides values appropriate for removal of Im particles also Example 41. Determine the ventilation rate, outdooralr rate and rectculatedsit tate for an office-bulding meeting room if smoking is permitted. An aircleaning ‘Device with £= 60 percent for removal of tobacco smoke is available. ‘Table 42 ASHRAE dust spot efficiencies (-um particles)? iter type Eiticieney range, % ‘Application 525 ust ad lint removal 25-40 Same a above and fr some indus application Mats of 3 t0 104m 40-80 Bulldingrecuculated- fiber 6 0 20 mm thick feahale systems Mats of 0.5-t0 442m 80-98 Hospital surgeries, clean fiber (usually gas) rooms, special applications Blectostatic (depending 20-50 ellen and aiborne particles on type)HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 63 wD Solution Table 4-1 indicates that 17.5 L/s of outdoor air per person would be re- ‘uired to ventilate the space without any secirculation and ar cleaning. The table also indicates that 3.5 L/s per person is the required outdoor-ir rate for non- smoking spaces and may be assumed, for purposes of th example, to be the ‘minimum rate. There are two possible solutions for this design problem: (a) ‘supply 17.5 Ls of outdoor air per person or (6) calculate the allowable recircula tion rate and corresponding required ventilation rate as follows: 178- ‘607100 Then V= 23.3 + 3.5 = 26.8 L/s per person. ‘Although the total ventilation rate is higher for the second approach in Example 4-1, the energy requirements may be less due to tue reduced outside-air flow rate. If contamination such as tobacco smoke, body odor, moisture, or a high CO con- tent is the result of occupancy, ventilation is not required when the space is not ‘occupied. If other sources of contamination exist, however, such as equipment or processes, outgassing from materials, or naturally occurring preduction of radon, an appropriate level of ventilation must be maintained even if the space is unoccupied. Each of the factors influencing comfort must be kept in mind inthe design of an airconditioning system, These factors have an impact on system capacity, system ‘control, and the design and placement of the duct system or terminal units. For ex- ample, placing heating units under a window or along an exterior wall may offset the effects of the lower temperature of those surfaces. 2 =233Ls 45 Estimating heat loss and heat gain Heat transfer through a building envelope is in- fluenced by the materials used; by geometric factors such as size, shape, and orienta- tion; by the existence of internal heat sources; and by climatic factors. System design \= requires each of these factors to be examined and the impact of their interactions to be carefully evaluated. ‘The primary function of heatloss and heatgain calculations is to estimate the capacity that will be required for the various heating and airconditioning components necessary to maintain comfort within a space. These calculations are therefore based fon peak-load conditions for heating and cooling and correspond to environmental conditions which are near the extremes normally encountered. Standard outside de- sign values of temperature, humidity, and solar intensities are usually available from handbooks. ‘A umber of load-calculation procedures have been developed over the years. ‘Those developed by ASHRAE® will be used here. Although other procedures differ in some respects, they are all based on a systematic evaluation of the components of heat loss and heat guin, Loads aro generally divided into the following four categories ig. 42): ‘Transmission, Heat loss or heat gain due to a temperature difference across a building clement64. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING filtration nema om tf] | Tafitration igure 4.2 Categories of esting and cooling ods ‘Sola, Heat gun due to transmistion of slar energy though transparent building “omponent or absorption by an opaque building ComPoren! “Inflation. eat loss of heat gain due to the infiltrador ‘of outside air into a condi tioned space “Internal. Heat gain due to the release of energy within »sPace Cights, people, equip ment, etc) In response to these Jouds the temperature in the space #1 change or the heating oF veer equipment will operate to maintain a desired wpe In the following seragraphs we outline procedures for evaluating cach cf these load components. A repre detailed presentation is avallable in Ref. 4. & 446 Design conditions The design conditions usualy sreied [t estimating heating 46 pei nade and outade dry bulb temperatures. For hese ‘operation an in: loads ar cure of 20 to 22°C is generally assumed, and for soo} ‘operation 24 {0 se eypea. A minimum relative humidity of 30% inthe win ‘and a maximum of aoe ie the summer is ao assumed. For heating operon the 975 percent value of See outside temperature is usually chosen. This means {83k Jong-term basis the te ere day bu temperature equals or exceeds this valve for 975 percent of the puts uring the coldest months of the year. At the 975 perent ‘outdoor temperature the ai is assumed to be saturated. a eer of conditions speciied for coolingtoad estimates Tor ‘complex and inchute diy bulb temperature, humidity, and solar intensity. Peak-load conditions vvurng the cooling season usually correspond to the Tami ‘solar conditions rather during nc peakoutdoorair temperature. Thu, i often nesessty 1 make several_ ta eons at diferent times of the day or times of the year f° fix the appropriate& HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 65 ‘maximum-cooling-apacity requirements. When the coolingoad calculation is made will depend on the geographic location and-on the orientaon of the space being considered. For example, peak solar loading on an east-facing room may occur at 8 A.M, while for a west room the maximum load may occur at 4 P.M. Peak solar loads for south-facing rooms will occur during the winter rather than the summer. Of course, when a cooling system serves several spaces with different orientations, the peak sys. tem load may occur at a time other than the peak for any of the several spaces. For tunately, after making a number of such calculations one begins to recognize ikely choices for times when the peak load may occur. ‘Table 4-3 provides outdoor design temperature data for a number of locations. The table provides the 97.5 percent dry-bulb temperature for winter and the 2.5 per cent dry-bulb and coincident wet-ulb temperature for summer. The 2.5 percent dry- ‘Table 43 Design temperature data Winter Summer 2.5% ary bub) ‘soinedeng wet ‘August daly cy 97.5% dry bulb, °C ‘bulb, "C average, °C Albuquerque, N. Mex. 33/16 “on ‘Adants, Cs 33723 26 aie / 2 sin 2 33/23 2 32/23 2 36924 » 35/15 2 a8 2 Great Falls Bont, site 19 Houston, Tex 0 sans 2 Las Vegas, Nev. al ane 31 os Angels, Cali. ‘ sap. 2 Memphis, Tenn, -8 spa n ‘Miami, Fa 8 3ap2s 28 Minaespolis, Minn. 4 3773 2 ‘New Orleans, La =4 33726 2% New York, NY. 9 32723 2» Phoenix, Ariz 1 ana 3 Pitsbargh, Pa a4 31/22 2 Portland, Ores m4 30/20 20 Sacramento, Cali ° 37a. 2% Salt Lake City, Utah a3 35/17 2% San Francisco, Cai, ‘ 27 7 Seattle, Wash, “3 289 18 ‘Spokane, Wash a7 337 20 St.Louis, Mo. a3 347 25 Washington, DC. -8 35723 25(66 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING . bulb temperature isthe temperature exceeded by 2S percent ofthe hours during June ralseptember. The mean coincident wet-bul temperature isthe mean wet ob > feature ocerting at that 25 percent dry bul tempersture, Tables 4-10 19 41°. which Peride additonal data relative to the solr lad, wil be disused when the sl load er windows and the thermal transmission for walls and roof ae studied. Example 42 Select ouside and inside design temperatures fora building 40 Pe constructed in Denver, Colorado. Solution From Table 43 the summer design conditions ae given a8 ‘Summer design dry-bulb temperature = 33°C Coincident wetbulb temperature = 15°C ‘Assuming that no special requirments exist, an inside desl temperature 9f aie relative humidity i chosen, The winter desig outside Cemperatre 2 UC irom Table 43, and if no special requirements exist an inside desien ‘eunperatute of 20°C and 30% relative humidity is chosen. it should be noted thatthe inside design temperature only limits the conditions that gare maintained in extreme weather. During heating operation, when the 00 that can Mature i above the ouside design value, an inside temperature greater han 20°C can be maintained if desired. 447 ‘Thermal transmission The general procedure for calelating heat loss or hea in by thermal transmission is to apply Eq. (2-12) At, UAC, -1) ot UIRiop WIK = total thermal resistance, K/W j= overall heattransfer coetTicient W/m? = K (A= surface area, m? tg ~t;= oulside inside temperature diferenee, K 22 neltng load estimates the temperature difference is simply the 97-5 percent outside value minus the inside design value i assed in Chap. 2 the overall heat-ransfer coeficent Us a fonction of ee eetSgces Table 44 (p68) provides values of thermal resistance applies thermal sr urface for commonly Used building materials, enclosed alr space) ant 1 cope boundarits. Example 43 iutates deermnation ofthe U vals of ipa wal erss section. The area used inthe transmission caleslatons ae ‘nominal inside areas of the spaces. Example 43 Determine the total thermal resistance of « unit are of the wall section shown in Fig. 43.HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 67 — Outside sim Face brick, 90 mit Air space Sheathing, 13-mse Sberboard Insulation, 75-mm mineral ber Air space ‘Gypsum board, 13 mm ee igure 43 Wall section In Example 43. If below.grade spaces are not conditioned, the heat Joss through below-grade surfaces is often neglected. Heating loads are included in such cases based on an esti- spate of the temperature of these unconditioned spaces and transmission through the floor above them. If the belowgrade spaces are to be conditioned, transmission heat Jovees are based on the wall and floor thermal resistance, the inside temperature to be maintained, and an estimate ofthe ground temperature adjacent to the surface. For slab-on-grade construction the heat loss is more nearly propértional to the tength ofthe perimeter ofthe slab (in meters) than its area, Thus Ganay *Floerimetes) (fy 4) whese F= const Little information is available on which to base values of F fr large slabs. Values for residentialscale slabs are given® as F = 1.4 W/m + K for an uninsulated edge and F = (0.9. Wim = K fora slab with 2.5 cm of insulation at the ed. These values must be viewed as approximate and aro generally considered too high, 44 Infiltration and ventilation loads The entry of outside air into the space in- uences both the air temperature and the humidity level in the space. Usually a istinction is made between the two effects, referring to the temperature effect as sensible lood and the humidity effect as latent load. This terminology applies to the ‘ther load components as well. Fr example, transmission an¢ solar loads are sensible, ts they affect only temperature, while internal loads arising from occupancy have both Sensible and latent components. Heat loss or heat gain due to the entry of outside alt is then expressed as Ge 12305-49300, - W,) where Q = volumetric flow rate of outside air, L/s W= humidity ratio, water to air, ke/kg Infiltration, defined as the uncontrolled entry of unconditioned outside air directly into the building, results from natural forces, eg., wind and buoyancy due to the temperature difference between inside and outside. For our purposes we define ventilation as air intentionally brought into the building by mechanical means. OF 0‘Table 4-4 Thermal resistance of unit areas of selected building materials at 24°C” ‘mean temperature & = Uksm= KW Rsk” Exterior material ace brick 0.6 0,068 : Common brick 13 7 | Stone 03s 5 ‘Concete block, sind and gravel agrezate, 200 mm ous : ‘Lightweight sggrerate, 200 mm 038 : 150mm 029 ‘Stucco 1s : ‘Siding, asbestorcement, 6 mm, lapped 0.04 . "Aaphalt insulating, 13 mm 014 Wood plywood, 10mm 010 ‘Aluminum or sec, backed with ox insulting boasd, 10 mm ‘Sheathing [Asbestoncement 13 Plywood 66 Fiterboard, guar density, 13 mm 023 Hardboard, medium density 249 Particle bot medium density 138 Roofing ‘Asphalt shingles 0.08 Concrete ‘Sand and gravel agareeate oss Lightweight apzrenate 194 Insulating materials Blanket and bat, mineral fiber, 75-90 mm 194 135-168 mn 335 ‘Board and slab, lass fiber, organi bond na ‘Expanded polystyrene, extruded m7 Collar polyurethane 8 ‘Loos fil mineral ber, 160 mm 338 Calllosc 217-286 “Interior materials {Gypsum ox plaster board, 15 mm 0.08 16 mm 010 Phster materials, cement plaster 139 ‘Gypaum paste, lightweight, 16 mm 0066 ‘Wood, sot (fi, pine, ete) 866 Hardwood (maple, oak, et) 6a‘Table 4.4 Thermal resistance of unit areas of selected building materials at 24°C mean BD temperature (cont.) temperature (ont) ~ km KW Rim KYW" ee - Air redtance rr 2 Surface, sil air urace emissivity of (09) horizontal, heat flow up Horizontal het flow down Vertical, heat flow horizontal Surface, mong air, heting season, 6.7 ms cooling season, 3.4 m/s ‘Airspace, surface emissivity of 0.8, hortront Vertical Surface emissivity of 0.2, horizontal Vertial Nett ‘lt glo Co Y, Win? * Kt Summer Winter err Single alas 59 62 Double lass, 6mm alr space 33 33 13am ai space 32 28 “Trip las, 6mm ae spaces 23 22 Timm ar spaces 22 18 Storm windows, 25 to 100-mm als space 2 23 {Includes inside and outside ar film resistance Solution The following resistances are obtained from Table 4-4 Outside sir fm 0.029 mK) Face brick, 90 mm 0.068 Air space 0470 Sheathing, 12-mm fiberboard 0.232 Insulation, 7S-m mineral fiber 1.940, ‘A apace 0.170 ‘Gyprum board, 13 mm Inside ae lm R course, the air entering must also leave by natural means, i.c, exfitration, or be ex- hhausted by mechanical means, In commercial and institutional buildings it is considered advisable to control the ‘entry of outside air to assure proper ventilation and minimize energy use. As infiltra- ton is uncontrolled, these buildings are designed and constructed to limit it as much as ‘possible. This is done by sealing the building envelope where possible, sing vestibules or revolving doors, of maintaining a pressure within the builing slightly in excess of70 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING fable 45 Infiltration constants for infiltration in Ea. (41) ‘Quality of construction e ’ e Tint ots ‘oo10 0.007 ‘Average 020 dois 0014 Toor 03s 0.020 0.022 that outside, However, ia building aos not have mechanical ventilation of he fens a atc are not operating, infitation will occur. Te volumetric flow re of in th et is rather ficult to determine with any measure of precision 9t Ay’ with the quality of construction, wind speed and direction, indoor outdoor wae cate afference, and internal pressure in the building One prose that is area in load calclations isto estimate the infiltration in terms of the names of a mngss per hour. One ait change pet hour would bea wolumetse fow rate Nurs tity equal tothe internal volume ofthe space, The mumber ofa hanes PoE hour ically mre building with no internal pressurization can be estimated 252 function’ cof wind velocity and temperature difference ‘Number of air changes =a + V+ c(t, ~ 4) (at) where a, b, ¢= experimentally determined constants id velocity, m/s “Typical values ofa b, and care presented in Table 45, For nonresidential buildings it Typical val to uas estimates of infiltration for load calculations only when the Tone 2 aeetatlationaystem are not operating, An example would be for izing 3 Posing & ern to malntin a minimum temperature during an unoecupid shoe period. Co ee netic flow rate of outside at fr ventlation is competed from Tsbie 8 and ry ettods outlined in Section 44. The lightly posive presue inthe Puli and the ned by alzing the exhaust fans fo handle lst ait than brought jn om the 2 apy the venation system. Also, exhaust fans are genealy cated in restvoot aac eal rooms, or kitchens to ensure that air and odors fram thew space will mechan culated throughout the Building, Chapters 5 and 6 will rovide move WOE ot Be eae design of the airistibution system. It shoud be noted st (hs Polt mation on en although the outdoor component of ventlation imposes » oad 8 omtng ind coating equipment, the load occurs at the point where i conditioned te ae inthe space. It is therefore necessary to distinguish between canines TEINS ghd the space Toads used to determine the airflow requted forthe ‘building spaces. 145° Summary of procedure for estimating Heating lods In etimating oe hear te a piling, tis important to use an organized, stepbystep Procedure ‘The novessary steps can be outlined as follows: 1, Select design values for outdoor winter design (97-5 perent vale) from Table 43.wo HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 71 2, Select an indoor design temperature appropriate to the actvilies to be carried out in the space and a minimum acceptable relative humidity. 43, Determine whether any special conditions will exist, such as adjacent unconditioned spaces, Estimate temperatures in the unconditioned spaces as necessary. 4, On the basis of building plans and specifications, calculate heat-transfer coefficients ‘and areas for the building components in each enclosing surface. Any surfaces . ‘conaecting with spaces to be maintained at the same temperature may be omitted, ives interior walls. 5. On the basis of building components, system design and operation, wind velocity, and indoor-outdoor temperature difference, estimate the rate of infiltration and/or ventilation outside air. Note that the latent component of the infiltration and/or ventilation load is included only if the conditioned air is to be humidified to main- tain a specified minimum indoor humidity level. Humidificaion is often omitted from air-conditioning systems in mild climates. 6. Using the above design data, compute transmission heat losses for each surface of the building envelope and the heat loss from infiltration an¢/or ventilation. Sum these values to determine the total estimated heat loss and the required capacity of the heating equipment. 7. Consider any special circumstances that might intiuence equipment sizing. Three ‘igcumstances may influence equipment capacity Ita building and its heating system are designed to take advantage of passive solar gain and thermal storage, heating capacities should be based on dynamic rather than static heat-loss analysis (see Chap. 20) b. Ina building that has an appreciable steady internal load (heat release) at the time of the maximum transmission and ventilation heat los, heating equipment capacity may be reduced by the amount ofthe internal heat release. An example ‘would be a hospital or industrial building which operates on a 24+ basis. A building that does not operate on a continuous basis and indoor temperatures ae allowed to drop over @ lengthy unoccupied period, additional capacity may be required to bring the sir temperature and building indoor surface tempera tures back to an acceptable evel ina short time, An alternative to the additional Capacity is to bring the heating system into operation earlier and allow the ‘building to heat more gradually. 4-10 Components of the cooling load Estimating the cooling load is more complex than estimating the heating load. Additional consideration must be given to internal loads, latent loads, and solar loads. 411 Internal loads The primary sources of internal heat gain are lights, occupants, ‘and equipment operating within the space. Internal loads are a major factor in most ‘nonresidential buildings. The amount of heat gain in the space due to lighting depends fon the wattage of the lamps and the type of fixture. When fluorescent lighting is used, ‘the energy dissipated by the ballast must also be included in the internal load. As light- {ng is often the largest single component of the internal load, care must be exercised in its evaluation. The portion of the heat emanating from lighting which is in the form of—————— 72. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING radiant energy is not an instantaneous load on the airconditioning system. The radiant aes) om the Lights is first absorbed by the walls flor, an¢ furnishings of the Space and their temperatures then increase a arate dependent ‘their mass. AS the SPtface temperature of these objects rises above the air temperature, heat is convected surface tembfaes and finaly becomes a Toad on the cooling stem. Thos betes of from the sine objects absorbing the radiation there i dehy between ‘woe the Hight on and the energy from the ights having a effect on Oe oa ‘The cooling load teen She lighting persists after the lights are turned off forthe same Pali To ac: fiom te thee cucumsances the following format has teen developed for esti- mating the internal heat gain from lights* = (lamp rating in watts) (F,) F,) (CLF) utilization factor or fraction of installed lamps in ust ethat ret for Mrescent lamps = 1.2 for most common fiuorescent fixtures CLE = coolingJoad factor from Table 46 ‘table 4 pronder coolingload factors for two common Fxture arrangements and where Fy Ps ‘Table 46 Coolingload factors for lighting Fixture Xt. inture Yt No, of hours routs of operation ‘ours of operation after ights = — ae tured on 1016 0 16 ° 008019 oor 005 1 0620.72 076 079 2 066 (O78 pal 088 3 069 (O17 oss 087 4 0730.80 oss 089 5 075 082 090091 6 078 O84 092 093 1 oso 085 093094 a 087 09s 095 088. 0.96 089 097 030 098 ot 098 092 098 093 099 094 039 094 099 040 024 036 020 "which are not vented. The supply and rt Sing or though the calling space aad eile. Y, vented oF ‘hvough ihe cling withthe xe da20300. oeedecceey HEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 73, ‘Table 4-7. Heat gain from occupants Sensible Activity Heat gain, W heat gin % is /— ee Sleping 70 15 Seated, quiet, 100 6 a Standing 150 50 ‘Watkng, 3 km/h 30s 35 Office work 150 5s ‘Teaching 115 50 Reta shop 188 50 Industri 300-600 38 eit CU TT lights operating 10 and 16 h/d. Additional information covering v tures, floor mass, and operating periods is available." For heat-producing equipment it is also necessary to estimate the powe: used along with the period andjor frequency of use in a manner similar to that used for lighting. For equipment having litle radiantenergy transmission the CLF can be as sumed equal to 1.0. ‘Table 4-7 shows loads from occupants asa function of their activity. The greatest ‘uncertainty in estimating this load component isthe number of eupants. If the nur ber of ovcupants is unknown, values such as those in Table 46 may be used. Since 3 portion of the heat transfered from occupants is by radiation, the ASHRAE method- Glogy again uses the coolingload factor for a better represenlation of actual loads Table 4-9 gives these values. Thus, Occupant sensible cooling loadin watts ain per person from Table 4-7 X number of people X CLF from Table 4-9 For the latent load the CLF is 1.0. ‘Although there are # number of uncertainties in estimating internal loads, these toads ate significant and must be evaluated as carefully as posite 412 Solar loads through transparent surfaces Heat gain due to solar energy incident ‘on a surface will depend upon the physical characteristics of the surface. Surface op- ‘Table 48 Space per occupant? ‘Type of space Occupancy Residence 246 occupants Office 10-15 m? per occupant Retail 3-5 m2 per occupant School 2.5 m2 per occupant ‘Aditoriam 11.0 m? per occupant74 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 4.9 Sensible-heat cooling load factors for people’ Hours after “Total nour in space cach entry intoapace 2 ; es 0 m 1 pap oa9 050 «O51 «083 OSS 058 O62 2 Ose 059 (060 061 «(06264 070 3 017066 «(067067069070 07s ‘ 43 O71 072072074 OS 079 5 010 0270.76 (076 07.8 082 6 os oat 07908080 OBL oss, 7 007 016 (034 082083 OBE 8 006 O14 (026084 08S .86 88 9 os 011 021038087088 0.90 10 bos O10 OB 030089089 oot a oot 008 OS 025042 OSL 092 2 003007 043021038092 093, B 003 006 «Olt 048028 OS 094 1“ 002 006 0101S 023036 03s 1s cz 008 0.08 013,020 030 095 16 02 004 = «0.0702 OT 025 096 0 002 00¢ 005 OAD OS OT 049 8 or 003005009 OA3—OD 039 Figure 44 Dist sbution of sola heat stuking a transparent sft. neechereHEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 75 tical properties are described by rtpta ‘where + = transmittance p= reflectance a= absorptance zi ‘The value of each of these terms has a pronounced effect on sola-heat gain. FPor transparent surfaces, such as the window shown in Fig, 44, the solar energy passing through the surface dyg in watts is yg 7 All, + Na) = Al (+ Na) 42) where [, = itradiation on exterior surface, W/m? faction of absorbed radiation transferred by conduction and convection to inside environment hy = outside heat-transfer coefficient, W/m? + K Under sweady state conditions N ean be shown to be Ujhg. Restating the equation in ot and hy ee we tana (+) ‘The expression /,(r + Ualh,) for a single sheet of clear window glass is frequently feed to as the solarheat gain factor (SHGF). Maximum values* for the SHGF are sven for two latitudes by month and orientation in Table 4-10. ‘Table 4-10 Maximum solarheat gain factor for sunlit glass" W/m? Nitade NEW EW SEISWS Hor 32" north latte Dee o 0 310 ms 795 (S00 Jan, Nov 18 90 350 ms IS SSS Feb, Oct 8s 205 as 70 © 1008S Ma, Sept 100 330 9 jo s45 780 ‘Apr, AU us 450 ‘700 580355 AS May, July 120 330 6s 40030865 June | 140 555 61s 440190870 40° north iattude Dee 37 a as 70 «8008S Jan, Nov oS 3 480 ss 9S 20 eb, Oct 30 155 315 760750, (565 Mar, Sept 95 285 660 m0 4090 Apr Ate 110 435 690 eo as 790 May, July 120 sis 690 Sas 350830 June 150 540 680 S10 30040 Sues16 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Table 4-11. Shading coefficients - ‘Shading Coefficient ‘Venetian binds Roller shades ‘Thickness, No Indoor —— “Type of glass mm ‘Shading, Media —‘Light_—Dark ‘Light Single eas Regular sheet 3 1.00 oss oss 059025 Piste on 09s Oss 05S 0890.28. Hestabsorbing 6 070 057053 0400.30 10 050 oss 052040028 Doble lass Regular sheet 3 090 0s7 0st 0600.28 Phate 6 083 osT 0s] 060028 Reflective 6 02-04 02-033 ‘shading coefficient ($C) is used to adjust these SHGF values fr other types of alas orto account for inside shading devices, This coset is 14 Ualh, sow 21 Ualte GF Gall, where the subscript ss stands for a single sheet of clear lass, Typical values of the weet coefficient for several types of glass with and witheut internal shading are Pre aan Table #11, If external surfaces shade the window, SHGF values fo a north entation ate used forthe shaded portion ofthe window. “The colar energy passing through a window dy, can be expressed 28 yy ~ SHGF gy) (SOA ‘One more factor must be considered since the solar energy entering the space does not appear instantaneously a2 a load on the cooling system. The radiant ener i st psorbed by the surfaces in the space, during which time these surface temperatutes aes at rate dependent on their dynamic thermal characteristics. Thus, the solar nergy absorbed Is delayed before being transferred tothe alr in the space by conic Srere since this process may involve a significant time lag, itis also usual practice 19 sete « eooting load facor (CLF) in calculating the cook loud attributable 0 Fai. sac oush gst, Values of CLF derived from an exteasive computer analysis are presented in Table 4-12. ‘When estimating solarheat gain through’ transparent surfaces, external shading aust be considered. Shading from overhangs or other projections, such as shown in Fig, 4-5, cam sigiicantly reduce solaheat gain through & window. The 4ep 6) re sa cast by 2 horizontal projection above a window can be calculated using he snedoTfotude angle fand the wall-azimuth angle 7, where is the angle measured fron) «oi anal plane on earth wp to the sun and 7 i the angle between two verticalHEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 77 ‘Table 412 Cooling oad factors for sass with interior shading, noth latitudes’ ‘Window facing Sour Se oN Me Ese SSW OW ONW How Gers 056-047-030: 009 0.07 0.06.07 0.17 § os 076 «0.72037 04G OAL 0.09 OAL 7 Ges om 080 074 0.23 OMe oe 073 058 076 «O81 0380.16 3047 3 ko 037062 079058 0904S O07? 10 oes 029 OdL 08807502 ONG 0.20 OL ges 027027 049083038 O17 OT OS BR ga 026 0.24 033 «080 05903 0.22 OS Bee 0280.22, 028068 0.75 053-030 OT Mo as oz2 0.20025 050083072052 OL 1s Oss 020017022035 «OSL 0820.73 OS tre ode Odd 018027 09 O81 O82 042 yo Gor oaz Oss 013 als o4s O61 690.28 Figue 45 Shading angles and mensionsee 78 REFRIGERATION AND AIR COND(TIONING ‘Table 413 Solar poston angles for the twenty-first day of month? Solar time, AM. wen we 32° north atitude : 8S Dee 8 1» ° oom oH anor 8 1 Bb BM % ° 6% &% 3 Foot F ye eT ° np @ 8 8 Uo Mazsep 8 Bow 7 47 3s 88 ° 2 3 2 7 7m oO Api Aug 8 6s op on mw 6 GSO ° 10k DT MayJl 8 8s LB ¢ 1710093 BO jun 8 > mea so boos 7 40" north tttude 23 0 Dee ’ ° so sO JanNov 8 B17 me HD ° sow 3 Feboct |B ao MRT ¢ nh 2 0 3 Bo Mar,sep 8 ho op ms @ 4 8 ° o 0 37 &@ Bo aps, Aue 8 > 3 SS ° o 8 Bp 7 1 Bo Mayol 8 > Bb mw 3s 4 87 GD Ss ea Jun ’ SM eB eT ee 7 es US Ut Solar ime, Pa. eine planes one normal tothe wall and the other containing the son. TAS solar altitude 6 Pane esr arimuth ange 6, which is the ange between the sun's rays a south, aaa in Table 413 for 32° and 40° north latitude, The wllszinoth angle can ‘be computed from the equation 168d where y is the angle a vertical plane normal tothe wall makes with the south ‘TheHEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 79 depth ofa shadow y below a horizontal projection of width digiven by ‘The width of a shadow cast by a vertical projection of depth d is xedtany ‘The SHGF and CLF for a north-facing window (in the northem hemisphere) are used for that portion of the window surface which is shaded. Example 4-4 A 1.25-m high by 25-m wide window is inet from the face ofthe ‘wall 0.15 m. Calculate the shading provided by the inset et 2 P.M. sun time ifthe ‘window is facing south at 32° north latitude, August 21 and y= @. From Table 4-13, B= 56° Solution For a south-facing window, and y= 60°; then x=d tan 7=0.15 tan 60° = 0.26 m tang _ 0.15 tan 56° pug nh OES cosy cos 60° 044m ‘Sunlit area = (2.5 ~ 0.26) (1.25 -0.44)= 1.81 m? surfaces The process of solar-heat gain for an opaque wall 4.13 Solar loads on opaque: Fig. 46. A portion of the solar energy is reflected and js illustrated schematically in Conducted Reflected Figure 46 Solar loads on opaque surfaces.80. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING the remainder absorbed. Of the energy abso tet fonder of te absorbed sla energy transmited the {haide by conduction or temporarily stored "The transmissivity 7 of an opaque surface ated to the outside. hed some is convected and some reradi {s zero and thus for walls and roofs ptard ‘Equation (4-2) therefore reduces £0 1f the transmission due to ua, ay", 1A ane airtemperaturediferene is ircuded, 43) Ue 4g = ETAT UA Equation (43) can then be rearranged 10 Be u,a[ (+2 (4) a6 BA| (0) os sem et appre a h fi rmin bec ened Fr en temperate fy WHETE ip tld Bq, (4-4) can be rewritten as ‘The equivalent temperat ‘ure increased by an amount £0 2c Using the solar temperature opaque surfaces. For opaque walls, quite pronounced, and using aerate the heat gain. To incorporate th ot Efaled the cooling load temperature die perature differ Beveloped® for commonly used wall flux on the surface and fix eral wall and roof sections ae presented Tables plete tabulations will b ets following the tables must be observed fo ‘iffer from the ones on ‘will illustrate this process. ‘The need for including the transient o Here the heat flux theo masses is plotted vers¥s Tower-mass wall is high wall. 497 UWA) called the sobairtemperaure isthe outdoor tempers ‘count for the solar radiation. cerceaventent way of including solar loads for however, the effec’ of thermal storage can DF the temperature difference f= ff MAY significantly over- effect of thermal storage an equivalent tem srence (CLD), has bee rae, sections. It takes into account both the solar the mass of the vall. CLD values “4-14 and 4-15. More com oii Refs and 6. In wing Tables 4-14 and 41° the modify the tabular values for cases that my ealeuation of the CLTDs was based, Example 5 the thermal capacitance of fects is iustrated by the data in Fig, 47. cnt Tyo walls with de sume Uva but seniicanty different nh two Wf day It can be seer thatthe peak Ret so" the the iseurs easier in the day than that ofthe highersmassHEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 81 ‘When the thermal storage is included, the heat gain through the wall is given by y= VACETD) @s) [Example 4 Determine the peak heat gain through a westfacing brick veneer ‘wall (similar in cross section to that shown in Example 4-3), July 21 at 40° north latitude. The inside temperature is 25°C, and the average daily temperature is 30°C. ‘Table 4-14 Coolingoad temperature difference for flat roofs,’ K Mase per Heat Solar time Root wait ea, capacity, << <$<__————————— Det kgm? WimesK 7 8 9 10 1 1243 14 IS 16 17 18 19 20 Roofs without suspended clings 1 35 453 «1:19:27 34 40-43 44 43 39-33-25 17 10 2 40 12-815 2 2935 39 4 41 34 29 3 30 90-2 «1 S11 18 2531 36 39 40 40 37 32 28 i aso 2010 2 4 8 1 18 29 93:35 36 35 32 $350 2304 GB OL 1S 18 22 25 28 29 30 29 27 6 365330 8 7 8 8 1012 15 :8 2022 2 25 26 8s so eee Roofs wth suspended ceilings _eE=—EEE——e——r 1 4s 500 $13 20 28 35 40 43 43 4137 31 23 1S 2 50 8 1 2 4 7 12 17 227 333s 4 32 2B 3 1001002 6 10 16 21 27 HA 36 36 34 30 2 130 13064 4 4 6 912 6 0 24-27 29 3030 $350 2402 AL AL AL 3213.45 46 18 19 20 21 28 @ 3600-40. 13«13.:13.:12-12_-13:13 16 ISt6 16 1718 18 "Noes: 1. Direcdy applicable for the following conditions: ise temperature = 25°C; out side temperate, maximum = 35°C, erage = 29°C; daly range = 12°C; and solar radiation typical Stuy 21 at 40> north latitude, Exact values fr the U value approprae forthe design conditions ‘being considered shouldbe used for calculations Ty Adjstments to these CLTD vales should be made as fllows i the indoor or outdoor d- sien conditions difer from those specified in note CLD yg“ CLID+ 25-1) 4 4-29) inside design dry-bulb temperature, °C erage outdoor dry-balb temperature for design day," 23° For soot gonstiuction not listed choose the rof from the table which it of approximately ‘the same density and heat capacity “rWhen the roof has adaltional insulation, for each R = 1.2 m2 «K/W ination insulation tse the CLTD for the neat thermally heavier f0of. For example, for + type 3 roof with an add tional R = 1.2 insulation, use the type 4 r09f CLID. “F1= shect steel with 25 to 50 rom insulation, 2= 25 mm wood sith 25 mm ination, 3= 100 mmm lightweight concrete, 4" 150 mm lightweight concrete, 5= 100 mm heavyweight com ‘rete, 6= roof terrace system,{82 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 4.15 Coolingload temperature difference for sunt wal ‘Ocenta vast a EES oma, rien typet elm? Kijm?-K Solar time N NE E SE S SW WNW a REESE SS 7 RRR SEG f Ree ita t B FeRbaE EG a ae HoLe gba w oe Bo BN BR BRE B coe e606 BBR BRR BE e BE Gee Bh ® BoB ge as bx eo ue eae oh ar ee fo ERE HB BR BoP RE Be i ee ee rere icra yo be saiai a borg ie aa i B ieee tsa eo tebe ea td BEERS ae Ss B Se RRB ft om om ob SB RB BE MY Hobe Bue eB s RE Rb BR BS a ee a n BERR be Bx HORE ERE R BR S RE RM BB RR cot, BR BM Bb» BX at gh 7 PRRs 3 re ee Boe be tb t 3 e PH aR Sa ts BoTh eh as as B RRB aa es i ~ ow om oR PRR BE EG \ H TEER EM TB BSE Been Be e ee hb bu Bk noe eg ee Re fou Eh Be Ra S PE Ee wk BR at, ERAS be RH> pte HEATING: AND COOLING-LOADCALCULATIONS 83 ‘Table 415 Coolingoad temperature difference for sunlit walls (cont) Mass per Heat Ocentation Wal unitarea, capacity, Yoet Kem?” im2-K Solrtime NONE ESE § SW WNW 7 45 5 46 7 6 8 405 5 4 5 6 57 3 67535 5 4 10 80 73 4 5 4 a w 1 1 4 4 5 4 2 wm os ss 4 B 2M 4 7 6 6 Ss Dp 390380 “ now wm 9 7 6 6 15 Bow 7 mn 9 8 7 16 Bo oH oR 1 8B ” 4 i i 1s 1s 13 10 8 48 8 6 18 17 2 9 4 17 17 % 20 20 15 20 Boy 7 6 2 2 OD CLD, 4 1 6 2 2 8 " 7 67769 0 8 8 6 76 6 8 9 7 9 6875 7 8 6 10 797577 6 nw auo9 5 6 7 § 2 w 3 0 5 6 7 S$ B 4 2 6 6 7 6 cso 480 1 noi 3B a 7 7 6 15 2 Ww m4 9 8 8 6 16 2 1% is ut 9 7 1 Rv 6 22 Uo 18 Bow 3 4 Bo 19 Bo 16 Mi 16 12 20 B16 16 4 18 18 14 CLP nae Bo 16 4 18 2% 15 TNotcss 1. Reference 4 al shows CLTD values for heavier walls suchas 300 mm concrete with tetaton and exterior finish; also 100 men face brick with 50 mm inwulation and 200 rm ws is abl is directly aplicable forthe conditions stated under Note 1 of Table 4-14. 3. ne procedure for corecting for indoor and outdoor temperatures differing from stan. ard is given in Note 2 of Table 4-14. Mal constrsctions not Hsted can be approximated by using the wall with the nearest values of denity and heat capacity. Seals wit edition insulation shit to the wall with next higher mass. wall ype esghated by the preceding eter of the alphabet, fr each additional of 1.2:m?+K/W. For ex- ‘Sale forthe adaition of «1.2 m2-K/M to wall type E, use LTD values fr wall typ D. Be er Gartainor frame wall with 25 to TS mm insilaton.F = 100mm concrete block with 25: $0 mm inulation;or 100 rm face brick wih insulation. E= 200-mim concrete block with in- terior and exterior fini or 100 mmm face brick with 100-mm concrete Mock and interior fish; fr TOOmmn concrete wall with interior and exterior finish. D= 100 mm face brik with 200-mm ‘oncrete block and interior finish; or 100 mm face brick and 100-mm common brick with interior finish. C= 200-mm conerete wall with interior and exterior finish84 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 4, = UA(CLTDY § a R 5 ‘Time of ay Figure 4-7 Heat fx through two walls with the same U values but diferent masses Solution The wall most nearly matches type F in Table 4-15. The maximum SIMD scours at 1900 h (7 Pat.) with a value of 33°C. The average outdoor tem perature i 30°C rather than 29°C, on which the table based, so the adjusted CLIDis CLTD=33+ (30 -29)= 34K From Example 43 R = 2.812 m? + K/W, 80 the U= 0.356 Wim? « K. env (CLTD) = 0.356(34) = 12.1 Wim? 4 4:14 Summary of procedures for estimating cooling loads The process of estimating ‘riding loads Is similar to that used in determining heating loads. In fact much of the sont tormation is applicable. There is enough difference, however, to make each step worth noting again. 1. Select design values for outdoor summer dry-bulb temperature (2.5 percent ius), mean coincident wet-bulb temperature, and the dally average temperature from Table 43, 2, Select an indoor design temperature which is appropriate forthe activities to be carried out in the space, , sobs y 33929302EATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 85 . Determine whether any special conditions exist, such as adjacent unconditioned spaces, Estimate temperatures in the adjacent spaces. ‘On the basis of building plans and specifications, compute heat-transfer coeff- ‘Gents for the building components in each onclosing surface. Any surfaces con- fecting with spaces to be maintained at the same temperature may be omitted. Note that the only differences between the U values calculated here and those for the heatingload estimate are the values used for the surface convection coef ‘cients, which differ in summer and winter and may vary with the direction of heat flow. From the building plans and specifications, system operating schedule, and design values of wind velocity and temperature difference estimate the rate of infltra~ tion and/or ventilation of outside air. For the cooling load the latent load is also included. 6. Determine the additional building characteristics, eg, location, orientation, ex ternal shading, and mass, that will influence solar-heat gain. 7. On the basis of building components and design conditions determine the appro- priate coolingload temperature differences, solarheat zain factors, and cooling- load factors 18. On the basis of the heat-ransfer coefficients, areas, and temperature differences {determined above calculate the rate of heat gain to the space. ‘9, For spaces with heat gtin from internal sources (light, equipment, or people), apply the coolingload factor when appropriate. 10, Summ all the pertinent load components to determine the maximum capacity re- ‘quired for heating and cooling. If the building isto be operated intermittently, ‘additional capacity may be required. “The above procedure and the discussion inthis chapter has been bref. The reader is directed to the most receat “ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume” ot similar sousces for a more complete discussion of the detalls and for more extensive tabular data PROBLEMS 4-1 ‘The exterior wall of a singlestory office building near Chicago is 3 m high and 15 ‘mong. The wall consists of 100-mm face brick, 40-mm polystyrene insulting board. 150-mm lightweight concrete block, and an interior 16-mn gypsum board. The wall contains three single-lass windows 1.5 m high by 2 m loag. Calculate the heat loss through the wall at design conditions if the inside temperature is 20°C. Ans. 2:91 kW. 42 For the wall and conditions stated in Prob. 4-1 determine the percent reduc- tion in heat loss through the wall if (a) the 40 mm of polystyrene insulation is re- placed with 55 mm of cellular polyurethane, (6) the sindle-lazed windows are ro- placed with double-glazed windows with a 6-mm air space. (c) If you were to choose between modification (a) of (b) to upgrade the thermal resistance of the wall, which ‘would you choose and why? Ans. (a) 12.4%86 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING. 43 Anoffice in Houston, Texas, t miintained at 25°C and 55 percent relative humid- ity. The average occupancy is five people, and there will be some smoking, Calculate ARE Looting load imposed by ventilation requirements at summer design conditions ith supply ait conditions set at 15°C and 95 percent relative humidity if (a) the seramended rate of outside ventilation ar is used and (b) ia filtration device of E 10 percent is used, Ans. (2) 2.1 kW, (b) 1.31 kW. ‘4A computer room located on the second floor of a fivestory office building is Jo by 7m. The exterior wall is 3.5 m high and 10 m long; i is @ metal curtain wall (greet backed with 10 mm of insulating board), 75 mm of elsefier insulation, and 16 eee of gypsum board. Single-lazed windows make up 30 percent of the exterior wall “The computer and lights in the room operate 24 h/d and havea combined heat release to the space of 2 KW. The indoor temperature is 20°C. ‘EDI the building is located in Columbus, Ohio, determine the heating load at winter design conditions. Ans. 602 W () What would be the load if the windows were double-alzed? “405 Compute the heat gain for a window facing southeast at 32° north latitude Bio ant, central daylight time on August 21. The window is regular double glass with s Tamm air space, The glass and inside draperies hive a combined shading wettrcient of 0.48, The indoor design temperature is 25°C, and the outdoor tempera- ture is 37°C, Window dimensions are 2 m wide and 1.Sm high.Ans. 750 W 46 The window in Prob. 4-5 has an 0.5-m overhang at the top of the window. How far will the shadow extend downward? Ans. 0.55 m. ‘47 Compute the instantaneous heat gain for the window in Prob. 4-5 with the exter- tal shade in Prob. 46, Ans. 558 W. t8 Compute the total heat gain for the south windows of an office building that fas no external shading. The windows are double-lazed with a 6-mm air space and MHth egular plate glass inside and out, Draperies with a shiding coefficient of 0.7 sully closed, Make the calculation for 12 noon in (a) August and (b) December ar 52° north Tatitude. The total window area is 40 m?, Assume that the indgor tem- wrratures are 25 and 20°C and that the outdoor temperatures are 37 and 4°C. Ans. (@) 9930 W, 145 Compute the instantaneous heat gain for the south wall of building at 32° north Matude on July 21. The time is 4 Pat, sun time, The wal is brick veneer and frame dae perl! heat-ransfercoeficient of 0.35 W/m? ~ K. The cimensons of the wall are 25 by Sm. Ans. 87.5 W. 410 Compute the peak instantaneous heat gain per square meter of area for a brick ‘28 wall tmilat to that in Example 4-3, Assume thatthe walls located at 40° north Teitade. The date is July. What time of the day does the reak oocur? The outdoor (ally average temperature of 30°C and indoor design temperature is 25°C. REFERENCES 1. Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy, Standird $581, American Society renting, Refigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engnecr, Adanta Ga. 1981. 2S a Venulaton Required for Minimum Accepable Indoot Air Quality, ASHRAE smears 628}, american Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and AirCondtioning Engiecs, ‘Adana, Ga. 1981 pa aaa ysHEATING: AND COOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS 87 4, “tlandbook and Product icectory, Pipment Volume,” American Secity of Heating, Rei Chtig, and Air-Conditioning Enginers, Atlant, G2. 1979, a Spook, Fundamentals Volume,” American Socety of Heating, Refer, and AirConditoning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga. 196) ease eng Re Achenbach: Fd Measurements of Ai Ifa n Ten Elec ffented Houses, ASHRAE Trans, ol. 69, pp. 358-365, 1963 (eee e caing and esting Load Caeuation Manel” Amescan Society of Heating, Weciporating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, G. 1979.AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS sf. Thermal distribution systems Chapter 4 explained how to compute hesting 5c oads in conditioned spaces. In oder 10 compensate for these fonts svete oon loadsfered to or from the space. In most medium-sized and large bullings ve dane tray is transferred by means of air, water, and occasionally refigersnt- THE deer ereeetagy often requires conveying energy {rom a space toa central heat Sk (Gafageraton unit) or conveying heat from a heat source (eater or bolle) fo 0 See Cotreermmbly that transfers heat between the conditioned spaces and the 390% OF Tee ete the thermal disibution system, Another ofits functions sf inooers aan atilation at The selection of sizes and capac ofthe components fe out ot aera! dstbution systems is covered in Chaps. 6 and 7, respective a aan encsent chapter concentcates on the configuration of the components, We reg ith an explanation ofthe lassie ingle-zone system, which would Bs fora se titorum or 2 laboratory where precise condtans are to be maintainet A sae a potion systems serve multiple zones, The mltple-one systems that wit be studied in this chapter include 1, Airsystems 4. Terminal reheat ». Dual-duct or multizone fe. Variable-ir-volume 2, Water systems a, Tworpipe ». Fourpipe[AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS. 89 Hier Coolingand Heating = enumiifying coll oll o-—_ C ay Return optional Figute 51. A singlezone system, 5.2 Classic single-zone system The elements of the air-conditioning systems that will provide heating (and humidification) or cooling (and dehumidification) are shown in Fig. 5-1. A subsystem of this and most other airconditioning systems controls the flow rate of outdoor ventilation air. This subsystem interfaces with the facility shown in Fig, 5-1 at points A and B. Outdoor-air control is discussed in Sec. 53. From point ‘A the air flows to the cooling coil. heating coil, fan, and hunidifier toward the con- ‘itioned space. In the retum-air line a fan is often installed to avoid excessive air pressure in the conditioned space relative to the outside-air pressure, The temperature control is provided by a thermostat regulating the cooling or heating coil, and the humidity is controlled by a humidistat that regulates the humidifier. Two of the pos- sible operating modes are shown on the psychrometric charts of Fig. 5-2. Figure 5-2a shows & heating and humidification process wherein air at point A having a low tem- perature is warmed in the heating coil and humidified by the direct admission of steam. [As Prob. 39 showed, the process of humidification by direct admission of steam re- sults in little change in dry-bulb temperature. Tecmo : Kooingcot | E a |B 3 —<— 5 Reheat = “79 conditioned soace Temperate "Tempratare © ® Figure 52 (a) Heating and humidification and (b) cooling and dehumiiiation with reheat———__ 90 REFRIGERATION AND AIR’ CONDITIONING In Fig. §:2b the aris cooled, and ifthe temperate of the metal surface of the at bel the dow point ofthe a, moisture wil conten ‘The heating coil may be Seerated simultaneously withthe cooling ca 9 Wt ithe conbination of the cooling oPartpeat processes provides & steep s0Pe etWeeh 4 and the condition entering the Sac, The combination of reheat with the cooing ‘and dehumidifying process is some space Tod in naalatios where the reatve humidity must ibe kept low or there is an. ‘excessive latent lod. 153 Otdoorsir control The introduction of ovtdor® veniltion air, as discussed in Se enacts necessary when the conditioned spsce js ‘occupied by people. In many set nrconditoning installations the minimum Pores ‘of outdoor ventilation omfortveen 10 and 20 percent of the total flow rae of ‘supply air. In some special cations, es, hospital operating rooms aN, RN for laboratory animals, the srry ae may come exclusively from outdoor 2 te corditioned to maintain the Spesfed space conditions. No return aii recirculated in thes installations. ie Poort contol mechanism that interfaces with air system of Fi amd eines ai aystems presented ater in this chapter i SOW Fig. 53. The stream of aovsen ait at B flowing back ftom the zones dives ‘exhausting and some 12 retatyang The outdoor vetiaton ac mixes with he “ecireslated air and flows to the ie oneag ust at A. Dampers inthe outdoor xR and recirculated-air lines sontite the flow rates. The dampers in the outgeo™ ind exhaustair lines open and rein unison and in the direction opposite the motion Of the recirculatedair dampers ard outdoorait contol plan attempts fo mathe ‘the mixed-air tempera- ure ue point A at approximately 13 t0 14°C since We basic function of the air {0 tioning system {s to provide cooling. Another “equitement of the outdoor condo sure that the minimum perentage of ONE! A maintained. The SFopram to accomplish these several reqivene hewn in Fig. 5-4. At a high Progam raperature the dampers provide the minim tm rate of outdoor air. At aoe rae temperature Tower than about 24°C (or WAS the return-ir tempet- an omg) itis more economical in cooling enersy f° We 100 percent outdoor sis. For ao ie temperatures below 13°C the damper: oper ‘themselves to maintain utdont mpersture of 13°C. To hold a mixedai emPonAS ‘of 13°C at extremely {ou outdoor temperatures, the fraction of outdo ‘could drop below the minimum. sow ato are therefore designed to hold to that mink ‘and allow the mixed-air ‘outdoor air Dampers Recirclated ‘Exhaust at Figure $3 Ovtdoor-ir contol= AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 91 se Outdoors temperature, Figure $4. Outdoorair contol temperature to drop below 13°C. The paeumatic control system to achieve this plan is described in Sec. 9:10. Example $1 If the outdoor-ir controller is to maintain a mixed-air tempera ture of 13°C and a 20 percent minimum percentage of outdoor air when the fecirculated-air temperature is 24°C, at what outdoor temperature do the dampers Close to the minimum 20 percent position during cold weather? Solution An energy balance for the mixing process when the dampers have closed to the 20 percent position is, 0.204, + 0.80(24) .00(13) ‘The outdoor-air temperature fog is 31°C. ‘Since this outdoor-air temperature of -31°C is lower than experienced in all but the coldest locations, sometimes the provision to hold the minimum outdoor air rate at low outdoor temperatures isnot even incorporated into the outdoorir controller. “The shift to minimum outdoor air when the outdoorair temperature exceeds the recirculated. temperature is made to conserve energy. At outdoor-ir temperatures fbove this crossover point itis more economical to condition the recirculated air. An air property that is more decisive than temperature in predicting the refrigerating rate at the coil is the enthalpy. The psychrometric chart in Fig. 55 shows two triangular regions, X and Y, where the enthalpy-control concept makes jucements differing from the changeover controlled by comparative dry-bulb temperatures. When the outdoor air conditions le in region X, the temperature changeover would choose outdoor air, even though the outdoor air, because of its high humidity, requires greater cooling capacities than if recirculated air were used. Als, ifthe outdoor ar lies in region ¥, the temperature changeover uses reciculated air, even though the low-humidity out- {door air would require less cooling eneray. While the traditional practice has been to try to achieve a mixed-ar temperature Year round of approximately 13°C, current practice is influenced by the desire to92 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘cooling coil contion | 2 irene pS = condtion vig |” I Temperature igure $5 Using te compaon of ar enthalpies 10 sich between 100 pssst an main ‘outdoor ait conserve energy; 0 the mixedalr temperature may be rest to higher value if and conor cooling loads can be met by higher‘emperature ai 5:4 Singlezonesystem design calculations When « conditoned spase C™PeSt, 0 5-4 Singer both sensible and latent heat from interne and cxteros eas, the Mepply aif must enter the conditioned space with both s semPers ‘and humidity soppy ait ina the values to be maintained in the space. 1f qs the sense cooling rato ow watts and the latent lad, any entering pot f long the wd an line done tag. 5-6 wil provide the proper proportions of sensible and latent cooling provided that eet, Me Rhy at %, ey nthalpy, IDK {= temperature, °C ep = seciicheat of ar = 1.0 KOkg* K where Tamidity tio Figure $6 Load-rtio line for cooting 288 “Temperature ddumiying assienment.5 [AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 93 Homiaiy ratio Figure 57 Ste points of ir during Cooling and dehumiiying with a singe- Temperature one ai conditions “The combination of the supply condition i and the flow rate of the air w must be such that the sensible-and latentheat loads are satisfied % 2% t4 we gle 62 ele“ heh, ‘the sensible-and latent-heat gains q, and a, are only part ofthe heat the cooling ‘coil must remove, since there is also the cooling load attributable to the ventilation Sir. This additional load is evident from the psychrometric chart in Fig. 5-7 because the assignment imposed on the coil is to cool and dehumidfy the mixed sir to @ point that lies on the load-ratio line * Example $2 The sensible- and latent-heat gains in a space served by asingle-zone sir conditioner are 65 and & kW, respectively. The space is to be maintained at 24°C and 50 percent relative humidity. The design conditions of outdoor fre 35°C dry-bulb and 25°C wet-bulb temperatures. For ventilation purposes ‘outdoor air is mixed with recirculated air in a 1:4 proportion. When mixed air t the resulting conditions enters the cooling coil, the outlet air conditions are a function of the temperature of the chilled water supplied to the col, as indicated in Table $-1, Determine (a) the air conditions entering tke coll, (6) the air condi ‘Table 5-1 Outlet sir conditions from cooling collin Example 5-2 ‘Als leaving temperatures, °C Chitedwatersupoty temperature, C ay bulb Wet bulb 40 107 105 30 ust 60 ns a 70 133 2(94 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Sw. anid ato Figure $8 Prychrometsic chart Bs Es ‘Sowing properties of alt in Ex: “Temperature, °C angle $2. tions leaving the coil and the required temperature of the supply cilled water, and (¢) the cooling capacity of the coil. ‘Solution (a) On the psychrometric chart in Fig, $8, four parts of return a seen T (AC and 50 percent relative humidity, A= 47.5 Kika, W = 00089 Tepes) mix with one part of outdoor air at point 2 (35°C dry bulb temperatire xa) bulb temperature, h = 76.0 Kifkg, W = 0.616 klk) From energy and 20 ts balances the enthalpy and humidity ratio at point 3 after mixing are iy = 0.8(47.5) + 0.2(76.0)= $3.2 K3/ks W, = 0.8(0.0093) + 0.2(0016) = 000106 ka/ke ‘atthe point located by these valves of and WS, oer properties can be deter mined: Day-bulb temperature = 26.2°C Wet-bulb temperature = 18.8°C (These ae the air condition entering the coi to whieh the performance dat in ‘Table 5-1 apply.) i 1) The loalsatio line extends downward and othe lft rom point 1 with 2 stops such thatthe proportions of sensble- and latentheat removal are sasted ' sore Sine load-satio line choose arbitrary a tempeaturef (Fg. 56) of 14°C and qhen compute a value off at that temperature. From Eq. (5-1) 36.3 Ki/ke Connecting the two points 3 and gives the loadzatio line which intersects the ‘ saturation line on Fig. 5-8 at 12°C.oa 3 AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS. 95 ‘Table 5-1 indicates that a chilled-water temperature of 5.5°C results in outlet- air conditions of 12.1 and 12.0°C dry- and wet-ulb temperatures, respectively, which satisfies the load-ratio line. (©) The enthalpy of air leaving the coll at dry- and wet-bulb temperatures of 12.1 and 12.0°C, respectively, is 34.2 Ki/kg. The mass rate of flow of supply sir to the space is, from Eq. (5-2), 65+8kW ATS WaT ‘The enthalpy of air entering the cooling coll is $3.2 Ki/kg, so the cooling capacity required of this col is (5.49 kes) ($3.2 ~ 34.2 KI kg) = 104.3 KW ‘The difference between 104.3 and the room load of 73 KW is attributable to the cooling load of the outdoor ventilation air. 5.49 kg/s 55 Multiplezone systems For large buildings itis usually not economically feasible to provide a separate system for each zone. For such cases the basic eentral-system concept is expanded to meet the cooling and heating requirements of multiple zones. ‘A zone may be a single room, one floor of a building, one side of a building, or the interior space. Essentially a zone is the space controlled by one thermostat "A wide variety of combinations of duct networks, coil locations, and control strategies are in use, but the most common are: $ 1. Constant-volume systems @ Terminal-reheat . Dual duct or multizone 2. Variable-volume systems 4, Single-purpose cooling or hesting 2. Cooling with reheat ¢, Dualduct variable-volume $4 Terminalreheat system The schematic diagram of the temminal-eheat system is shown in Fig. 5.9. All the air is cooled to a temperature of perhaps 13°C to assure ‘dchumidification, and the thermostat in each zone controls the reheat coil associated ‘with that zone s0 that the temperature of the entering air will be such that the zone temperature is maintained. The reheat coil may be hot water or electric. The advantages of the terminal-eheat system include the small space occupied by duets and excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads. The primary dis- advantage is the relatively high energy requirements for both cooling and heating. ‘The energy penalties may be partially overcome by raising the temperature of cool supply air until one of the reheat coils is completely off. Ancther means of reducing the energy penalty is to perform the heating with recovered exergy! from some other part of the system such as the reftigerant condenser or lighting,196. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Figure 5:9 A terminabrcheat system 46:7 Duslduct or multizone system In the dusldut system, Show schematically in fig, 510, the air from the supplysir fan divides, Part of air flows through the ae ing call and part through the cooling col. The thermostat ‘each zone regulates heating eepox that proportions the low rate of warm and cook 2 ‘maintain the a. mini Dypeatre in the zone. The dual-doctaysem i vey sespong © changes in desea tne zone and can simultaneously accommodate eating 2 1 ‘ones and reat in others. One disadvantage of the system is the spent of two supply-air seeteE oth of which must be large enough to handle a ihe airflow. As with the ducts, bovheat system, there wil be periods of simultarcous AeatOe ‘and cooling Lerma se ge energy elficiency of the dualduct system. 09 Oe other hand, wach re outdoorairtemperatore is low enough to achlee the 13°C without operat The the cooing col, some energy can be conserved. Good Soe effectiveness is also ing the efarng hot weather i the temperature ofthe wann duct I set ow or-even petter-the heating coil is shut down. cane tizone system is thermally Wendel to the dualduct Se but the confguation differs in tht all the mixing boxes are chstered af the central unit cor individual ducts convey the mixed alr to each zone, Figure $10 Duabvet syste.[AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 97 Example 5-3 A zone served by the dual-duct system in Fig. 5-10 has a design heating load of 8 kW and a design sensible-cooling load of 6 kW. The zone is to ‘be maintained at 24°C, the temperature of the alr inthe cool air duct is 13°C, ‘and the temperature in the warm air duct is 40°C. Assume that the temperature ‘of mixed air is 24°C. Ata partload condition when the sensible cooling load is, ‘3KW, what are the heating- and cooling-energy rates attributable to this zone? ‘Solution It is fist necessary to determine the airflow rale to the zone, a value that in the dual-duct system remains constant forall load conditions. To meet the design heating load the required flow rate is (8 kW)/[(40 ~ 24°C) (1.0 KI /kg, 'K)} “0.5 kals, and to meet the design cooling load (6 kW)/{24 ~ 13) (1)] 0.55 kg/s. The flow rate needed for the design cooling locd controls, so the ai flow rate is set at 0.55 kel. ‘When the sensible-cooling load is 3 kW, the air temperature entering the zone is 24°C ~ (3 kW)/[0.55(1.0)} = 18.55°C. The energy balance of the ait- stream in and out ofthe mixing box is w_(03°C) (1.0) +, (40) (1.0) = 0.55(18.55) (1.0) where w, flow rate of coo! air kel 1g = flow rate of warm ai, kls Since wy, = 0.55: Wes aw, + 40(0.55) - 40w, = 10.20 “Then w, = 0.437 kgs and w, = 0.113 kg/s. The energy rete needed to bring the (0.113 kes up to 40°C in the heating coil is 0.113(40 ~ 24) = 1.80 kW, and the energy rate in the cooling coll is 0.437(24 - 13)= 4.80 KW. ‘Because of “thermal bucking” of the two coils, the cooling coil must extract not only the 3-kW cooling load of the zone but also the 1.8 KW introduced by the heating col 5.8 Variableairvolume systems The poor energy characteristic, especially during light heating or cooling loads, of the constant-volume air systems discussed in Secs. 5-6 and 5.7 have shifted preferences in new designs to variable-air-volume (VAV) systems, ‘There are a number of variations of VAV systems and also a number of possible com: binations of VAV with other systems. Three important configurations are (1) cooling ‘or heating only, (2) VAV reheat, and (3) VAV dual duct in the cooling-only system, as shown-in Fig. 5-11, a single steam of cool air serves all the zones, and a thermostat in each zone regulates a damper to control the flow rate of cool airinto the zone. The desirable energy characteristic of this system is that at low cooling loads the flow rate of air is reduced so that the required cooling capacity atthe eal is correspondingly reduced. The cooling-only VAV system is widely lused for interior spaces of buildings with no heating loads and where only cooling loads prevail. The system experiences a problem at very light cooling loads where the airflow rate drops off so much that poor air distribution and/or ventilation results. ‘The heating-only VAV system has the same structure as that in Fig. 5-11, but instead of a cooling coil a heating coil provides a source of constant-temperature98 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING igure 5-11 A coolingonly VAV system. ‘warm air, The conditions adaptable to s heatingonly VAV system are rather raze in ‘building air-conditioning systems. Sn veheat system is identical othe one shown in Fig. S-11 except that he ran ine to each zone contain a reheat eo. The contol sequence i that as ving load dzops off, the damper progesively reduces the flow rate of vat soe to 30 percent of full low rate. At this point the aisflow rate remains C07 snot and the reheat col is activated. There is thus some thermal buckiog 0 ®t stant Snventional termina-ceheat system, but it occur at 2 reduoed aisow 1 and oe enuits in only 2 modest loss of efficiency. The VAV reheat system overcomes t ts es cefenles of te coolingonly VAV system since it provides a means 9F aotaining adequate ar distbution and ventilation without paying the ener penalty fncurred in constant-volume reheat applications. re SAY Guat system, the arrangement is sma to the convention) uaiuct system of Fig. 5-10, except for the low characte of the mixing Po1S* dae iding a constant fw rate of mixed ai, te dampers are ranged £0 se racm and coo airflow rates drop appreciably before the other streim Soktt Thown in Fig 5-12, is that the airflow rate to the zone is to supply air. The result, 28 ‘of control characteristics the desired minimum airflow variable, but by proper choice Airflow ate “hiiow rte Ful Ww Fut heating coating igure $12 Aisflow rates in a VAV Space temperature,“ 2s duakeuct system,[AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 99 rate is asured. The characteristics of modulating controls, discussed in Chap. 9, lend themselves to achieving the flow rates shown in Fig. 5-12 by petting a span of space tir temperature. In Fig 512, for example, the VAV mixing box provides the neces: sary flow rate of warm air for full heating when the space temperature is 21°C, When. the space temperature is 25°C, the cool-ar dampers open enovgh to meet fll cooling load. ‘The VAV cheat and dual-duct systems provide all the flexibility of the con? ventional reheat and dua-duct systems in the sense that a zone can be accommodated rit switches from heating to cooling requirements and that some zones ona system an be provided with heating at the same time that other zone: need cooling. There is Soin thermal bucking in both the VAV reheat and dual-duct ystems, but the magni- tude of heating- and cooling-energy cancelation is modest becuse of the low afflow rates at which the thermal bucking occur [Example 5-4 In a certain VAV dualduct system a flow sate of warm ait of 0.8 Jigis is required at fll heating load when the space temperature is 21°C; the space requires 1.1 kis of cool air at full cooling load, which is called for at a space tempersture of 25°C. It will be convenient to choose control equipment tht has the tame slope of the airlow-to-pace-temperature lines for both the warm and ool ar (ne slope is the negative ofthe other. If the minimum seflow rate i to te 03 kg/s at what temperatures do the warm airflow rate and the coo! airflow rate fall to 2210? Solution Let m= slope of the coolsirflowrate line, asin Fig. 512, and -m the slope ofthe warmairflow-rte line. Then wee, tit, and wy =e, -m, where We, wy = airflow rates of cool and warm sr, respectively, kas gest = const ‘= space temperature, °C ‘The 100 pereent cooling and 100 percent heating conditions provide the expres: 116, #25) 3) and 08 =c, -m(21) 4) ‘The minimum siflow rate will occur when either w, or wy has dropped to zer0; thus. - w,20= 6,4 mio 65) where foi the temperature where w, 0, at which condition 13 264 Mp 66) Equations (5-3) to ($6) ae four simultaneous equations that can be solved for Ww, = minimum airflow100 REFRIGERATION AND AIK CONDITIONING the four unknowns Ge ¢y» and fp. The esl are eqe-89 G792 ma0d and fyg"2225°C sme flow rte of warm air drops t 210 when fi to 23°C, 0 between 22.25 ‘and 23°C the mixing of warm and ‘cool air results in the minimum total airflow rate of 0. kgis. ems accomplish heating and cooling through the disti- Fos of water alone, although the final heat transfer inthe conditioned space mist ution or rom air, Outdoor al: for ventilation must be provided and conditioned it ee or aco uit, unit ventilators, or convectors ar the most common termina! cae ae by water piping systems, Water systems occupy relatively little space sod uni nthe lowest Rustcost systems avalabe. The systems usually lake unity ae vl and ventilation may be uncertain even if outside openings are provides 1 corte ul unit, Wind pressure, the stack eect in tll bung, and the possibility ca ring the cols in cold weather all equie special precautions when ovtdoor-¢ er cungs ave provided Since condensate drains must be provide at each col Tot Oren ape a more significant factor than in air systems, where the dehumiifics tion can be accomplished at a central location. cae Tuite can be served by two- or fourcpipe watz-dstibution systems. 6 worrpe astem serves units with a single cil andthe system can provi bet br reer: putit is not posible to heat some zones while simultaneously Coots others nee bipe system (ig. 513) serves fan-coll units with «wo cals, one for 5.9 Water systems Water sys Presureselif [rare Fourie fan rans Return CChiled-water Feta outdoor sit Blower pe water thermaldstibution system. Figure $:13 The fou >?we AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEMS 101 heating and one for cooling. The hot- and cold-water loops have their own supply and return pipes. The space thermostat regulates the flow of hot and cold water to the Coils, but the control is sequenced so that the hot water is off before cold water is ‘admitted to its coil, and vice versa. Water systems may also serve convectors that have no fans (see Sec. 7-4). Con- ‘vectors are used almost universally for heating and rarely for cooling, because of the problem of draining the condensate. A popular application of convector sin pevim- ter zones of buildings that are also served by a VAV system. In this arrangement the VAV system can be of the coolingonly type with all the heating provided by the convectors 5-10 Unitary systems The systems described to this point have all incorporated Contrally located, field-assembled, heating and cooling equipment. Multiple-unit or itary systems, on the other hand, are factory-assembled unit located in or near the conditioned space. These systems are available as a single package containing direct expansion evaporating coils, controls, fan, compressor, and condenser or they may be split units with the compressor and condenser located remotely. ‘When appropriately applied, multiple-unit systems offer a number of advantages. ‘The fact that they are mass-produced and factory-assembled usually means lower first cost and lower installation costs, With proper selection and control they may also provide relatively low operating costs, By their nature multiple-anit systems are zoned Systems. These units are manufactured with matched components and usualy with certified ratings and published performance dats ‘The disadvantages of unitary systems are that there are relatively few options with respect to sizing the evaporator, condenser, fans, compressor, and controls. Since tach unit must be capable of meeting the peak load ofthe space it serves, the installed ‘capacity and connected electrical load are usualy large than with a central system. ‘Examples of the unitary air conditioner are window units, through-the-wall units, rooftop units, and split systems. Window units are primarily found in residential ‘pplications, and they have no ducted air distbution. The appearance and noise of ‘these units Limit their application, Through-the-wall units are generally more acceptable than window units from the standpoint of appearance since they are designed into the building. They find application in motels, healthcare facilities, schools, and sometimes offices, Rooftop units (as shown in Fig. 1-2) are primarily applied in low-rise buildings ‘with fat roofs, such as stores, shopping centers, and factories. For better air distribu: tion in the conditioned space the conditioned air should be ducted from the rooftop ‘unit to multiple outlets instead of introducing the total airflow rate at one postion “The split system, serving such installations as small stores or an office suite, usally conveys the conditioned air through ducts to the spaces served by the conditioner, PROBLEMS ‘51 A conditioned space that is maintained at 25°C and 50 percent relative humidity experiences @ sensible heat gain of 80 kW and a latentsheat gin of 34 kW. At what temperature does the load-ratio ine intersect the saturation line? Ans, 9°C102 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 52 A-conditioned space receives warm, humidifid air daring winter a comsioniss ~ Soa arasncinain 20°C and 30 percent relative hum. The space expense 95 = in ordetign rate of 02 kel of outdoor as and an additonal snsiic ne Ss of 25 infiltration Moor airs saturated a a femperature of 20°C (se Table 7) If con- XW ris suppied at 40°C dry-bulb temperature, what must the wet-on {emP=r Sint supply air bein order to maintain the space condtions? Ans: 18 °C sere iaporstory space to be maintained at 24°C and SO percent reais MoS 53 Monona a aenablecooingJond of 42 KW and ata oud of 18 00 Dost the experienc sc peay, the airconditioning system is eqipped for repeating 1 2 latent 10 SSoling Coil The cooling col has been seleted to provide ous 8 ea ang percent relative humidity. What i (othe temperature of ss7PIy ‘rand Gp) the airflow rate? Ans. (0) 3.8 ka/s ne puning outdoorair control Sec. §- explained that with outdoosconsitions aoa eid Y regions on the pryehrometric chat in Fig 5-5 enthaly control To/* in the rjent We now explore some Linitations ofthat statement wilh Tres © neray files pone that te temperature sting of elt ar fom the cooing ee ected that the outlet air is essentially saturated when dehumiciicato“ Sot 5 10°C ae te contin of glum ars 24°C and 40 percent relative Mami) A inn jor conditions are 26°C and 30 percent relatie humidity, would reen 2 ar oatside ait be the preferred choice? Explain why. or oat inal reheat system (Fig. 59) has alow rats of sappy tr of 18 Aas St SA termina Trung with 3 els of ouside air at 28°C and 30 percent rob currently 6 Pepin sensible Toad inthe sacts is 40 kW, andthe ens 8 aay npne temperature ofthe supply ais constant at 13°C. An accuse) of the aoe og te building wap shocked by the uity bil and Onder 27 firm occuring om 24 to 25°C, What i) the ateof het removal in hs cPooTe thermostat tage the change and (8) the rate of heat supplied a he hee Cot coll before ae the change! Assume thatthe space seb Toad remains conse #1 befor ame (a) 15 2W increas in cooing rates (0) 18 XW incease in esting aie REFERENCES 1.1.6. Oleg Enegy Rechining Modular SleContaned wagon Unt ec Con. 7 Te VAC Equip, Components, Pardue Unir October 78.1974, Pp go) 02 aoe ete ie erent, ASHRAE Syn ASHRAB Trot, vo 80, BPP 47205, 1974. 1 or sytem to Cope onthe Inherent Brey Conening Fetes of VAY SHEN 5 can AE Symp ASHRAE Trans, vl 83, t. 1, pp. $8111, 1977 1 DSEERAE So ir Volme Terminal, ASHRAE SY. ASHRAE Trans, vo 86 2 pp. 825-858, 1980 Foeaaaa seer oduct Decor, Systems Volume: Amadcan Society of Heating Rete: aeagd Air Conditioning Engineers, Atanta, Ga 1986,SIX FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 61 Conveying air Chapter 5 explained the arrangement of the popular air systems (Gariable-olume, terminaleheat, ec.) and thi chapter follows up by concentrating tn four topics associated with the flow of ai in an air system: (1) computing pressure {drops of air flowing through ducts and fitings, (2) extending the computation of pres Sure drops to designing a duct system, (3) understanding the characteristics ofa fan, both independently and in conjunction with a duct system, and (4) designing the distribution of air ina conditioned space. ‘Since the fan motor is a large consumer of energy and the duct system occupies considerable space in the building, the fan-duct system deserves keen attention during ‘esign, Unfortunately, because there are dozens (or hundreds) of interrelated decisions in the design of a fanand-duct system, most designers are satbfied with achieving 2 workable system and do not proceed further toward a combined optimization of life lime energy cost, ductaystem cost, and building-space cost of the fan and ducts Computeraided design (CAD) should bring improvements in the future, but even CAD must apply. principles correctly; some of these principles will be explained in this chapter. 62 Pressure drop in straight ducts The fundamental equation for computing the pres: sure drop of a fluid flowing through a straight duct of circular cross section is 1) where Ap = pressure drop, Pa {f= friction factor, dimensionless L= length, m 103104 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘D= inside diameter (ID) of duct, m = velocity, m/s - p= density of uid, kg/m? st ison factor fsa function ofthe Reynolds number and the ative 008s ess oh pipe surface e[D, where ci the absolute rousness in meters. Both gap a ron zepresentations of te fiction facto are avaale, Equation (67) derives from the work of Colebrook,* - 2 1 ph re 62) 2ilog f+ a) °F |! * Reet) VF ss equation ipl inf stv of can be subsatban he it dis Te caiaoved valve computed from the equation. Tee definition ofthe Reyaolis number is jaar ae? vo, Rea 63) # _where isthe viscosity in pascal-seconds. Tet ea source ofthe value of fi the tational Moody chart! reproduced sn Fig. Gh Th absolute roughnese of some surfaces shown in Table Example 641 Compute the presure drop in 15 m of stnightcrslar shes smetal Exams am in diameter when the flow rte of 20°C airs 05 m/s Solution The velocity Vis ya 0smh nOs7V4 = 7.01 m/s ‘Table 6-1 Absolute roughness of ‘some surfaces some surfaces Material ‘Roughness em Rivete steel £0.0009-0.009 Concrete 0.0003-0.003 Cast fon 0.00025 ‘Sheet metal 00015 Commercial steel 0.000046 Daawa tubing 8.000001 OO Figure 6-1 Moody char for determining Histon feraque mousey 100'000 ua Et “oT HUIS ITE wood 95> EGONZ OLAS y ECO OL 500 600 to so‘o00 000 sto 000" raid woous 3000: 8000 Et co z 20 se t no eo & 900 le 00 0 7 sto wo s0 0 7 0 io so E saiduino! susqnr aGuo9: itfimeuy9: 28 ¥ Yo jnoy UT Eo sou 10s sopes wonstsg106 REFRIGERATION AND ALR CONDITIONING ‘Table 6-2 Viscosity and density of dry air ‘at standard atmospheric pressure ~ Temperature, Visosity a, Density, °c wars alm? -10 16.768 13414 : ° 1238 (12922 10 17708 (1.2467 20 1ei7s 1.2041 30 teese 11644 0 igaleLia72 50 igses 10924 2 ee “The density and viscosity of dry air at standard atmospheric pressure are presented in Table 62, At 20°C the viscosity His 18.178uPa +s and the density p is 1.2041 ikglm?. The Reynolds number Re is 07 m/s) (03 m) (1.2041 keln® __ (707 mls) 03 m9) (1.2041 KB) «49 599 18.178 uPa > s ‘The roughness of sheet meta, from Table 6-1, 0.09015 m;so the relative rough hess eJD is 0.0005. From the Moody chart, Fig. 6-1, the friction factor is 0.0195, ‘and the same value results when using Eq. (6-2). ‘The pressure drop Ap in the 15-m length is 157107? 032 Re ‘4p =0.0195 (1.2081)= 29.3 Pa “To facilitate computation of the pressure drop in «duct, graph similar to Fi. 6-2 a1¢ available. ‘63 Pressure drop in rectangular ducts Because rectangular ducts (Fig. 6-3) are 50 Sraely used in air-conditioning practice, an equation for the pressure drop in ree- angular duct is necessary. A convenient form of the equation is paaar0d Le . apt Pe oH. m2 where Daq isthe equivalent diameter ofthe rectangular duct in meters, AN eAPreSO8 | for Dy, canbe developed by observing that for the cular duct te diameters 4X cross-sectional area _4(@07/4) perimeter » ‘Using the same expression for the rectangular duct yielis X crosssectional area ab __2ab fe perimeter Ward) a+bé Rs 35,4014 Vs ON? Lo Lo og SAB ero ot ial ates orb aet 307 8 os I os os % os oa ht 7 os = 03] oF . 2 03 3 = og] on 2 aas| jos ong a0 oe oe 0.04 006 005 os 4 loos oo os rr) oo: ons ons oo oon 00 Rist c.00s 0.005 IZ APS orcad thifoone ar 02” oaosoar 152 34 6 8101520 30 $0 100 Friction Loss, Palm Figure 6-2 Presure drop in straight, circular, sheet metal ducts, 20°C air, sbsolte oghness 0.00015 m 107108 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING a jt aA i ron Home oin se ‘The equivalent diameter calculated by Eq. (6-5) can be used in conjunction with Fig. 62 in'a special way. Figure 62 canbe used ifthe chasis enteed with thea) vanity and the equivalent diameter calculated from Eq, (65) The airflow rate, how- ‘ever, applies to circular and not rectangular ducts. tee able to use Fig. 6-2 for rectangular ducts when entering the chart with the ftow sate, a new equivalent diameter Deg, must be detemined. To find Dear fst some the pressuredrop equation in terms of the flow rate Q m/s instead of the Woety. Using. an expression for the fieton factor of /= C/RE®-?, we get for 2 cireular duct ( 2 cL \ sD, TRO 66) D%y and for the rectangular duct, where V= Qab, ap: c L AP" Tr 3ap\ OF Dab 2 Cy a+b atd abe ‘The pressure drop in the rectangular duct calculated by Ba. (6-7) wil be he sme 38 dt For Eq, (6-5) and Fig. 6-2if the following relation forthe dimensions holds 1 6 (tyra 1 Grp \ 2) at OP Thus (a9 Dag 7 130 Saas 68) 2a. 130 4 F 68) With Dag Fig, 62 can be used to caste the pesue drop by entering he chart dnecdtflth the flow rate, With this procedure, che velocity indzated by the ‘chart is not applicable but can be calculated from ‘QIA. Equation (6-8) holds? for ‘vidth-to-height ratios up to about 8:1FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS. 109 Example 62 An airflow rate of 1.5 m/s passes through a rectangular duct 0.3, by 0.5 m, Calculate the pressure drop in 40 m of straight duct using (2) Dag and ODay Solution (a) D, ab 03405 From Fig. 6.2 with a velocity of 10 m/s and an equivalent diameter of 0.375 m ‘the pressure drop is 3.0 Pajm, Note that the airflow rate of 1.2 m3/s indicated by the chart is not applicable In 40 m the pressure drop is 120Pa. o oes 20 C20 OT rs “042m From Fig. 62 with an airflow rate of 1.5 m3/s and an equivalent diameter of, (0.42 m the pressure drop is again 3.0 Pa/m, Note that the velocity indicated on the chart of 10.8 m/s isnot applicable. The correct velocity is 10 mis (64 Pressure drop in fittings An airchandling system consists 0° straight duct and fit tings. In the fittings the air undergoes changes in areas and direction. These fittings include enlargements, contractions, elbows, branches, dampers, filters, and register, ‘The al-pressure drop in these fittings must be known in order to design a system properly. In actual system design, pressure drop in these fitings may be of more con ‘erm than that in the straight duct that connects them. For example, pressure drop in an elbow may be the equivalent of 3 to 12 m of straight duct and could be as high as 20 m. Care in estimating the pressure drop in fittings is therefore justified, although unfortunately the type and quality of construction have a pronounced influence on the pressure drop of a given fitting. Since fittings occupy only short lengths along the flow network~generally less ‘than I m-explanation of the pressure drop cannot be attributed to the drag along the surfaces of the duct. It is due instead to momentum exchanges between portions of the fluid moving at different velocities. More specifically, at scme postion in the fit- ting the fluid experiences a sudden expansion, and this process will be used to explain, atleast qualitatively, some of the trends in pressure-drop characteristics. Changes in area and direction that will be explored in this chapter are sudden expansions and contractions, elbows or turns, and branches. 65 The V2p/2 tem A grouping that has already appeared in Eq (6-1) will resin the calculation of presure drops. The pattern that wll emerges thatthe pressure loss for an incompressible Tud is the product ofthe ¥2p/2 group and aterm that char-110 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING eee wee Figure 64 Flow through a conversing uct setion. ‘cterizes the geometry of the duct or fitting, Thus, from Eq. Lo When air lows fritionlessly through a converging or diverging nozzle, as in Fig, 64, the Bernoulli equation (2-8) applies 4 28 2 es) Since ree v20{/4,¥ rey ‘ay a ) wl? Geoistey “The next several sections will show thatthe ¥2p/2 group also appears in expresions pee pe eeure drops which represent loses, in contast 10 Eq. (2-8), where theres tho pressure los, only pressure conversion. 64 Sudden elargersent What i almost a building block for predicting the presse te Seihtings isthe relation desrbing the pressure Jos ina sudden enlargement 35 se ne gs. These Is change in are, asin the corverging section of Fig 4, eae avez of loses that prevail the Bemouli equation no Tonger applies. can be mended tothe revised Bernoulli equation V4 P11 0P2 4 2 Pow 10) pia ep 2 e -the other principle to be combined with Eq (6-10) to develop an expression forthe | ks tt a0 dr>0009 ,FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 111 pressure loss isthe momentum equation Py ~PyAy = Ve(¥a42~—)* A?) ou) which states thatthe difference in force on opposite sides ofthe control volume shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 65 equals the rate of change of momentum. The not 30 ‘bvious term in Eq. (61) is py. Due to separation ofthe flow from the surface at fhe abrupt enlargement the low pressure p prevals immediately after the expansion’ ae sets over the entire area A>. It is this separation that causes the pressure loss in ihe sudden enlargement. Substituting py ~ P2 from Eq, (611) iato Eq, (6-10) yields the expression for Pos, ef AY =? (3) pe 5-12) Pros => (: +) 12) ‘The pattern appearing in Eq. (6-12) is now familiar in that the loss is the product of the V2p/2 group anda term representing the geometry. Equation (6-12), called the Borda-Carnot equation, agrees sufficiently well with experimental results to be used for ductsystem design. At high airflow rates the equation gives losses that are several percent high* and at low airflow rates, several percent low. Example 63 Air at standard atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 20°C flowing with a velocity of 12 m/s enters a sudden enlargement where the duct area doubles, What is the increase in static pressure of the air asit passes through the enlargement? ‘Solution From Eq. (6-12) the pressure loss due to the sudden enlargement is (42 m/s)? (1.204 kgim?) yee 2m ati (ip 17a Substituting Pig into the revised Bernoulli equation permits computation of the pressure rise Wi-VDe 12-6? Py -Py Pr 2 2 433Pa Instead of the pressure rising 65 Pa, as the Bernoulli equation would indicate for & process with no losses, the actual pressure rise i 43.3 Pa, (1.208) = 21.7 16-7 Sudden contraction A sudden contraction occurs in a duct section where the duct fize is abruptly reduced in the direction of flow. The flow pattern in a sudden contrac- tion, as shown in Fig, 6-6, consists of a separation of the fluid from the wall upon ‘entering the reduced cross-sectional area, and a vena contracta forms at 1'. The con- cept in predicting the pressure loss is to propose no loss from positions 1 to 1’ and to ‘treat the flow from positions I’ to 2 as sudden enlargement. This loge is quite valid,112 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ff Fiue6s Asiddenconincion —* since converging, accelerating flow is efficient, while deceleration of fluid is dificult to achieve without losses. Borrowing from Eq. (6-12), then, we find the pressure loss in the contraction to be ware at) Plog #1 13) ws 2 A, ‘The area of the vena contracta can be related to Az by defining a contraction co efficient C. ott 618) oa, iy Cy Substituting Ay’ and ¥'from Eq, (614) into Ba. (6-13) yes Ve fi_\? Pros ze D) 15) "The contraction coefficient isa function of the ratio ofthe areas, A/A it was deter- ‘ined experimentally by Weisbach* in 1855 and is shown in Table 6-3 ‘The form of Eq. (6-15) again shows the pressure drop to be calculated by the Vop!2 group multiplied by a geometry factor. The geometry factor reaches a maxi- mum of approximately 4, which may be compared with the maximum value of the ‘Table 6-3 Contraction coefficients in sudden contractions An Ay & 01064 020832 03 O6as 04 0459 0s osst os ona 07 07s : os 0813 09 (0892 101.000FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 113, ! = PR Leal ! Fk Figure 6-7 Separated flow inan elbow. geometry factor for a sudden enlargement of 1.0, In any sudden change in area for & fen rate of flow there will be a greater pressure loss ifthe Mui flows from the small fo the large area than when it flows in the opposite direction. 68 Tums The most common elbows used in duct systems are 90° tums, either ciicular of rectangular in cross section. Weisbach* proposed that the pressure loss in an ‘tbow is due to the sudden expansion from the contracted region in plane 1’ in Fi. 6-7 to the full cross-sectional area of the duct in plane 2. If this proposal is correct it should be possible to express the pressure los in terms of the V2p/2 group. The mag- nitude of the Reynolds number has an influence but not a daminant one. Pressure losses in rectangular elbows determined by Nadison and Parker” a shown in Fig, 68. These data also show that a flat 90° elbow with a large value of WIHT suffers less pressure drop than a deep 90° elbow, suggesting that the subdivision of an elbow into multiple elbows of large W/H by installing turing vanes will reduce 0 21 02 03 oF as Ratio of inner to outer radius Figure 6-8 Pressure losin rectangular elbows114 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING liz. - the pressure drop. Turning vanes, as in Fig. 69, have the effect of increasing WIH and are frequently used, ‘The pressure loss in elbows of circular cross section” is summarized in Table 6-4 69 Branch takeoffs When a main duct supplies air to several branch ducts, a takeoft ‘must be provided for each branch, as in Fig, 6-10. From the upstream postion u there is pressure loss both tothe downstream postion d and into the branch to point b ‘Considering frst the pressure loss from u to d in the straight section of duct, ‘this loss occurs because the pressure buildup from the higher velocity at u to the ower velocity at d is less than the ideal. The pressure losin the straight-through sec tion of a branch takeoff is usually small compared with other losses in the system. In any low-velocity designs itis neglected, but an equation® that closely approximates tabular data i 4 Pon” HP 04) ( ny ra 16 ‘The pressure los“! fiom w to b expressed in term af Vo for sever afferent Ther of ako is shown in Fig. 61 ‘Table 6-4 Geometry factor in equation for pressure loss in circular 90° elbows (geometry factor) Pt ati absot emai " diameter Geometry factor Oooo Miered 130 05 030 073 04s, 10 033 1s 028 20 09 9 {Measured tothe duct centerline. yyd99FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS. 115 | i I | = = Figute 6-10 Branch takeo. Example 64 A 60°, 30- by 30-cm branch takeoff leaves «30: by S0-cm trunk ‘tact The size of the downstream section is also 30 by 50 cr. The upstream flow ane is 1.5 m/s, and the branch flow rate is 0 m/s. The upstream pressure is ‘$00 Pa and the air temperature is 15°C. (2) What is the pressure following the ‘Sraight-through section, and (b) what i the pressure in the branch ine? ‘Solution Velocities V,=10m)s ¥j2657 m/s Vy"556mis 971225 elm @ From Ea. (6-16) 6.677.225) (04) Pos ‘Substituting into the revised Bernoulli equation (6-10) gives 2 eyre(he 8 Pas) \p 22 5 10%(1.225)_6.679(1.228) = 5004 20229) SOT SE -12=533 Pa 4 Fi 7 2 8 é 5 4 3| g 4 1 os os os! 0. 7 34s 78S Oy040s05 08 | 7 Ratio of branch to upstream velocity ‘Fgure6-11 Pressure loss from the upstream positon tothe branch dct.118 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING bya Figure 6-13 Mulibranch duet system, yr Suppose that the calculation results inthe pressure drops shown in Table 6-5. fan sopretpe selected to develop 92 Pa at the total flow rate the balancing damper left pen in tun 4-CG-H and the dampers in the other runs partially closed to provide 92 a pressure drop inal these runs atthe desired flow rates “An improved design result if one or more sections of run A-C-G-H are enlarged to reduce the critieal pressure drop. Its also possible to reduce the size of sections in the Sher suns while staying within velocity constraints, since excess pressure drop is available. paareaee 4613 Equalfeiction method There are several versions ofthe equal-fiction method, tat one that often results in a superior design is to select the pressure drop to be vu jable in the duct system and size the ducts to dissipate this pressure. The steps in this design method are as follows: 1, Decide what pressure drop will be availabe. 2: Compute the equivalent length ofall runs (he sum of the length of straight duct plus the equivalent length of fittings). 4, Divide the available pressure drop by the equivalent length of the run having the longest equivalent length. ‘4, Wish the pressure gradient from step 3 and the flow rate in each section of the Tongest run, select the duct size of all those sections, using Fig, 62 5, For the remaining sections, select the size to use the available pressure drop but stay within velocities appropriate for noise restrictions. pasaneas ‘Table 65 Pressure drops in the system in Fig. 6-13 Run Pressure drop, Pa AB 8 Acar 38 AcDF “a ACGH 92 acl 80 seer coecedeeFAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 119 In step 2 the equivalent length can be computed by dividing the coefficient ofthe Vap/2 tem in the equation forthe pressure loss of the fttrg by J/D for duct of the ‘hme size, Elbows might be equivalent to 3 to 12 m and tranch takeoffs 20 m of Straight duct. In step 5 some sections of the main duet might have been selected in Stang the sections in the ertcal run. If che extcal run in tie aystem shown in Fig. Bibs ACG, for example, the size of section A will be specified in step 4, so the Gressure available to section B should be computed and the size of B chosen to dis pate the available pressure ‘The equal-fiietion method usually results in better design than the velocity method because most of the available pressure is dissipated in friction in the ducts and [tings rather than in balancing dampers. The size and cos: of the duct are conse- quently reduced. 6.14 Optimization of duct systems The principal contributes to the owning cost of duet system are the costs of the duct and installation, insulation, sound attenuation, Srermy to drive the fan, and space requirements. The objective of an optimization Srecedure is to minimize total owning cost, detalled opimization study may be Tificult to perform, and in the design of small duct systems it may require more in ngineering cost than it saves in owning cost. On the other hand, in large systems an Gpuimization study may be a good investment, particulary ifthe value ofthe building space is considered. “x simple example of an optimization procedure would be to select the duct diam ‘eter that rrinimizes the initial plus operating cost of a duct system consisting of a fan sega length of straight duct, Total cost of the system isthe sum ofthe frst cost and the operating cost ‘Total cost = C= first cost + lifetime operating cost Estimators often use the mass of metal in the duct system asa guide to the cost ofthe fuct system, taking into consideration that the cost of insulation might be about ¢ dees the actual cost of the metal. For circular duct, initial cost could be represented by the expression Initial cost = (thickness) (nD) (L) (density of metal) (installed cost/ks) (6-20) where D = diameter of the duct, m L= length of the duct, m Fora given thickness of material, the expression for the intial cost ean be simplified to Initial cost = CDE 2 where C, is the constant combining the constant terms of Ea. (6-20). ‘Operating cost of the duct system isthe energy cost 2er hour multiplied by the number of hours of operation expected during the amortization period. The electtie power required can be calculated by dividing the air power by the efficiencies of the fan and motor, Since air power is the product of the Volume rate of flow and the pres122. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1280 1 1OKW|15kW 2oKW 25K Ney iN 05 4 mt Spe \\ N \ 20 | \ 750) Presur incest, Pa s00| 250] ° 0 05 16 15 20 2s Flow sate, m/s a forwardcurvedblade contsifusl fan. The wheel igre 6-15 Perfoumance characteristics of Jas dmenions of the out are 0.517 by 0.289 m. Thmcter and the width are both 270 m. tion of the two power quantities is y poveiga "00,00 eas) “The fan efficiency is defined as the ratio of the ideal to actual power OWT jet Efficiency n= POWT cul e 65 Compute the efficiency ofthe fan whote characteristics are shown, Examp! "6-15 when it operates at 20 1/s and delivers 15 m°/s. in Fig Solution When the rotative speed is 20 r/s and the flow rate is 15 m/s, the fan Sour te the pressure ofthe ait S00 Pa. The ideal power required 10 rae the pressure is (1.5 m/s) (500 Pa) = 750W. sag an air density of 1.2 keJm?, the mass rate of flow is (5 m/s) (1.2 balm) = 18 kas, Since the area of the fan outlet is 05170 289) = 0.149 GF the velocity is (1.5 m3/5)(0.149 m2) = 10.1 mls. The power required (0 Mrovide the Kinetic energy to the airis(1-8 ks) (101°/2) «91 ‘igure 6-15 shows the power required by the fn at the operating point {2 bbe 1.2 RW; the fan efficiency is therefore 750+ 91 1200 70% ” prod ryx209905ee FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 121 ‘Wheel or impeller Airoutle Figure 6-14 A centrifugal fan. periphery of the wheel and directs it toward the outlet. A fan may have a single or double inlet, depending upon whether the air enters the impeller from one or from both sides. The usual direction of discharge is horizontal, but certain applications call for discharge to be nonhorizontal. Four types of blading are common in centrifugal fans, radal, forwardcurved, backward-curved, and airfoil. The forward-curved blade fan is commonly used in low- pressure air-conditioning systems and is the only type considered in this chapter. [Aiefoil- or backward-curved-blade fans are used in high-volume cr high-pressure sys- tems where increased efficiency is important. "The typical shape of the pressure low characteristics of a forward-curved-blade fan operating at various speeds is shown in Fig. 6-15. The characieristic dip in static pressure at low flow rates results! because the channels between the blades partially fill with eddies rather than directed flow. "The power required by the fan is also shown on Fig. 6-15. Tue power ideally re- ‘quired has two components: that needed to saise the pressure and that needed to provide the kinetic energy setting the air in motion. The power required to raise the pressure derives from the expression for an isentropic compression wyv dp Where w = mass rate of flow, ke/s = specific volume, m3/kg ‘The specific volume changes little because the changes in absolute pressure are small in fan, so v can be removed from within the integral, giving the ideal power required to ralse the pressure as Power to ruse presure = Ql, ~P,)W 627) where = volume rate of flow, m/s py Py = pressure rise, Pa ‘Since the power required to provide kinetic energy to the air is wV2/2, the combin:122 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1280 ; TORY] SEW 20kW 25% ose AEN AL oa \ 1000 . \ \ 203 . Pressure incest, Pa 05 10 1S 26 2s Flow sate, igre 615 Pesformance chances of « formaccuvette cenit oa, Te, tt Fae reeryih re both 270 mm. The dimensions of te out ate 0.517 by 0.289 m tion of the two power quantities is, a w Poweryay "O02 “B+ W (628) “The fan efficiency is defined as the ratio ofthe ideal to ae-ual power OWES jet POW cual Example 6 Compute the efficiency of the fan whase characteristics are shown in Fig. 6-15 when it operates at 201/s and delivers 1.5 m/s. Efficiency n= “solution When the rotative speed it 20 o/s and the flow rate i 1.5 m?/s, the an sonmdlovate the pressure of the air 500 Pa, The ideal power required to raise the pressure is (1.5 m/s) (500 Pa) = 750 W- see sng an air density of 1.2 kplm3, the mast rate of flow i (1.5 m/s) (42 bali) = 18 kal. Since the area of the fan outet i 0.517(0289) = 0.14% OF the velocity is (1.5 m°/s)(0.149 m2) = 10.1 m/s. The power required to provide the kinetic energy to the aris (1.8 kgs) (1017/2) = 91 W. Figae 6-15 shows the power required by the fan atthe operating point (0 be 1.2 kW; the fan efficiency is therefore 750+91 1 10%DOD 2IdVORDSDaDODD ware ve FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS. 123 6:17 Fan laws The fan laws are a group of relationships that predict the effect on fan performance of changing such quantities as the conditions of the air, operating speed, ‘and size of the fan. Because the laws applying to fan size are of particular interest to a fan designer and not a user, we do not consider them. Laws applying to a user are {important and are shown below with the following notation: Q= volume rate of flow, m3/s co rotative speed, 1/5 ‘p= air density, kgim? SP= static presture increase through fan, Pa P= power required by the fan, W ‘These laws apply to what is called a constant system, ie, ane with no changes in the duct and fittings; ~ is read “varies a.” Law 1 Variation in rotative speed, constant air density O~e SP~u? Pwo Law 2. Variation in air density, constant volume flow rate Qeconst SP~p P~p Law 3 Variation in ais density, constant static pressure 1 o~s ve SP cont 1 oe a4 wR ‘The usefulness of these laws lies in their ability to predic: changes from a base condition. Law 1 indicates what happens when the fan speed is changed. Law 2 per- mits computation of the change in static press and power at constant speed and law 3 the change in speed necessary to maintain a constant pressure rise when the density of airis different from that in the base condition. ‘These rules are called fan laws, but the explanation for them les in the character istics of duct systems as well at those of fans. The three laws can be derived from & basic performance characteristic ofa fan (ais read “is proportional to”) Fa: Qaw (629) along with a characteristic of v, Duet and fittings: spe > (630)‘CONDITIONING 126 REFRIGERATION AND AIR Centerine . Figure 6-17 A czcula je. “x= distance along centerline from opening, dial distance from centerline, m Equation (632) permits computation of specific values of woes and can also be eae ect several tends: (1) the centerline velocity decays atthe Cans from the opening increases, a5 Hustrated in Example 6-7, 2) the Ft spreads as it moves a reer (3) as etraned as the jet moves from the opening ee ‘Prob. 6-13), arc) jet of large diameter (large Ap) sustains its velocity Beier than a sm diameter jet Example 67 An ar jet sues froma 100smm-iameter opening with 231209 of sary what isthe centerine velocity 1 and 2m from the opening? ‘solution Along the centerline r= 0;s0 Eq, (6-32) reiuces fo Aw, 1 rOTES _ 1. nar! Vag, TAIN) VOROTES,_ 1379 a ‘branch, The de- There att Daj an the pressure graaiet in the 12/950 100 ‘straight sections Saree et shouldbe selected in the branch section 1 we (hE vailable pressure ‘without dampering? Ans. 0.35 ™ cena juct aystom consists of 2 fan and a 25-m Tenet of eS duct that delivers Son sinet Oe The installed cost is estimated (0 be $115 pet Stee meter of sheet 0 fhe power cos is 6 cents per kilowatthour, the jeney i 55 percent, metal the Prpioncy 85 percent Thez ate 10,000 of oreat on the amortize- ae oe Assume f= 0.02. What ite optimum damets of uct? Ans. 0.24.0 tom PSearorerents made on a newy installed sivhanding 2105 fo 20 s/s fan se Mem fs afow rte, 340 Pa fam chars PSM Oe 118 KW supplied to the speed, 2 rue measurements were made with an tr ToRPeOU OS ‘of 20°C, and the motor, Teecatully to operate with air at tempeaese ‘40°C. If the mn speed system 1 erp rf, what wal be the operating valves of) srow rate, (b) static pres" rere, and (e) power? Ans. (c) 1.685 KW 7 atmospheric pressue Ll Low's oe tis et gue 6-20 Duct system in Prob. 68[FAN AND DUCT SYSTEMS 129 G:11 A fan-duct system is designed s0 that when the air temperature is 20°C, the mass fraw sate is 5. kas when the fan speed is 18 r/sand the fan motor requires 4.1 kW. A Tee Sat of requirements Is imposed on the system: the operating air temperature is fanged 80 SO°C, and the fan speed is increased so that the same mass flow of air re cuantymat are the revised fan speed and power requirement? Ans 19.8 1s, 495 kW Ea? An tirflow rate of 0.05 m/s issues from a circular opening ina wall. The center $1 Abeity of the jet isto be reduced £00.75 m/s at a point 3m from the wal, What shouldbe the outlet velocity w, of ths jet? Ans. 1.84 m/s 4:13 Section 6-19 points out that jets entrain ar as they move away from thei inet Se peeeotn The entrainment ratio fs defined as the ratio of the air in motion ata inte tMatance x from the inlet to the aiflow rate atthe inlet G,/Q,, Ute the expres sion forthe velocity ina circular et, Eq, (6:32), multiplied by the aes of an annular pe a eitenter fom 0109 find the expression fo1 0,/Q,. Ant. 0405s) Iho U2 From the equation for velocities in a plane jet, determine the total included side between the planes where the velocities are one-half the centerline velocities at that x position. Ans. 13.2" REFERENCES 1. C.F. Colebrook: Turbulent Flow in Pipes with Particular Reference tothe Transition Region Coe spect and Roush Pipe Flows, J Inst, QD. Eng. vol. 12,0. 4, pp. 133-156, Feb- sary 1939, 2. 1 Moody: Fiition Factors for Pipe Flow, ASME Trans, vol 66,9. 671, 1944. Fe Te Maceachers Faction Equivalents for Round, Square, and Rectangular Ducts, ASHE Trans, vol 54, p- 101, 1988, 4 rip Kate and IR Fellows: Pressure Losses Resulting from Changs in Cross-Sectional Ares fh Aie Ducts, Cn Hl Eng. Bep. Stn, Bull. 30, 1938. 5, J Welach: “Die experimental Hydraulk,” Engehand, Freer, 1855. Soe erean Der Vslut in 0-DeereeRobskrvemmern mit lichbeBrendem Krisquerschnit, Ii tiydraul. Inst. Tech, Hochsch. Muenchen, no. 3, 1929. 7 Rb. Mavon and JR. Parker Pessoe Losses in Rectangular Elbows, ASME Trans, vol. $8, pp. 167-176, 1936. a. eee Losklin: Bncery Loses in 90-depree Duct Elbows, ASHVE Trans, vol. $6, . 479, 1980. 9, SAMIRAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume" chap. 33, Amencan Society of Heating, Refigerating, and AirCondiioning Engineer, Atanta, Ga, 1981. 10, Hit KowteN. A. Buckley, . Konzo, and R, W. Roose: Fitting Loses for Extended-lenum Foreed ait Systems, ASHVE Trons. ol. 56, 9.295, 1950 11, E, Rinne: eltsge tor Kents der hydraulschen Verluste in Abrucgstucken, Mi. Hydra nat Tech. Hochsch, Muenchen, vol. 4, pp. 70-93, 1931, 12, F etermann: Der Verlst in sehiefwinkligen Rohrverzwelgungen, Mit. Hydraul. Int, Tech THochsch. Muenchen, vl. 3, pp. 98-117, 1929, 13. JR smith and IW Jones: Pressure Losin High Velocity Flat Oval Duct Fittings, ASHRAE Tran, vol. 82, pt. 1, pP- 244-255, 1976. 14, Ji iteay, MN, Paterson, and EJ. Brown: Presure Loses through Fittings Used in Retorn ‘it Dust Systems, ASHRAE Trans, vol 68 p. 281, 1962. 15, B. Eek: "Ventltore,” th ed, Springer-Verlag, Bedin, 1962. 16, H. Schlichting: “Boundary Layer Theory,” 7th ed, MeGrawell, Now York, 1979.- CHAPTER SEVEN es PUMPS AND PIPING 4A Water and refegerant piping The most common hest-conveying meds 1 O° 7 Mlsing and retigeration systems ate air, water, and eefrigerans, AVON $7 conditioning ied in Chap. 6 and this chapter concentrates on piping syscrs Tt tems wert pump for motivating the flow of water in what ae often calied Hrs were This chapter alo covers gidlines fr selecting the os of eTegereet PO Quest proowuies ae needed for the design of steam systems an the retum of spectre, but this subject wil not be treated. Although steam sysems oe doe corey induatral facies in airconditioning systems hot water has amos. com Sitely supplanted steam as aheat conveying medium. Ty errturements. of a water-distibution system are that it provi the eee sary flow rate to all the heat exchangers, that it be safe and has Life-cycle cost Gietading both first and operating costs) below. In sling sis cof refeigerant pipes (including pom. standard recommendations which are heavy influenced y £6 Figsant presae drop. Some pressure drop is expected Dut the Pie Se should arr that it wl not be excessive, which would result in high operating som. a aspapter fst comparcs air and water a5 media for conveying Neat, AA seas iy air would be used in one station and water in another, Next, Wat TRONS (popularly. and incorrectly called bole) are desrived and thereafter the ester ems of a waterdistibution system, inching the heat exchange, Bc sear cms, Finally, the joint working of thes elements i explored in the design of ‘waterdlstribution systems. 130 yearsPUMPS AND PIPING 131 Source orsink (eater oF refrigeration unit) Conditioned ‘space Figure 7-1 Concept of heat-conveying process in an airconditioning system. 72 Comparison of water and air as heatconveying media The final transfer of heat is almost always either from or to the air in the conditioned space. The device for providing heat (heat source) is usually an electric or fuel-fired furnace, and the device for extracting heat (heat sink) is a refvigeration unit, When a heat pump is used, the same equipment is both the source and sink of energy. While the source or sink of heat may sometimes be loceted in the conditioned space, the typical situation is that the Source and sink be remotely located from the conditioned space, so that either air tr water is heated or cooled at the source or sink and cooled or heated, respectively, at the conditioned space, as shown schematically in Fig. 7-1. Ait could be heated or cooled at the source or sink and delivered directly to the conditioned space, oF water Could be heated or cooled and subsequently heat or cool the air in the conditioned space. “The advantages of the water- over the air-distsibution arrangement ae (1) that the size of the heat source is smaller, (2) that less space is required by water pipes then by air ducts, and (3) that a higher temperature of water than of airs practical in heating, since the pipes, which are small, are easier to insulate than ducts. Example 7-1 A heat-transfer rate of 250 KW isto be effected through a change in, medium temperature of 1S°C. What must the cross-sectional area be to convey this energy flow if (a) & water pipe is used and the water velocity is 1 m/s and (b) ‘an air duct is used and the air velocity is 10 m/s? Solution (a) For water the volume rate of flow is = = 0,00398 m3) G19 Kig* KY ESC) (1000 an) The cross-sectional areas 0.00398 > = 0.00398 Tals—_————___ 132. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING () Forair the volume rate of flow is 250 KW ___ 380K __ a 1339 m'/s Going KOO) C2 kal) ee ‘The cross-sectional area is 13.89 FI BE 138m! Toms “whichis 347 times the area of the water Pipe wthrengths and weaknesses ofthe (Wo Convey NB media usually resolve into the following system choices. Small plants, such #8 Mesidentil and small commercial, use fooling tthe system and no water whatsoevey 7% distances the heat must be air tafe short andthe order of magni of “capacities does not result in transferees of et sources and ducts, Large airconier ystems, on the other and, use hot and chilledwater distribution, Tel fired or elects heat sources to heat amdiecty are wot generally avalible In B® S2e% “The het or chilled water may be sped dieetly 10 cols in the conditioned Pe nother popular arrangement ist Pipe ate to ac heating and cooking col 36h SNe ‘nefloor or one section of the building. 13 Water heaters The combustion of fue (ature Bhs coal, oil, ete) and electric 73 ater Heting ae the major sources of enerBY heating water in hydronic sys rept ed water heaters are usually construed of steal under strict safety codes. a rey of clsiying heaters is according 10 the OPS TE pressure (and thus the nie water temperature). The lowes Pree group provides water ata temper Perm approximatey 100°C, and 0 te pressy ‘atmospheric or slightly above ae pezute heaters seve the systems discuss Sec. 75. Pr treiency of fuel heed water eters is defined the rate of energy supplied to the water divided by the rate of enetBy {RPL ‘based on the Lower heating value of 1 ree The lower heating value isthe heat of ‘combustion with the assumption that tae oer inthe fue gas eaves as por. One oF (he Towses of water heaters is standby the pat cours when the burners shutoff hu TTT the equipment room flows by te gavection up paste hot suaces of the Hates and carries heat out the stack maura eked water heaters ae equipped With COPS that close when the burner Many ior and some large heater ate equipped Wie Produlating air control that 1684 utes the flow of combustion ar 0 that cere enough ar For complete combustion ser enough to carry heat away inthe exces a ‘Typica efficiences of commercial oor heaters are approximately 80 percent ier te heater i sometimes chosen lage 48 ‘maximum design heat ing capacity in der to have excess capaci 10 Oe the temperature of the building ABE ter a night or weekend setback, When 1s SX heater capacity is required it is a tant tat the piping distbution system 29 M5 sized lager than designs) otber impor gistibution system becomes a bottleneck it ‘uansferring the extra capacity (© the conditioned space.PUMPS AND PIPING 133, Figere 72 A fuetube water heater (Cleaver Brooks Dison of Aqus-Ctem, Ine] Figure 7-2 shows a firetube heater in which the combustion gases flow through the tubes, and the water being heated isin a shell that surrounds the tubes 74 Heat distribution fom hot-water systems The principal types of heat exchangers ta te tansfer energy from the hot water are coils in warm air ducts, fancoil units, sural eonvection convectors located in the conditioned space. The convectors may inet type or of the baseboard type (Fig. 73). Tre baseboard convector th fins attached. Hot water flows through the tube, and the air be of the cal consists of a tube wit gue 73 AtpatoudTR—— 134, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1200 1100 3 | 3 Heating capacity, Wim 38 400 oe % 30 30 1000 ean water temperatre,“C gue 74 Heasng apc of «cra aston come based on som ae entering at 18°C. being heated flows by natural convection YP 9° the tube and firs ané out the louvers Being of ake enclosure The performance of 2 ‘certain baseboard convector i shown in Fig. 7-4 Example 7-2. What mean water temperatures needed in the baseboard convector eM Tot to compensate for the heat los 0m. single-pane glass wall when the of Fie Tag outdoor design ai termpeaQures 26 2) and -22°C, respectively? The re vectors are placed afong the entice length Fheght of the glas is 24 m, and th cof wal Solution The U value of single-pane glass i 6 2. Wim? + K from Table 4-4, s0 the Solty aer rate through each square meter of BSS 6af2t -(29) = 2738 las wall experiences design heat Jo 07 4073) vovde the 655 W with a mean water ‘Each La length of Figure 7-4 shows that the conveetor can Pr temperature of 77°C. ‘The heating load through an expanse of sng PAE las is one of the worst i sitet design bat the calculation im Example 72 shows chat the baseboard com vectors can handle this extreme load sure water (HW) systems ate 75 High-temperature water, systems TEiemps Those operating with supply water in the preasure of water is 2800 KPa. A Fundamental reason pressure Sone to ransfer the required rate § Nett Than if the supply temperature Wer i to 230°C range At 230°C the saturation for vsing HTW systems is t© ray using lower flow rates ac whe steam generators ae occasionally tHPUMPS AND IFING 135 Nitroses supoly Water heater suly High eel =| fame Figure 7-5 Nitogen pressurization ofa high-temperature water system, used as the heater in a HTTW plant, systems are usually pressurized so that no vaporize lonof water takes place in the heater, and in no case should flashing into vapor be per initted in the distribution system, One common method of pressurization is through the use of high-pressure nitrogen? as shown in Fig. 7-5. A pressurization chamber is srrwnccted to the system, and the level of liquid is maintained in ths vesel between the high and low limits, Should the system pressure fall 00 low, nitrogen is added to the system, If there should be a Teak of water somewhere in the system, both the pressure and water level are likely to drop and water should be replaced 76 Available pipe and tubing Standard sizes of copper tubes and of stel pipe used in qefrigeration and airconditioning systems are shown in Tables 7-1 and 7-2. OF the Thicksewses shown, type L copper tubing and Schedule 40 pipe thicknesses are the most common, ‘Table 7-1 Dimensions of copper tubes 1D, mm 1D, mm op,mm Type Type TypeK Type 953 178, 8.00 4976 5042 1270 1021 10.92 ois 6261 1338 1339 1334 yas 74.30 1908 1636 1692 8598 87.00 m2 1892 19.94 9797 99:19 2858 2527 26.08 m1 138 3493 3162 323 use 485 4128 3762 3823 1926 196.2 aon aS 214 2938136. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Nominal size, mm 00, mm Schedule 40 18, 2134 1540 20 26.67 2093, 23 3340 2554 35 4216 35.08 0 4826 4090 50 60.33 52st 6 73.03 626s 4s 58.90 mst 100 nas 1023 135 1413 1782 150 1683 1341 200 29.1 2027 250 27.0 asss 300 3239 a0. 8 7.7 Pressure drop of water flowing in pipes The equation for drop in pressure of fluid flowing in a straight pipe isthe same as for airflow, Eq, (6-1) repeated here whe a laa? Many engineers calculating the pressure drop of water in pipes express the diameter D in millimeters, which makes the units of Ap kilopascals, a convenient wnit for water pressure. Example 7.3 Compute the pressure drop when 3.0 Ls of 80°C water flows through a steel pipe with a nominal diameter of 50 mm (1D = 52.5 mm) that i 40 m long. Solution From Table 73 at 80°C the pertinent properties of water are p= 971.64 kai? =0358 mPa s ‘Table 7-3 Density and viscosity of water at various temperatures * 15CViscosity,mPa*s Density, kam? °C Viscosity, mPa *s Density, km? o 1.790 999.84 60 oat 993.19 10 1310 999.70 70 0.406 on 20 098: 998.21 88 97163 30 0.803 995.64 90 0219 965.16 «0 0.656 992.22, 100 072 9813 50 0582 988.04 PPDe y3ad709999PUMPS AND PIPING 137 forse «#0000046 fom Table 61. The ws = 00a mit (0.052574 2.000086 0.00088 0082s ; (1.386 m/s) (0.0525 m) (971.63 kg/m?) a rom he Moody cha (Fg, 61) at Re = 197500 ane = 00088, = 08208 40 1.386? sa O11) = 148 KP 386 m/s 197,500 Ap = 0.0208 = Many designers find a pressure-drop chart lke that in Fig, 7-6 convenient when many calculations must be performed, Such a chart can apply ory to one temperature ‘hwater, because the water temperature affects both the density and viscosity. The den- Sity appeatsditecly in Eq. (7-), and both the density and viscosity influence the Reynolds number and thus the friction factor. The best single parameter besides the temperature that correlates the pressure drop at other temperatures is the velocity Figure 77 shows a graph of the correction factors to be applied to Fig. 7-6 for tem peratures other than the 20°C for which Fig. 7-6 applies. Example 7-4 Use Figs. 7-6 and 7-7 to solve Example 73. “Solution For pipe with a nominal diameter of $0 mm and a flow rate of 3 Lis, Fig. 7-6 shows a pressure drop of 425 Pa/m and a velocity of 1.4 m/s. The e rection factor to be applied to 425 Pafm at a temperature of 80°C and a velocity ff 1.4 m/sis found from Fig. 7-7 to be 0.885, ap = (425 Pale) (0.885) (40) 5.1 KPa ‘compared with 14.8 kPa from Example 7-3 78 Pressure drop in fittings One approach to computing the pressure drop caused by fittings (elbows, tees, open valves, etc.) ina piping system is to express their pres Sure drop in terms of the equivalent Tength of stright pipe that would cause the same pressure drop. The usefulness of this method is that the section ofthe piping system ea vhich the diameter and flow are constant can be considered ss one length of straight pipe, Table 7-4 shows some equivalent lengths of straight pipe 79 Refrigerant piping Reftigeration systems and componenis will be explained in Ghap. 10 and thereafter, but itis appropriate to discuss here the three major pipe Sections in a basic refrigeration system, As shown in Fig. 7-8, they are the piping for the discharge e88, for liquid, and for suction gos. Somewhat different considerations apply to the selection of sizes of these three diferent pipe sections.sn ain men 10)" ba AN Adon NOS BAN tm 1 dsp MN LL sys soy 2108, co oot 00108 osoror oc alg She Tt 1 soroeyeo rosa soos o- or os oe oot ost 002 ove oor 00s joa “doup seta 008 0001 post 000% o00e 138PUMPS AND PIPING 139 tos 100 oss Leu g fi: Hf ons 080 120304050 7]—«BO8O «10D “Temperature, °C Figue 7.7 Multiplying factor forthe pressure drops read from Fig. 74 in order to comet for temperature. ‘Table 7-4 Equivalent lengths in straight pipe of several fittings, meterst Pipe Tee diame, 907459 Open lobe mm cibow elbow Side branch _—_Staight banch valve 1s 06 (OF 09. 02 5 20 08 Os 12 02 6 2s 09 Os us 03 5 3s 1207 18 04 un 0 is 09 2a os 4 50 ae 30 06 7 60 21s 3a 08 20 18 30018 46 09. 2% 100 430002 6a 12 38 ns 3230 16 1s “3 130 e137 34 18 50 + Data from Plombing Manual, U.S. Net! Bur. Std. Rep. BMSES.140 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING bn secon wan “device Figure 7-8 Piping in aresigeration system. Discharge line The pressure drop in this line is a penalty on compressor power, since for a piven condenser pressure any increase in the line-pressre drop requires a higher discharge pressure from the compressor. Beyond 2 certain optimum pipe size, however, ‘additional enlargement adds more o the first cost than is recovered in the lifetime ‘pumping cost of the compressor. Liquid line Since this pipe carries liquid with much higher density than the vapor in the other sections, its diameter will be smaller than that of the others. Pressure drop in this line does not penalize the efficiency of the cycle because what pressure drop does not occur in the liquid line will take place in the expansion device anyway. The pressure drop in the liquid line is limited for a different reason, however: ifthe pres- fure drops so much that some liquid flashes into vapor, the expansion device will not work properly. ‘Suction line Pressure drop in this line, as in the discharge line, imposes a penalty on efficiency because this pressure drop reduces the entering pressure to the compressor. ‘There is a limitation on how large a suction line can be chosen, however, imposed by the need in many refrigeration systems to carry lubricating oll from the evaporator back to the compressor. Velocities in vertical suction lines re often maintained at 6 rmjsand higher in order to facilitate oll return. ‘The pressure drop in refrigerant lines can be computed using Eq. (7-1) with re frigerant properties in Table 15-5 (for viscosities) and the densities from tables in the appendix. The pressure drop cortesponding to various refrigerating capacities can also bbe obtained from Ref. 4. 7-10 Pump characteristics and selection The most useful performance dats of @ pump are the pressure differences it is capable of developing at various flow rates. Of equal importance is the knowledge of the power requirement at tke design condition and at other possible operating points. Typical performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump are shown in Fig, 7-9. Pump manufacturers often show in their catalogs the ‘Ap curve and the power (or required motor size) at various postions along the curve ‘The isoefficiency curves (curves of constant efficiency) shown in Fig. 7-9 are not normally given in catalogs but are presented here to increase understanding of pump performance.PUMPS AND PIPING 141 3.00] 200] restureite Op, KP 100 Water flow rate, Ls Figure 79 Performance characteristics ofa centifugl pump. “The power required in a perfect pumping or compression process 7 isthe integral ofydp of? vp 02) Py where 2) ideal power, W pi enerng peste, Pa p= leving presse, Pa "3 mass at of flow, kas = specific volume, m3/kg, since the specie volume ofa tigi experiences negigible chang asi pases though aan an ee be moved outside the integral sgn and combined with w to give 0. Fee set flow in ele meets pr second The expression then becomes 2,=002-P)) ce) “The power P required in the actual pumping process where there are losses is er?) perio wD where» isthe efficiency, percent.142. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Pipe ttted Pipe, not throttled - Pressure difeence, KPO Flow ate, Us Figure 7.10 Combi on of pump and pipe characterises. Example 75 Using the efficiency curves shown forthe pump in Fi. 79, compute the power required by the pump when the water flow rte is 6 L/s Solution Ata flow rate of 6 L/s = 0.006 m?/s, the pressure rise developed in the ‘pump is 240 kPa and the efficiency is 0.78 0.006(240,000) 078 Power =: = 1846.W ‘The performance of the pump usually must be considered in combination with the characteristics ofthe pipe network It serves. A visualization of the combined pump nd. pipe characteristics is availble from a graph of pressure difference versus flow fate, as in Fig. 7-10. The pump curve has the shape already shown in Fig. 7-9, The pressure difference experienced by the pipe increases asthe square of the flow rae This relationship is predictable from Eq. (7-1) for straigh: pipe, and Sec. 7-8 suggests that the pressure diop in fittings also increases as the square of the flow rate, The pressure drop of a fitting is thus translatable int a length of straight pipe. “The intersection of the pipe characteristics with the pump characteristic in Fi. 7.410 is called the balance point because here the flow rate and pressure difference of the two components are satisfied. Figure 7-10 shows a balance point fora pipe with no thttling (valves fully open). If the flow rate is greater than desired, a valve can be partially closed to inttoduce additional resistance inthe pipeline. The result is ower vow rate and higher pressure difference, It is of interest to refer back to Fig, 7-9 to ee what happens to the required power as the pipe network is throttled. Instead of the increased power eequirement intuition leads one to expect, the power drops. TAL Design of a water-distribution system In closed water systems the major com- ponents ate straight pipe, valves, fittings, pump(s), heat exchangers, and an expansion Funk, The design process includes both the determination of sizes and their arrangePUMFS AND FIFING 143, a ° PRET Figae 71 Piping arrangements (0) deck eto and () reversed return nent, Some major tasks in the desig proces are to decide of the location of the srenvonents, select the pipe ize, select the pump, and choose the size of the expan- sion tank. ‘Tue basic piping arrangements are the directretum and the reversed-retur pls Pig. 711), A drawback of the ditectsetum system i thatthe pressure dif coe Maable to the various heat exchangers is nonuniform, Heat exchanger A serie: 7.1 la has available a greater pressure difference than heat exchanger D. The ve i vale of heat exchanger A might have to be nearly closed; in that condition sersperaion is not stable, and heat exchanger D may have insfiient pressure it wae alable to provide the required flow rate. The reversedetur system provides sererraaly uniform pressure difference to allheat exchangers. The disadvantage ofthe aaeestsetum arrangement is the aditional pipe required compared with the direc fetuin arrangement rashes basic question of component locaton is the sative location of the heater expansion tank, and pump.* Several principles and operating characteristics east be observed, When the pump is sot in operation, the relative pressures change ‘oouphout the sysiem, a high pressure developing at the pump outlet and alow pres see eeiene pump inlet, The one location where the absolute ressue slays constant arene expansion tank. When these two faets ae combined, the prefered location i he expansion tank can be chosen. Ifthe expansion tank is laced after the pump, fhe outlet pressure remains constant and the inlet pressure drops, which may cause te etion, described in the next parageaph. A rule is co “pump away from the expan setts Next ty the sequence of tank, pump, and water beater The heater then son vars high pressure Guring operation, and this pressure may be high enough to ‘Tho the sella valve, The usal Sequence is showa in Fig, 7-12 as heater, expansion tank, and pump Faearigg not water care should be taken to prevent cavitation at the pump cavtie eaesed by the liquid water Mashing into vapor at localized regions of low free, Cavitation results in poor performance of the pump and accelerated wear Pea tialToetion for cavitation i at the pump inlet, where the pressure is ow and rmnalsed seglons of high velocity further reduce the pressure. To prevent cavitation the treats atthe purnp inlet must be Kept a certain magaitude higher than the satura144 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Expansion “tank Pomp : Figore 7.42 Sequence of neter, expansion tank, nd pump. tion pressure of the water being pumped. This pressure differential, refered to as the net positive suction head* (NPSH), is often shown in manufacturers’ catalogs. 742 Siving the expansion tank The purpose of the expansion tank isto provide a ciihion of air that accommodates the change in volume of che water as it changes {emporatre. An equation forthe expansion-tank ie adapted from Ref. 7 i av, ¥, PilPe~ PP siference in specific volume of liquid water between operating and filing temperatures, m3/kg specific volume of liquid water at filling temperature, m3/kg, jolume of system, m> Jressre in expandion tank when water fist enters, KPa abs eZee in expansion tank before rasng water temperature, KPa abs eS pesute in expansion tank when water in system is hot, KPa abs ih oyfe behind Eq, (7-5) can be established by tracing the sequence of events when the Tank is fst filled and the water temperature ofthe system is ist alse “Theta dagram in Fig, 7-13 shows three stages, represented by thes levels of aoe eae exeansion tank; A, B, and C. Atstage A the vel of wate has just sealed os it the air in the tank and the pressure in the tank is 7, As filling of the system con- inves and air is vented from the piping, a static head imposes a higher pressure Pc fat the lowerdevel expansion tank as the air in the tank is com pressed, After filing the ighest point of system ‘igure 7-13. Water levels nd pressures in an expansion tankPUMPS AND PIPING 145 system the water is brought up to temperature and in the proces expands, compres- Mee the air the tank to and raising the level in the tank to C Dung operation fhe level in the tank should vary between B and C with the pressure varying from Pe t0Pp Teka, (75) the texm (Av/y,)V; is the volume change inthe system asthe water isheated from is filing temperature to operating temperature; thus 5 (76) ‘The difference in the pressure ratios, assuming a constant temperature of the ai in the tank, is 1 1 on le,= Pile, Val¥.-Vel% ‘The product ofthe terms in Eqs. (7-6) and (7-7) yields the tank volume V, Example 76 What is the sizeof an expansion tank fora hot.water system with a eam of 7.6 m? if the highest point in the system is 12. above the expansion tank, the system is filled with 20°C water, the operating temperature is to be 90°C, and the maximum pressure in the system isto be 250KPa gauge? Solution The specific volumes of liquid water are found in Table A-1, 0.001017 tmfkg at 20°C, and 0.0010361 m?/kg at 90°C. The change in water volume to ‘be accommodated in the expansion tank is ‘4y, _ 0.0010361 - 0.010017 », 0,0010017 (7.6 m3)=0261 m? ‘Assume that both atmospheric pressure and p; are 101 KPs absolute, After filling ‘pith cold water the additional pressure due to the 12-m column of water is 12 m) (2.807 m/s? Cam OST) yrs eRe 0.001007 and so p,= 1175 + 101 = 218.5 kPaabs Pj 7250 + 101 = 351 kPa abs 0.261 m? ; Gort.) 101/351 . PROBLEMS 211 A convector whose performance characteristics are showa in Fig. 74 is supplied Irth a flow rate of 0.04 ke/s of water at 90°C. The length of the convector is $m, aie te rooneair temperature is 18°C. What is the rate of heat transfer from the con- vector to the room air? Ans, 2.92 kW146. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING pn 150 75.00 pipe ere Figuee 744 Piping system in Prob. 73. <2 Compute the pressure drop in pascals per meter Jength when a flow rae of§ Eis 72 eee yates flows through a Schedule 40 stel pipe of nominal diameter 75 7m oe oor Ba. (Tl) and (2) using Figs. 7-6 and 7-7, Ans. (2) 334 Pafm eet tne piping system shown schematically in Fig, 7-14 the common pis hey 73 as nom diameter the lower branch 35 mm, and theupper branch $0 m7 Ts nominal Tf water at the entrance is SO KPa above atmoherc presi, 3m oot Dreseur Gscharge to atmospheric presse, The water temperature is 20565 What is rants flow rate initers per second in each branch? Ans total flow = 6.9 Lis oe a contsfugal pump with the characteristics shown in Fg, 7-9 serves a Piping not re sea delivers 10 Ls An identical pump is placed in paalle! withthe origina! fe wor ars the flow rate, What is (a) the new flow rate in ters per second and (P) the total power required by the two pumps? Ans. (6) 39 KW aoe expansion tank ig to be sized so thatthe change in air volume between ‘he 75 An expedition (25°C) and the operating water temperature (85°C) it 9 be Oh cotta Conk volume, 1p, = 101 KPa abs and p= 180 KPa abs, what will Py PS? ‘Ans, 325 KPa abs REFERENCES 1, W. Haris C0, Pedersen, a W, F, Stosker: Hot Watered Stam Henig Set WS. Hatt COP Develapment I: Expesimental Veriton and Appleation ASHRAE rane, vol 78, pt 2,PP.67-91, 1972. deere re? produc Directory, Systems Volume,” chap. 17, Ameren Soy of Hestng deans and AirCondtoning Engines, Aan, Ga 1980. a enter Nandbook, Fundamentals Volume.” chap. 32, American Society of eating Ree a and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga 1981. 1 OMer Refigerant Line izing, ASHRAE Spec. Publ 1851977 4 B.D We Re ee Cental Pump Bass, Enengy Eng vol 77, 0,6, pp. 19-52, 00S November, 1980. eee isi: shouldnt Mean Not Pampine So Hot Hest Png Cond YS! no. 4, pp. 65-72, Apri 1979, 1a Product Dsetory, Systems Volume.” chap. S, American Soci of Hennes Rutgroting nd Air-Conditioning Engines, Atants Ga. 1980.ee - ‘CHAPTER EIGHT en COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COILS 8.1 Types of cooling and dehumidifying coils One of the frequent assignments of @ refrigeration or airconditioning system isto reduce the temperature of an airstream. A natural concomittant of dropping the temperature of the air is removing moisture from it. In cooling the air in 8 low-temperature refrigerated warehouse the dehumii tation process forms frost on the col, which is usually an undesirable by-product of the temperature eduction process. Ina comfort or industrial air-conditioning applica- tion the dehumidification is usually a desirable objective. This chapter concentrates on the cooling and dehumidification of air inthe 5 to 35°C temperature range. “The focus ofthis chapter ison the air side of # heat exchanger on the other side of ‘which cold water or cold refrigerant flows. How the cold wacer or refrigerant is pro- duced is treated in later chapters. Most aircooling coils consist of tubes with fins Stteched to the outside of the tubes to increase the area on the air side where the con- ‘ection coefficient is generally much lower than on the refrigerant or water side. Re- Frgerant or water flows inside the tubes, and air flows over ‘he outside ofthe tubes nd the fins, When a refrigerant evaporates in the tubes, the coil is called a direct ‘expansion coil. When, on the other hand, a secondary refrigerant, such as chilled water, farses away the heat, this water is chilled by an evaporator in the machine room. A Chilled-water coil is shown in Fig, 8-1. The air-conditioning systems in many large buildings use central water chllersand distribute chilled water throughout the building 8.2 Terminology Several terms and features of coll construction should be explained: Face area of the coil. The crosssectional area of the airstream at the entrance of the coil Face velocity of the air. The volume rate of airflow divided by the face area ‘Surface area ofthe coil. The heat-transfer area in contact with the ait ‘Number of rows of tubes. The number of rows in the directicn of airflow 447148 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1 for cooling and dehumitying a. (Boke Host TronsferDiiion of Figure 8-1 A ehlled-water co Gulf Western) 3 Condition of ai passing through the coil (al) A condition ove 2 of Frits on the payehrometric chart representing the conetng fof the air as it passes rete the cal. Some thermodynamics texts show te ine 12 2 Fig, 8:2 a8 the “hun curve shows 2 drop in temperature a: constant humidity 18 process. This con’ carted, From point 2 to point 3 the state of the air folows tint the air becomes sat Tks quilibriam mh _ Figure8-2 Iealized coil condition Temperature, "© caresCOOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COILS 149 along the saturation line until the at eaves the coll Path 12:3 would occur ony i he aie tr mass were ata uniform temperature and vapor pressure asitis cooled. Such cat the case, however, because gradients of both temperature and vapor pressure exist inthe air passing through the coil, srr atherHealzation isthe stright line from point 1 to point rst introduced in ‘gee.3.8. This cuveis an idealization because this proces occurs only when the wetted Ser po exists at 2 constant temperature throughout the col The actual coll condition sar ail be found to le somewhere between the two ideaizations of Fig. 8:2. 8-4 Heat and mass transfer An elementary cooling and dehumidifying coll is shown 37 Fig 82, where the sucnsive transport proceses ar (1) combined beat, and ms ES fr proces fom the acto the wetted surface, (2) conduction through the wates sancti metal, and (3) convection to the refrigerant or chilled water, For a differenti at col, two equations are available for the rate of heat anser, da W, for an clement of area dA m? hed aq ="= (hy - @ where he = convection coefficient, Wim? + K pecific heat of air mixture, kl/kg * K if, -Sthiy ofa, Teg Rev catn f , t wetted nice tmpextue Ks ‘the secordd equation expresses the rate of heat transfer to th refrigerant or chilled water dq=h, dA(t,-) @2 where f,= temperature of refrigerant or chilled water, °C {= temperature of wetted surface, °C dA = refrgerant- or chilled-water-side area, m? tS Combined conductance tough wetted surface, meal of fing and ees snd refrigerant or water boundary layer inside tubes, Wim? « K “The term Migs the thermal resistance Between the wetted surface andthe seg rae sat ibid the tbe, The value of i ess than the refrigerant side coef Flow of refrigerant orchid water Figure 83 Transport processes ina col150. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING. cient because of the additional resistance to heat transfer provided by the metal and ‘water film on the ar side. ‘Equating Eqs. (8-1) and (8-2) gives 4 hgh, tas Som" 4 4 @3) When the enthalpy of the a are known for a certain position in the coil, the temperature of the wetted surface can be calculated. Determining the temperature of the wetted surface isa key step in ana- Iyzing the performance of the coil. In Eq. (8-3) when f, fg, and R are known, two vvarables are still unknown, f and fy. The enthalpy of saturated airy isa function of the temperature of the wetted surface f, and values are available from Table A-2, but 1h, can also be related tof, by the cubic equation 1h, = 9.3625 + 1.78614, + 0.01 1354?+ 0.000988551} 4) ‘which is applicable between 2 and 30°C. ‘Substitution of Eq, (8-4) into Eq. (8-3) yields a nonlinear equation 44 rare 1h, +9.3625 + 1.78614, + 0.011351? + 0.000855) =0 (8-5) Which ean be solved for f Example 8-1 At one position in a cooling and dehumidfying coil which has an BR value of 0.22, hy = 85.5 kifkg and f, = 9.0°C. What are the values oft, and hy? ‘Solution One technique for solving the nonlinear equation (8-5) uses the Newton: Raphson technique. If a function of x is written in such a form that (x) = 0, the procedure is to choose a trial value of x and compute f and cffdx. The improved value of x is then ft on flax ‘The iterations continue until they are sufficiently close to convergence. [Equation (8-5) for this problem can be written 1,90 i 99 _55.549:3625 + 1.78611, + 0011359 + 0.000988551? 022° 022 ‘where f= 0 for the correct value of f ar 1 A. 1 617961 + 00221, + 0.002965 a, 0m ‘Try 4 = 20°C; then £2 22.0329 and the temperature of the refiigerant, and the ratio R™‘COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COILS 151 and so 22.0329 new * 20- - fs 79718 ‘Another iteration yields f 5188, = 7.604 a, osiss new 217.236 - SIE r7.17° 7.604 From Bq.(84) = 4837 blk {85 Calculating the surface area of a coil The foregoing relations can now be applied to compute the surface area of a coil when the entering coniitions and flow rate ofthe tin, the temperatures of the chilled water or refrigerant, and the heattransfer condi- tions are known. Example 8.2 A counterflow chilledavater coil is to cool 2.5 als of ae from an Entering condition of 30°C dry-bulb and 21°C wettulb temperature toa final Wwet-bulb temperature of 13°C. Chilled water enters the coil at 7°C and leaves at To°C. The ratio of outside to inside surface area is 16:1, he = $5 Wim? = Ky j= 3 KW? * K, and py, = 1.02 kifkg + K, Caleuate (othe eequred surface afea and (b) the dry-bulb temperature ofthe leaving ait. ‘Solution Consider the coil to be as shown in Fig, 8-4, having countercurrent fhow of air and chilled water on opposite sides of the metal. The coil will be “divided into two increments of area, and each part wil be calculated separately. ‘Arithmeticmean temperature differences will be used to express the rate of heat itansfer to the chilled water, and arithmeticmean enthalpy differences will be ised to express the heat and mass transfer from the acto the wetted surface, 3.66 KsIKe | A, y= 36.72 blk are Figure 84 State points of air and chilled water for collin Example 82.——<—$— 152. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING abel the air net (and water out) ofthe calla position 1 and the eM ent os 3, An airy positon 2 ken whee oneal guilt Gnd wetrneered, At 2 the temperature ofthe elle water sm reat tycen 70 and 12°C, and the enthalpy ofthe ait he rnidway between see The enthalpy of entering ata 30 and 20°C 0 ant wetbulb hat a eps, rom te payee ht in F319 Lee Peciul trpertue of the leaving ai 13°C, and nee Wi 21 60.6 Kae Te eration, fom Table A2 ot Fig. 31,3" 36.72 Kk Test enthalpy at point 2 is (60.6 + 36.72)/2 = 48.66 ki /ke. ‘The vale of Rin Eq. (83) 8 a, A, 55018) Eo, Ay 10203000) 2876 kg K/k R Amen the value of R, the air enthalpy Mz» and the chlled-vayer PSN fave conditions fj and hy, can be computed by the z, are known, the inte ‘3 dotted in Example 8-1. The interface values For the thes points 2° Position ti Tene (1201628 45.22 bes 98 287 559 5 5e72 094728 (@ The coil area could be caleulated sing liner the alesis OF the chilled: wate heavtranatr relations. Choosing the trade caution, S680 a gs the ates between positions I and 2 In which de rate of heat transferred nas ay, (2:5 kal) (60.6 ~ 48.66) = 29.85 kW = 29,850 0 “Another expression for this rate of heat t ransfer comes from the rate equation, hA yg 72x manent ene quaint wo expressions for a. nd sling fo Aya B= 29850 B6yl2 - (45.72 + 36.59)/2) 41a” Gio (05H 11m? Ina similar manner As can be computed og ee BU 6 36:72) (1000 WW) 237 GSO) (48.66 + 36.722 ~ G6.59 + 28.13)/2) = 53.6 m> rhe surface area ofthe coll is 41-1 + 53.6= 94.7 m? paane ya99333thin COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COULS. 153 (b) After the areas Ay. and A. have been calculated sensible heat relation- ships can be used to predict the dry-bulb-temperatures at positions 2 and 3. For tea A 9, the sensible-heat transfer in kilowatts is (2.5 Kal) (1000 WIKW) (4 ~ > K) where Cy iin Keg * Ky way pfs ‘a*4) 2 2 and also 2.5(1.02) (1000) (30.0 -f) 30. + 11690 +t, 16.28 ies) 2056°C Forarea dys 20.56+ 1.09 009 (2056-49 # 86659( 2 1,013.72" Improved accuracy will be achieved ifthe col divided into a large number of anal! pevements, If just one increment of area had been used Example 8-2, the cal- sain sree would have been 94.35 m?, and if four increments had been used, the saul wea would amount to 91.14 m2, The calculation of the cutltdry-bulb tempera: wae e ko alfected by the numberof increments. For one, two, and four increments eee athe ealeulated outlet dry-bulb temperatures are 12.73, 13.72, and 14.12°C, respectively. in Exemple 8:2 water isthe cooling medium, and its temperature changes con tinuously art flows through the coll. Ina direct-expanson coil constant refrigerant openaure i assumed. The same calculation method is use forthe diect-expanson wend eventhough the refrigerant temperature remains constant, the wetted Surface temperatute progressively dropsin the direction of arfow. 8.6 Moisture removal The rate of moisture removal from the air in an increment of ae oan be determined after the area and the wetted-surface temperatures have been ‘calculated, The mass balance specifies that Rate of water remove GW, =) kals where Gis the airflow rate in kilograms per second. ‘Nee the equation forthe rate of mass transfer irs proposedin Se. 3-14 can be iate- pend for thelncrement of area Ay when the arithmetcsmecn difference in humidity ratios is used it becomes aa (at Mat (gt tas) Rate of water removal ="€—_———__——h 154 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING jit ratio Cel) of saturated air atthe wetted sui fempes: wire Wi HE me M3 ee paper rt of ae emer BS a (Mitte Mat on wyotin (Mi2 MaMa) ao 4:7 Actual col condition curves Figure £2 illustra 8:7 Atel a pang ou he ol Path 125 Wu eT showing hes qui whe bing cools Pah wel eeu ifa wetted as of Wee eat coted the Te 2a a a cue of ea ecoessrper 2 the a popes nah “Typical in Big 3 a us ho 0 FO, Ea HM of tubes outlet coy pains Bc, and e, espectiey owmby pln 6 fs sre ners nape of the al canine een ec tat the empeatae of te weed ES diminishes a ow In Era 8221 1 a frm hea actu col codon cre cul ema ‘aiSeomposte of 2 1 an Lie a a 83 Ce wes A nent pan ofthe condo a era nation to obecig the changin 2 eee tha he points epee one sar, Usaly more cooing is pesorme, fot tubes besa gan ine st cae teenie il Gretted surface is less at the air outlet 2, and 3 are plotted on 2 tae state points of the sir in Example 2 at pints 1» paychrometric chart, they outline 2 ray mpiled water asa retigerant with its lowest emperor (Groot expansion coil give a curved line ae girectexpansion coil the temperature of in the airflow. The truth of this statement can of he ar and, are constant throughout the direc expasion Talks Toni 4.61095 eB rows rigute 85. Actual coil condition Temperature cave 1d two idealized condition curves * ‘where the wetted surface is pe of the condition curve, Ming te outlet conditions from succes OWS oF fample, in the frst 0% ee between the air and ease aimilar to the one sn Fig. 8. The example 4 the air outlet. Does 2 for the coil condition 2urve? Yes, because even ‘ihe wetted surface drops in the direction ‘be shown by reference to Eq. (8-3). The coil, and changes in a eeee poe aaaa> 95999‘COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COWS 155 Aicfow Figure 84 Determining outlet conditions by a stepwise calculation. 1 and fh; must be in the same direction. When the enthalpy of air hy decreases asthe air flows through the coll, rj and fy must also decrease. Data from manufacturers catalogs of the outlet air conditions from successive rows of tubes ina direct-expansion ‘oil confirm 2 curved line, provided that the surfaces of the coil are wet 8.8 Solving for outlet conditions Example 8.2 showed how the required area of a coil could be calculated to give a desired rate of heat transfer. Such a calculation might be nade in the selection of the coil. Another important calculation, however, isto predict the outlet conditions with a given coil, refrigerant temperature, and inlet air condition. "A stepwise solution of a directexpansion coll is possible by dividing the known. coil area into several sections. The fist such section is 4» in Fig, 8-6. Four equations ‘ean be written for the first increment of areas GO ha2" 9 KW en é w 6s) ‘a (ara, 69) 7 yg" MlG9) from Eq (64) @10) where A/A; isthe ratio of airside to reftigerantside area, The wetted-surface condi- Tions fy and’ can be determinedas in Example 8-1. The four remaining unknowns, fa gu hype and f,3, can be solved from the four simultansous equations (7) to (G10). Kida? has developed a graphical method for making this calculation. 18.9 Partially dry coil So far in this chapter we have considered only coils whose entire surface is wet. All the coil surface will be wet if the entie surface is below the dew- point temperature of the entering air. Sometimes, however, the coil surfaces atthe air {inlet are dry, and condensation does not begin until farther along in the coil, Conden- sation begins when the surface temperature of the coil drops to the dew-point tem perature of the entering air, as illustrated in Fig. 8-7. On the psychrometsc chart in Fig. 8, sensible cooling with no dehumidification occurs along the dry portion of the coil, 12. In heat-transfer calculations the coil must be treated as two separate surfaces, using applicable equations for the dry and the wet sections.156 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Wet surace : Figure 7A partially dry coll oniay rato, Kae Figure 6-8 Coll condition curve of “Temperature "© a pacilly dy col Example 83 The airflow rte through a direst expnsun coils 32 ule and Te Example tions of the ac are 30°C dy bub temperature nd 20,C wet eld ate ote retigerant temperate is 10°C hy = 2400 Wim > he tem K, and the ratio of external. internal sacs areas 180 (@) What 10 Wal temperature of the as when condensin begins? (2) How much furface area ofthe coils dry? “Sottion (a) From the psychrometsc char (Fig 31) A. = 572 43 kg- The point temperature of enesing air is ~ 150°C. At the point where condenst- ion begins, both the following equations apply 1,44 A, a @u) (4 Medd a) and hea a ea had Eis a 1) om‘COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING CoS 157 Equations (811) and (8-12) show, incidentally, that fer the special cae where Wr=Wia - fafa Using Eq, (8-11) gives 2400 (15.0) (100) = (159 - 100) re 4 2 (6) The same value of his assumed to apply to the dry area even though hi, includes the resistance of the condensed water film. Using the arithmetie-mean, temperature difference, we have leg) =) Ay (BD Spm) ta —'9) ampeaag, tl zi) (0.32 kgs) (1020 J/kg * K) 000 -21.7) wt aya (2222109) 1/100 + 18/2400 “1?\ 2 on Ag =2.99 m! 810 Coil performance from manufacturers’ catalogs The methods of analyzing the performance of cooling and dehumidifying coils outlined in Secs. 8-4 to 8-9 are not the routine procedures used by designers in selecting coils. The purpose of the previous sections is to explain the trends in the performance of coils end to equip the designer to calculate the performance of coils for unusual appliatioss when catalog data are not available. For conventional applications the manufacturers of coils present per- formance data to simplify coll selection in both tabular and graphical form, Table 8-1 is an excerpt from a coil catalog. The complete catalog gives the coil performance at other dry- and wetulb temperatures of entering air and at additional face velocities. Several characteristics of coll performance can be demons:rated by the data from ‘Table 8-1: (1) a plot on the psychrometric chart ofthe poin's representing the condi- tion of the air at the outlet from successive rows of tubes shows curvature similar to Fig. 8-5, (2) each successive row of tubes removes less heat than its predecessor (this fact can be shown by determining the reduction in enthalpy of air through each suc- cessive row of tubes), (3) a lower refrigerant temperature with a given face velocity causes a greater ratio of latent- to sensiblesheat removal, and (4) an increase in the face velocity increases the capacity but also increases the dry- and wet-bulb temper atures of the outlet air. “Table 8.2 shows the performance of the same coil as Table 8-1 with the same entering wetbulb temperature but a different dry-bulb temperature. Comparison of ‘Table 8-2 with the section of Table 8-1 at the same refrigerant temperature and face158 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘table 841 Performance of a Trane Company dirctexpanion refrigerant 22 cooling coll . seems at 30% dy ull temperature and 217°C wet buh PETS 20mis ity 13.0 mf ace velocity Gowal Fimapppr, — Finalwat, Rowsof_FlnahOiy inal W8T, tubes c °c ube ct es ube 17°C refrigerant termperature 2 119 162 2 186 13 3 149 14a 3 163 156 4 128 123 4 46 140 6 98 36 6 na 14 4 9 18 8 93 98 154°C sefigerant temperature Oe 2 182 m4 2 ba 180 3 161 153 3 ns 165 4 143 Bs 4 189 152 6 ns ns 6 BS BL 8 102 99 a Wa ia 72°C refrigerant temperature 2 196 179 2 a 187 3 ns 16s 3 ity 1s 4 161 183 4 a 16a 6 19 34 6 184 a 8 124 a 8 19 134 selocity shows that the inal wet-bulb temperatures are approximately the same for tBven number of rows of tubes. Figure 89 shows a comparison of the condition cues when air enters a giver eit Paterent dry-ulb temperatures but atthe same wet bs ‘temperature. The col i aentical final wet‘ulb temperatures in Table 62 and Oe corresponding essential able 8-1 ca be explained by recaling the folowing es, ‘The enthalpy section of petween the ar and the wetted surface contol Ws of heat transfers Aiferenes efrgerant temperature and aiflow rate a speciod and the enthalpy so when ing ab ixed. by spesifying the entering WELD? temperature, the Oe reapy and wet-ull temperature wil be Fixed regardless ‘of the dry-bulb ‘temperatures. PROBLEMS get A cooling and dehumiditying coil is supplied with 2.6 13/5 of air at 29°C 489 4A cooling sre. temperature, and 1s cooing capacity kW. The face bulb and 245 mis, and the coll is @F the direatexpansion (Pe provided with => proMD 2 COOLING AND DEHUMIDIFYING COILS 159 ‘Talue 8-2 Coil performance from the same catalog as Table 8-1 . ‘ie eaters at 35,6°C diy-bulb temperature, 217°C ‘fetal. temperature, and 20 m/s face velocity: 17°C refrigerant temperature Rows of tuber Final DB 2 187 3 1s 4 n9 6 a 99 79 Tumi ratios ake Figure 89 Col condition curves ‘wth sume entering wet bul tempers tures, face vebctes, and refigerant Tampere, temperatures ftigerant evaporating at 7°C. The coil has an airside hesttransfer arca of 15 m? per caaere meter of face area per row of tubes. The rato of airside to refrigerantside area see he values of fy and h, ate 2050 and 65 Wim? « K, respectively. Calculate (a) the face area, (B) the enthalpy of the outlet air, (c) the wetted-surface temperatures at the sis inet, ir Outlet, and at the point where the enthelpy of aris midway between a catering and leaving conditions, (2) the total surface area, (e) the number of rows AF tubes and (/) the outlet dry-bulb temperature of the air. Ans. (a) 0.96 m?; (b) $3.2 kifice (e) 17.25, 15.44, 13.56°C; (4) 42.7 m?3(@) 3; 20..°C 18:2 For the area A, in Example 8-2 using the entering conditions of the ais and the eRredaurface temperatures at points 1 and 2, (a) calculate the humidity ratio of the TEN point 2 using Eq. (8-6), and (2) check the answer with the humidity ratio deter ‘Mined trom the dry-bulb temperature and enthalpy at point 2 calculated in Example 8-2, Ans, 0.0111 ke/ke 8.3 A direct-expansion coil cools 0.53 ke/s of air from an entering condition of 32°C fiy-bulb and 20°C wet-bulb temperature, The refrigerant temperature is 9°C, h Thin? "Ky hz = 54 Win? * K, and the ratio of arside to refrigerant side areas is 1S. Calculate (a) the dry-bulb temperature of the air at which condensation begins and {@) the surface area in square meters of the portion of the cod that is-ry. Ans. (a) 25.7°C, (6) 4.51 m?—————_ 160 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING fring air are shown in Table fs 4.4°C, caleulate first two get For a coll whose performance and concitions 9 £8 ars nen the face velocity is 2 m/s and the retiger temperature 4) the ratio of moisture removal to reduction “ry-bulb temperature in the (2) the per in te dzetion of asflow and in the st Oo ‘and (8) the av ion of ithe lst two rows in kilowalts per square meter Cooling capacity of the first a ans (2) 00000932 and 0.00056 ke/kB- KO) and 8.91 KW Oe Mow rte of 0-4 Ke/s enters 2 cooling 284 dehumidifying coil, which for Be poss of analysis is divided into two cake Midas, pq and Aga. The temperatures 52 9.2°C. The porpowes Sted coll surfaces ae fy ~ Y28°C: Nha 7 YOarc, and OF tae et aerng at Ry = BLO and hy ~ 645 HIME etetitine hy y- AMS 52.25 KI/ke REFERENCES 1, J Meflgin and D.C. Wiley: Calealation of o Figure 98 Application of (a) mixing and () bypass aes used, the system flow remains approximately constant and the temperature of the re- turn water moves closer to that of the supply water at part load. ‘Whether itis an advantage or disadvantage to maintain a nearly constant flow rate ‘even at low loads depends upon the system. Ifthe flow rate of water drops too low, the pump may overheat, because the pump continues to deliver mechanical energy Into low flow rate of water. This situation can be prevented by asing several pumps, in parallel and then shutting purnps down asthe flow rate drops. Another disadvantage of Tow flow rates with chilled water is that the poor distribution of velocities in the fraporator at low flow may result in localized freezing of wate, which might bust tube, “The constant system flow rate that occurs when three-way valves are used is a disadvantage in some large installations, such as central chilled-water plants, because fil pumps must continue to operate, sending flow through all the chillers, in order to maintain the high flow rate. 97 Failsafe design The loss of supply-air pressure is a situation shat must be antii- pated in the design of the control system. In moderate and cold climates the status to tii various elements should revert upon loss of supply-air pressure is as follows: Heating coils, Normally open valves Cooling cols. Not crucial, ether normally open or normally closeé valves Humidification, Normally closed valves Outdoorair inlet and exhaust air. Normally closed dampers Example 9-1 Specify for the terminal-teheat control shown in Fig, 9) whether the thermostat should be reverse- of directacting and whethe- the valve should be ‘normally open or normally closed. Solution To meet the fail-safe condition in moderate and zold climates, a nor: mally open valve should be chosen. An increase in pneumatic pressure closes the ‘alve; closing the valve provides est heat to the space; and les heat to the space is Called for when the temperature in the space rises. Since an increase in space Temperature therefore calls for an increase in control presure, a direct-acting thermostat is needed.168. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ky = ‘Thermostat supely ear y 135 KPa Conditions Return nae turn igure 9.9 Terminabzcheat control sytem “Another workable valvshermostat combination would be a normally estt salve mith a veverse-acting thermostat, but this combination would not provide the desired fail-safe position. 9-8 Throttling range Air-conditioning contol systems 30 10" regulate the variable ore nc controling ta precise value. A fundamental charac ‘of control systems they at vom must be a deviation from the set pint in ort to nsien® action. is tha oe gperation of + modulating pneumatic temperate Conteh for example, The ree temperature wil be diffrent tight load andat heey) re erage in the contclled variable fom road fo £41 10s called ae tng range. In an aictempertare controler regulating the OO, temperature tne rg col, for example, the temperature ofthe lating ag mus STOR order from ate male regulating chilled water to the coi. IF the ee tempers 13°C to cow ne orale is fully open and 10°C inorder to clase the val, the throttling range is3 K, Example 92 The artemperature cottl ofa heating col served by Wt water, 38 aaarm in Fig. 9-10, consists of temperature wansmitier, receiver controller, and Reever 1354Pa conte supply at Hot water “Temperate ai Heating “a aT col Figure 910 Aictermperatre conto of heating colAIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 169 vyaer valve, The temperature transmitter has a range of 101 65°C during which santas output ckangs fom 20 to 100 KP. The restercontolle it with vearret TO to fand the spring range ofthe hot-water vale 60090 KP, What iste throttling ge ofthis asembly? ‘Solution If the hot-vater valve is of the normally open type, it will be fully open ‘vhen sero control pressure is applied and remain fully open until the control pres snes nereases to. 60 KPa. Thereupon the valve begins to close and will be com- pletely closed when the control presse is 90 KPa and above. Between fully open Pre fully closed postions, then, the control presure changes 30 KPa. Since the {hin ofthe revsivercontoler is 10 to 1, to achieve the 30a change in controt osu, the pressure range from the temperature transmitter swst be 30/10 = 3 va. This pressure change in the temperature transmitter correzponds to a tem- perature change of 65-10°C 10020 KPa ‘Thus the temperature of the air leaving the coil must rise 2 K from the condition Mhare the valve is fully open until the valve is fully closed, and the throtling range is 2K. (era) throtiling devices for air and consist of pivoted metal Mints at shown in Fig. 9-1 and schematically in Fig. 9-118, Dampers are installed ia aaa oeations as the supply line of a variable-ar-volume system or the outdoor, eet- sare pds and exhaustair ducts, as shown in Fig. 9-12. The damper operator (Fig. 9-13), {22 pitomeylinder combination in which the piston is springloadeé so that it moves ie pe tarieft postion when no air pressure i applied. A typical «pring range for 8 damper operator is 55 t0 90 KPa. re the contol subsystem shown in Fig. 912, the dampers in the eecrculatedalt duct move to thei closed position while the other dampers move to their open posi fom and vce versa, It might seem desirable to link all the dampers mechanically and Damper operator 99 Dampers Dampers are @ © igre 91 (@) A damper assembly and (b sehemati epresntation.—— 170 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ouidoorair NA ' Mixedar XK\N Recircoated ~<—— \ ar Return —_ i Tao and recoultedalr control Figure 9-12. Outdoor, exhaust tse just one damper operator. Only on followed because of the complexity in st fiampers ave linked, all the reccculatedair dampers are Tie Gampers are linked, each set having its own d to this practice. Dampers covering lage areas often divided into several sections, each regulated by “Typical low characterstes' of a damper are show cent of maximum flow asa function of the damper posit ren the pressure difference across the damper curves are applicable wh damper resistarce isin the range of Gr Topreents the condition where the open ‘0.50 percent of the total system resistance Is to 25 percent. Clearly characteristics Jo? apenity (approximately 11 percent) sults im damper provides very litle control Masrchanges only fom 85 to 100 percent. The dam se crane rather than cure A chiefly by selecting a smaller crs the dampers. 49.10 Outdoor-ir control A frequent application of Jani vite of outdoor ventilation ar (as discussed flow rate of ventilation aic. Two possibilities Shown in Fig, 9-15. consider the plan shown in Fi fopen so that when the dampers axe compl ‘pen, Presumably if the minimum flow of see traximum, 20 percent of the duct would be left open + Figure 9.13 A damper operator very small nits, however, is such # practice sing up the linkage. Normaly ll the exhaust 4, and all the outdoors raper operator, but there are exceptions “Garger than about 4 m2, for example) its own damper operator. min Fig, 9-14, giving the per- ton in degrees of opening, The is constant. Curve for curve B the resistance is in the range of ‘hace preferable to those of A, since in A 3 "38 percent of the full flow. The he 45 to 90° range, during which span the pers ean be selected to approxi sectional area for pers isto regulate the flow in Chap. 5) and also to assure a minimum for providing the minimum flow ra! ‘9-154. A portion of the duct i left letely closed a fraction of the duct is stil “outdoor ait is specified as 20 percent of bo vaagsaas aa daa03 5999999920 099999 caaaeas ataece[AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 171 THE) Percent of maximum flow & : Zz o 0 3 30 70 90 Damper postion, depress open Figure 944 Flow charactertics ofan opposedeafdampet. ‘The disadvantage of the scheme in Fig. 9-1Sa is that there are times when the ucts to the outside (both the outdoor-air duct and the exhaustair duct) should be Completely closed. If the system is shut down and the fans are il, itis conceivable fn cold weather that low-temperature air could blow in through the ducts and freeze the water ina coll. To guard against this danger, a damper should be installed in the Jninimum flow passage, a8 in Fig. 9-15b; it should be completely open when the fan is in operation and completely closed when the fan is shut down. Furthermore this dam- pet should be a normally closed damper so that its failsafe postion sto close off the mecess of outdoor ait inthe event of a failure of controb-air pressure. ‘There is yet another frequently used approach to supplying the minimum flow rate of outdoor ait. Suppose that the dampers in the outdoor-air and exhaust ducts are positioned by damper operators with a 5S-to 90-Pa spring range, The damper will be Flosed when the control pressure is 5S kPa and completely open when the pressure is 90 kPa, Ifa minimum of 20 percent outdoor airs specified, the control system would be designed so that a pressure no less than 62 KPa would be supplied to the operator, Nc. opens then fan rons o oy Figue 9-15 Providing minimum ventilation at: (2) not recommended; (®) preferable,172 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING except when the fan isnt in operation. The log that consol pes of 62 kPa xP vg of 55 to 90 kPa woud provide a miriam of 20 percent damper ‘opening ane ine assurance tha if 20 percent ofthe outdoor duct i ffk ops) the sniniam flow wil be 20 percent of the total? In the second contro! scheme, what is mini rnce that 20 percent damper opening will provide 20 percent of ie toul the ssumigt Curve A in Fig. 9-14 shows about 37 percent of fil arnow Hee the, simpers ate open 20 percent of 90° It is no surprise then, Wat when building op- dampers ark on an energy conservation program, one of the fist Wis is the cra ventilation ai. A survey should be made to determine what ‘outdoor fo sat tes atually preva, intend of assuming tat the cotrl system s perform ing according to design. acti Freeze protection If water na col fees a tube in he cll may burt el a. ers pense of eaing the col dsption of sre, nd poly ie! So a ne ing Water in ol coud ez ecu of eat icing some ey 22 oe Tow the Teeing point of water A safety device led fezeia SOW aac al cos tata key to be subject to ezing condone be ins eat i camped to the out face of the col Ia short Jena Get Hendley tube rope to temperature of O°, the fezesiat ops Ce 15 ot ated nt the system whic takes, eat wo ation: (1) sts off atch) closes outdoor ai and exhaust dampes and.) cs cheat cos (they are used inthe aye) are eauipeed Wh Fe even some cooling cols that are not drained of thes wate ine cero equipped Many designers prorde a cclang water Pump o7 TOP te Soult Wt Shinn order to petent How water velo. is ring pepo of D8 water che hat ieesups ae most Hil to over. Locating the pebea 6 wate stream has the advantage of warming the outdoor ar Before eating {Re coil and thus helps to prevent Freezeups. 19.12 Sequencing of operations The appropriate slecton of spi anes for valves 2 ates makes a sequencing between heating and cooling posible Example 93. A fourpipe system serves a heating and cooling coll, as shown in Fi 916, packaged in a singe cabinet n 2 conditioned space ‘One thermostat is FB lat the two valtes so that asthe temperature inthe sPace ‘drops, the cool- seem gradually loss off and ona further drop emporio the heating coil ‘Resco to open. The spring ranges avaable forthe wales ae 2 55 and 6210 ee rhe bulding is located ina cold climate. The hermosty fat change in serput of 20 KPa/K. () Specify the spring ranges of the ves whether they are utr ot pen or normally closed, and wheter the thermostat iees oy rater meting. (HF the space temperature is 25°C when the chilee es valve is com sretly open, what are the ranges of temperature dung cooling operation and heating operation? Sotution In aco climate the hot-water valve shouldbe normaly OPS In order Solution Sein tempeatute to clos the valve the control presi smut increase ewe eee we ee[AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 173 eating col Hot Cold Hot Cold Return supply Figure 916 Sequence heating and coting contr swith an increase in temperature, and so the thermostat must be direct-acting, As ‘ign the lowest spring range (28 to 55 kPa) to the heating cell an the highest ‘he cooling coi. The chilled.vater valve should be closed at control presure of 62 kPa and fully open at 90 kPa, so iti a normaly closed valve ‘The space temperature is 25°C when the chilled.vater valve &s completely ‘open (90 kPa) the temperature ranges ofthis sequence are a8 shown In Table 9-- 9-13 Other valves, switches, and controls A number of additional valves, witches, op otner devices are available to the controtsystem designer. Same are shown sche matically in Fig. 9-17 and described below. Manual preseurestting switch (Fig. 9-172). Provides a constant output pressure that is manually adjustable. Pretmectrc switch (Fig, 9-170). An electric switch that chasge its position from sipen to closed (normally open) or frm closed to open (normally closed) upon fan increase in pressure above the set point ‘Blecins nr witch (Pig 9-176). A two-way solenoid valve for imereuption of control air pressure. “Table 9-1 ‘Temperature ranges in sequenced operation of Example 93 CContiol pressure, KPA Temperatue,*C ” oe Cooling 2 00-69 ae 6 25-00-60 Spe 35 25 ~ (90 $5) (fy) = 2325 Heating 28 25 (00-28) (h) = 219174 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Control peste I Surety zh Beet Electric presure pressure tt NOroINC. @ o : Conta presure ~~ fir — c Ne. NO.orNC. No. © o al Highest Suvply J» common | fiowesn or mae | no PoP, NC—a{-~ So — No. © 0 Dietactng Revereacting Suoely = Reversed [are Pol Poa Seting setting ?, ?, ® o igure 17 Some contol valves and switches () mani pesreaeting swith (9 Ber Flere 917 Some cucac nt ste, (2) paeamaie ir sich, () pseu seston) Sterns ‘ela, a) reversing relay, () switching ale Pneumatic air switch (Fig. 9-17), Thecevay, two-position valve that selects one of ‘tuo different ar pressures dependent upon the control pressure. Presser selector (Fig 9-176). A high-pressre selector chooses the highest of 199 sieving pressures and passes it on. A Tow-pessue selector performs the opposite function. Diesung relay (Fig. 9-17A. At low supply pressure (100 KPa, fr example) We cons ne es connected with the normally open port, and with a high SUPDIY Pes soon TrgO kPa, for example) the common is connected with the normally closed port. ‘Reversing relay (Fig. 9-17). Receives an input pressure (20 to 100 kPa, for example) rad converts the signal into an output pressure of 100 10 20 KPa.AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 175 ‘Switching valve (Fig. 9-174). A directacting switching valve trensmits the input pres- ‘sure beyond the set value; a reverse-acting switching valve transmits the input pressure up to the set value. 9-14 Building up a control system Two additional control devices (humiistats and nastersubmaster thermostats) will be introduced in the nex! several sections, but Enough control elements have now been provided to construc realistic control sys Teme, Complicated functions can often be developed by & logical (and sometimes clever) combination of basic elements. Example 9-4 The outdoorair control shown in Fig. 9-18 is to be regulated so that when the outdoorair temperature is above 13°C, 100 percent outdoor aris sed. Below outdoorair temperatures of 13°C the dampers mix outdoor and re- Giculated ar $0 that a fie Of 13°C is maintained. The outdoor dampers must, bbe open 20 percent or more to provide minimum ventilator ai. Draw the control diagram, specifying the spring ranges on the dampers, yhether they are normally open or normally closed, and whether thermostats are Uirect-or reverse-acting. Design for failsafe conditions in cold climates. ‘Solution A suitable control scheme is shown in Fig. 9-19. The failsafe position for the dampers is normally closed for the outdoor and exhaust dampers and nor- rmally open for the recirculated air. The thermostat is direct-acting so that on a The in temperature the control pressure increases, opening the outdoor and ex: hhaust dampers and closing the recirculated air dampers. At 13°C outdoor tempera- ture the outdoorair dampers are completely open: Outdoor temperatures above 13°C increase the control pressure, which Keeps the outdoor dampers open. AS the outdoor temperature drops below 13°C, the dampers modulate to maintain @ nix temperature of 13°C until the control pressure drops to 68 KPa (20 percent ‘of the span between the spring range of 62 to 90 kPa). At control pressures below (68 KPa the highopressure selector chooses the 68 kPa from the manual pressure replator outdoor = 100 = i m= 4 ecrataion i Hating, = 126 Ea time oy Cutoor steers °C © ® Figue 9.18 () Outdoorair control and (desea damper positon n Example 94,176 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Thermostat, diet seting Outdoor and exhaust: NC [Ap eerste 0 Dampers. spring range 62-90 KPa Figure 9.19 Control diagram for Example 94 9.15 Humidistats and humidifiers Without humidification many buildings would acbbcence tow humidities during the winter, The outdoor air brought infor venti, seers a low humidity ratio, and relative humidities in unhamidified buildings of 10 percent are not uncommon. Tumidistats are usually located in the conditioned space or in the return line, as shown in Fig, 9.20. Two commonly used types of humiditats axe mechanical and spore in the mechanical type & change in relative humidity changes a mechanical sorety (such asthe length of nylon sensing elements) whch atuates a conto}. tp ae remyide type the change in relative humidity changes 21 electical property of a substance, such as its resistance or capacitance. “Kpopular type of humidifier is one which admits steam diredy into the supply sirstecn as showm in Fig. 9-20, The valve regulating the seam Co the humidifier i aise normally closed type to avoid excessive moisture spon a failure of santos Sressare, Im adition, a aoemally elosed shutoff vale is plzed inthe steam ne ae Ped only when the fan is opeating. One of the typical problems in the conto! of safer is overshooting because of the lag experienced between the time the panritier increases the rate of humidification and the increase is sensed by the Ai steam it Heating col yc Conditioned Fm opeasiee REF = Figure 9:20 Humiistat and humidifier. |AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 177 ‘humidistat. One technique is to use two humidistats, one as shown in Fig. 9-20 and ‘another in the supply air duet following the humidifier. The soace humidistat resets the duct humidistat, which directly controls the humidifier. Ifa nominal 40 percent relative humidity ‘ the space is desired, for example, the spice humidity sets the duct humidistat as follows: This scheme affords di ‘There is an important fact to consider with respect to hum particularly related to its conto. Ifthe windows in the building are single-pane and the outdoor temperatures are cold, moisture added by the humidifier will condense fon the inside of the windows; the process becomes one of pouring moisture in at the humidifier and condensing it out of the windows without ever appreciably increasing the relative humidity. 9.16 Master and submaster thermostats It is often advantageous to change the setting ‘of one control automatically in response to another variable. For example, the ait temperature in the warm duct of a dual-luct system can be programmed so that the air temperature is lowered as the outdoor temperature increases (and the heating load de~ creases), One version of the receiver-controller, as in Fig. 9-21, has settings for gain, set point, and reset. "The master transmitter is usually digect-acing, so that an increase inthe tempera “Temperature transmitter suprly eset, DA.or RA Recevercontrolen, DA or RA Figure 9-21 rectiver-controle with maser-submaster capabilitiesAND AIR CONDITIONING ase the presure fed to the receiver controler. The reset capably ture stare controller may be chosen as eiter diet or reves ‘and the dil dea fora rato of change of reset pressure toa chang © set-point pressure. An SHampe will serve tollustrate the application of the smastersubmaster function. 178 REFRIGERATION ture it senses incre Example 95 The valve in a steam in serving aot-wates eed fs to be regulated Example water temperate leaving the heater rograrmed On the basis of 50 dlaoratrteraperature as follows with a near variation tweety Outdoor temperature, °C Howvater supply tem ste range ofthe temperature transmitter jn the horas SBP NET 3010 oe ete that of the outdooraieemperatre transmitter 08 30°C, both providing ir presure outputs in tis ange of 200 10) KPa. Specify the gan, set point, and rset ratios and whether the receiver controler and the reset are ditect- for reverse-acting, Solution The contol system is shown schematically in Fig 920, M0 valve Seis normally open so that hot water wil sll prowieed if there is 2 is chose Snr pressure. one of the avaiable spring rans, 9 90 kPa, arbitrarily chosen. Because yen, the response of the receiver ara (othe hot watertemperatre sensor must be dsecesehte ‘The output conte ortare teansrtter I (100 ~ 20 KFa/(100 30°C) 14 KP2/K. To Ota eA goke ofthe steam valve of 62 1090 KFx ot 25 KMS with an arbi rary chosen throting range of 5K sequies gain Siting oP the receiver- ‘outdooraie temperature transmitter No. 62-904 Sepiy air Temperature se see [CF ersten = ‘Receiver Content ree 1 for propamming a hot-water temperature using ut Figure 9.22 Mastersubmastr con temperate yorra9? yar29390 paren[AIR-CONDITIONING CONTROLS 179 ‘Temperature, Pressure, Presure Temperature "C Ps ee 30-720 20-730 -20 333 shatao ie 86-4 90 3000 1001 100 ouidoorair Hotwater temperature tonsmiter temperature transmitter Figure 923 Reset through the outdoorair temperature controller of 28 kPa (SK) (1.14 kPs/K) =49155 Next tur to the reset capabilites, The outdoors temperature transitter (Fig, 9.25) emits a pressure of 33.3 KPa when the outdoor temperature is-20°C $1a'86.7 when the outdoor temperature Is #20°C. Since this change in pressure sata pe ured to reset the hotwatertemperstre conto, the 90°C point must fe clcted fom the span of the hotwatertemperatur tansnitter when the ‘outdoor.air-temperature transmitter is 33.3 kPa. Similarly the 40°C control (31.4 Pa) moat be selected when the presue output ofthe outdoorairtemperstre trate 86.7 KPa The rest rato the ratio ofthe pressure differences Reset ratio= SAE po 1 567-333 Since the low presture fom the outdoorairtemperature transite must slet high prosare fom the hot-watertemperature tansmiter, the reset must be revere actin 917 Summer-winter changeover Many controls must function in opposite directions for cooling and heating. For example, suppose that a fan-coil unit in a conditioned space is served by a normally open valve and hot water is supplied to the coil during180 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING supoty rere 110 Ka in sommer, 170 Pain winter Manat rere | Reversing “onto mr] 10 Kes 7 Fess “Thermostat Normal position selector direct-acting with low prema high) jc ‘Dieting HE wey PMO vee Nozal postion inter changeover ofa thermostat conto. Figure 926 Summes heating and chilled water during cooling. The thermostat inthis situation must be tdvect acting for heating and reverseacting for cooling. A capability that can be built fnte-a pneumatic control system is to use the level of supply pressure asan indicator et whether summer oF winter operation is desired. Typically a supply pressure of 110 Pais provided for summer operation and 170 kPa for winter. Special thermostats are lvailable to convert from reverse: to directacting as the supply pressure is switched from 110 to 170 kPa and thus satisfy the requirement described above. It is also possible to build up a system with the components previously described in this chap eer Such a scheme is shown in Fig. 9-24, where the thermos.at operates direct-acting, when the supply pressure is 170 kPa but delivers contol pressure through a reversing Telay when the supply pressure is 110 KPa, The diverting relys connect the common port to the normally open port when the supply pressure is 110 kPa and the common fo the normally closed when the supply pressure is 170 KPa. 918 Valve characteristics and selection When a control valve is selected to regulate the hot- or chilledswater flow through & coil, as shown schematically in Fig. 9-25, there are essentially three items to be specified: pipe size, C, value, and characteristics (quick-opening, linear, or equal percentage). 1. The pipe size fs often specified to match that of the pipe to and from the valve, although sometimes the pipe sie ofthe valve is smaller ia order to reduce the cost ‘of the vale. 2, The, value is defined by the equation Flow ate=C, VBP Us on where Ap is the pressure drop in kilopascals across the valve when the valve is in its wide-open position. 4, The three diferent valve characteristics commonly available are shown in Fis: 9.26.[AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 181 pets 25 (0.19? je ap = 80% $4 Figure 925 Valve snd col combination. “The valve manufacturer provides a certain characteristic by means of the design chosen. for the seat and the plug. The influences of the choice of valve characteristic and Cy value are demonstrated by two different choices of G,, designated case A and case B. ‘Suppose that the coil has a pressure drop Opa 250? kPa where Q=flow rate, L/s and the available pressure difference across both the coil and valve Is constant at 80 kPa, as shown in Fig, 9-25. A valve with linear characteristics is used in both eases, but the C, in case A is 0.6 and in ease BC, = 1.2 For the valve with linear characteristics, percent stem stroke — ova 100 re 1009 or Percent stem stroke = <= 2 6, Var ‘computed for the valve Foragiven flow rate, say, 2 Ls, the percent stem stroke can KPa, requiring 80 ~ 10 = ‘The pressure drop through the coil would be 2.5(2.0*) a 3 Petcent of fll low (Pe) figure 9.26 Three valve. charac: Percent of stem stroke tenses.182. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 5 =| }—T L| , ain a3 } g 2, : al C1 Tn oon Percent of stem stoke igure 9.27 Flowsttmstike selalonsip of contol vae and coi combinton 470 kato be dissipated in the valve, In ease A.with C, = 0, Fa, (9-2) indicates the percent stem stroke to be 100(2) Percent stem stroke # OO stem soe 5 0 ‘The celationship of the percent stem stroke to the flow rate through the cllalve Tee ation forthe two cases i shown in Fig. 9-27, from whick two observations can canoe G1) even though the flow-stem stroke of the valves i near, the flow stem a pate acteristc ofthe coil-alve combination is not;(2) the combination with the seks ie high C, yields the characteristic with les Linearity. A linear relation is Uesired, as explained in the next section. 4-19 Stability of an aictemperature control loop Most commercial ai-temperature ote val oops are in danger of becoming unstable if improperly designed or adjusted. trng unstable behavior the control “hunts,” i. the leaving at temperature From Pag Mand the flow rate of the fluid the valve regulates osllate. Instability is un srescite because it may result in uncomfortable conditions ‘nthe space, excesive Sey cequirements, and accelerated wear of the valve and other components ee ttndamental means of preventing instability is to keep the combined gsin sroun the loop tow. This can be done, but usually with other penalties, so that 2 sresromige. must be reached, The selection of the valve it one choice influencing seit The slope of the curves in Fig. 9-27 represents a postion of the gain in the aay atrol loop. A large change inthe flow rate fora given change in percent stemAIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 183 stroke represents a high gan. The choice of the low value of C,, namely 0.6, i thereby preferred to the higher , in Fig. 9-27. Furthermore, the los of linearity with the high , results in a steep slope (high gain) near the closed postion ofthe valve. It fs not Chcommon for a loop to be stable at moderate and heavy loads and unstable at light loads Restoring the combined coilvalve performance to a linear relationship can often be achioved by using a vale with equal percentage charecteristies (Fig. 9-26) and vranufuctoers provide Yalves with these characteristics precisely to make the com- bined. characteristics nearly linear (see Prob. 96), Choosing a low Cy forthe valve is hot without its penalty, because the maximum flow rate through the valvecoil com> bination witha wide-open valve is reduced. “The other principal means of adjusting the gui of the loop fs to adjust the gain of the controller" A compromise must be reached in sting the gan of the con- oles also, because although it helps form a stable loop, a ow setting of the gain Krereases the throttling range (See. 98), which in some cases may result in extra energy requirements. 9-20 Temperature reset based on zone load In the discussion in Chap. 5 of energy Characteristics of some systems that experience simultaneous heating and cooling, Such as dualduct and terminal reheat, it was pointed ou: that resetting the supply temperatures at light load will conserve energy. Inthe duslduct system shown sche: fnatically in Fig, 9-28, for example, the hot duct should supply sir at the lowest possible and the cold duct air at the highest temperature possible. A ‘control system can be developed that decrease the warm-air supply tem erature so that one warm air damper in a mixing box is completely open. Suppose That the spring range on a damper operator at the mixing bax is from 35 to 60 kPa and that the space thermostat provides those control pressures with space temperatures of 23 and 22°C, respectively. The schedule would then be temperatur pneumatic one temperature, °C Control pressure, KPa Warmer damper 26 10 Closed B 33 Cloxd 2 60 Open 2 8s Open, Cool ait SEIGE ‘igure 9:28 Rest of warmair supply temperature based on zone oa, Warm air184. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING -The cntcl pressures fom all zones are connected to a pressure selector that es the highest pressure and usesittoreset the hot duct temperature ina schedule typically as follows: ighest contol presue, kPa 50 $560 control presure PY Hote sting, °C 303840 zs + Design setting hen at east one zone is ellng for fll heating, the hotduct seitng moves 9 so value of 40°C, but when all waair dampers ae partly coved, the setting of san val ir temperature drops. A comparable contro scheme can be applied 19 se ae warrar cupply temperature so that one zone has & fully open cookie damper 421 Electric, electronic, and computer control This chapter concenaled 99 aa ee ttls because oftheir widespread application i large uding st cont oc Ing, Residential and small commercial air-conditioning ystems ve regulated mostly by ine Metre controls. Pneumatic systems begin appeasing when the syne comet crrevove than several dozen components. Pneumatic control ester fe inherently or ultingin character, which isa desirable feature. very Large buldings of multi- Failing complexes computer control becomes competitive, Ia ‘computer-controlled Aatems the transmision of information isin digital fom characterized by the Bey of pulses. The computer is programmed to perform fhe stant oe se aiiet in thi chapter but i als capable of much more sophisticated decisions and descr ven in computer consol ystems the inal exerci of power ata damper fr valve might be pneumatic Soa conditioning system is funetioning impropely the control SYST & ote ne iar sopent blamed—rightly ot wrongly. Many engineers Yea for simple ie on sant are easy to understand and maintain, Unfortunately, 0 sehtte good control of the space conditions and do so if ceneapy-ffective manner the Boot al ystem must be sophisticated. Educating the building operator = the fune- tioning of the control system is imperative PROBLEMS. 9-1 A space thermostat regulates the damper in the cool supply duck 304 Tek 9h ties variable airflow rate. Specify wheter the damper should normally open provides fly closed and whether the thermostat is director revers-aci a ream ane outdoorait contol system of Example 9-4, add the necessary ears 22 On te eoorair damper tothe minimis postion when ihe outdoor temperate fines above 24°C, Anz, Use a diverting relay fi oe eras transmitter in a aintemperature contol as ange O° 8 9 se pleh range the pressure ovtput changes From 20 to 100 Fe Ms At ae reraeewontrole is stat 2 to 1 andthe spring fangs of the cooking war valve one ey regulates is 28 Co 55 kPa, what isthe throttling range of this control? Ans. 3.7K 299392. 2399399[AIRCONDITIONING CONTROLS 185 - Conditioned 4 space awe Outdoer 1080 S08 RI “aie, 35%] | PrebOt jtumiiner | [Coating | | Reteat “aL & a)” : hited Hot water PF water water Figute 9:29 Contolled-environment space in Prob. 9.4 9-4 ‘The air supply fora laboratory (Fg. 9.29) consists of a preheat col, humidifier, ooling coll, and heating coil. The space is to be maintained at 24°C, 50 percent rela: tive humidity the year round, while the outdoor supply air may vary in relative hi mnidity between 10 and 60 percent and the temperatute from -10 0 38°C. The spring ranges available for the valves are 28 to $$ and 62 to 90 kPa, Draw the control dia- tam, adding any additional components needed, specify the action of the thermo: Sais) and humidistat, the spring ranges ofthe valves, and whether they ar normally ‘open oF normally closed. 9-5 A faceand-bypass damper assembly at a cooling coll sometimes used in humid Slimates to achieve greater dehumidiication for a given amount of sensible cooling instead of permiting all the at to pass over the cooling col. Given the hardware in Fig, 9.30, arrange the control system to regulate the temperature at 24°C and the Felative humidity at SO. percent. If both the temperature and humidity cannot be maintained simultaneously, the temperature control should override the humidity Cont The sping ranges available forthe valve and damper are 28 (o 58 and 48 (0 46 kPa, Draw the control diagtam and specify the ation ofthe thermostat and hu Imidistal, whether the valve is normally open or normally ¢osed, and which damper is normally closed 9.6 Section 9-18 described the low characteristics of coil egulated by a valve with Iinear characteristics. The equation of the flow-stem position for another type of ee Oe ee ® ®,— ‘cooling Ly. cies Figure 9:30 Face and bypass damper control186. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING mentioned in Sec. 9-18, the equakpercentage valve, Is Ope nex tae sae & var 100 120 and aC, of 1.2 is applied to controling the coi 2 an 2.502 and the tte rsure drop sero he a not in ig 925 with Po gate wen the ave tem coe i thelfvayroson? of 80 MPa a lncancharactertie vale ig, 927.) Ane 2.21 Us valve If such a valve with an A value of REFERENCES 1b 5 Beown and JR, Fellows: Frese Loses and Flow Characters of MalinieL=t FA ee SHAE Trans, ¥ol 68, pp. 299-318, 1958. ane tT Ftmy Control Comes of AB, Heat, pig, ir Cond v0 $5- 9% pp. 103-108, March 1973 3. WE, Staccker: Stability Posty pp. 38-53, 1978 4. D.C. Hamilton, R. 6 hance Ai Temperatore Control System at Near Fall {yo 80, PL, pp 180-194, 1974, 5, 1. Kettler: System Control, Build Sy &, Ndctanise:How to Control Al Systems ‘pil 1968. 4. Shavit: Eathatpy Control Systems: creas Got déyno, Ip pp. 117-122, January 1978 a eadb te ts Phconar shen for Heating, Venting an A Conon” 24 Yan Nowtand Reinhold, New York, 1977. 19, Most of the major control companics ave ‘rthermal systems in buildings of an AixTemperature Control Loop, ASHRAE Trans, vo. 4 Leonard, and J T Pearson: Dynamic Response Charsteritis of Dis "dnd Pact Heating Lead, ASHRAB Trans Dex, vol: 69, pp. 19-21, August 1972. hie Poin, Air Cond, 01 81,20. 4, p. 129-136 set Eneey Conseration, Heet., Piping, Air Cond, developed booklets on the fundamentals of control BE A Be ER con netaty e wintatetatutatete « atebutebaBete Bans,- CHAPTER TEN THE VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE 101 Most important refrigeration cycle The vapor-compression cycle is the most ‘widely used refrigeration cycle in practice. In this eycle a vapor is compressed, then condensed to a liquid, following which the pressure is dropped so that fluid can evap- ‘orate at a low pressure. In this chapter the study progresses fiom the classical Carnot cyele to the actual vapor cycle. The modifications ofthe Carnot cycle are dictated by practical considerations. 102 Carnot refrigeration eyele The Carnot eyele is one whose efficiency cannot be ‘exceeded when operating between two given temperatures. The Carnot cycle operating asa heat engine is familiar from the study of thermodynamics. The Carnot heat engine is shown schematically in Fig. 10-la, with the corresponding temperatureentropy diagram in Fig, 10-18, The Camot heat engine receives energy at a high level of tem perature, converts a portion of the energy into work, and discharges the remainder to ‘aheat sink at alow level of temperature. ‘The Camot refrigeration cycle performs the reverse effect of the heat engine, because it transfers energy from a low level of temperature toa high level of tempera ture, The refrigeration cycle requires the addition of external work for its operation. ‘The diagram of the equipment and the temperature-entropy ciagram ofthe refrigera- tion eycle are shown in Fig, 10-2a and b. ‘The processes which constitute the cycle are: Adiabatic compression Isothermal rejection of heat Adiabatic expansion. Isothermal addition of heat 187188 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Heat fom high: temperature source 2 3 Work compresor Turbine . work T iN 7 Heat to low temperature snk ey 2 2 Rework “Temperature, K Eniropy ik o ge 101 () Carnot beat engae:() tomperareentony dram of he Cano en ent A the proces in the Carmot cycle are thermodynamilly reversible, Process 1-2 and 3-4 are consequently isentropic. ae thdrawal of heat from the low-temperature source in process 41 the retignation sep and is the entire purpose ofthe cyte Allthe ote! Prunes the ‘yede function #0 thatthe low-temperature energy can be discharged to some con enient high-temperature heat sink. ent hgh pyle cons of reversible processes whch make is efficiency TE than teata be achieved in an actual cycle, A reasonable question i: Why £8 the aha oie if it isan unattainable Wea? There ae twe reasons: 1) et Carn eT comparison, and (2) it provides a convenient guide o he tempers sr hould be maintained to achieve maxinvum effectiveness 1053 Coefficient of performance Before any evaluation ofthe pevommtss of are fHeeration system can be made, an effectiveness term must De defined. The index of 93229995‘THE VAPORCOMPRESSION CYCLE 189 Heat high temperature sink + 2 Work -rubine compresor : Heat Trom low temperature source ® Temperature, K Entropy, kg 0 Figure 102 (@) Caumot refrigeration cycle; (6) temperstureentropy dhgram of the Carnot rei cation cycle performance isnot called efficiency, however, because that team is usualy reserved for the ratio of output to input. The ratio of output to input would be misleading applied to-a refrigeration system because the output in process 2-3 is usually wasted. The con- ‘cept ofthe performance index of the refrigeration eycle is the same as efficiency, how- ever, in that it represents the ratio, “Magnitude of desired commodity Magnitude of expenditure ‘The performance term in the reftigeration cycle is called the coefficient of perfor ‘mance, defined as useful refrigeration Coefficient of performance = a net work ‘The two terms which make up the coefficient of performance must be in the same ‘units, so that the coefficient of performance is dimensionless.190. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “Temperature, K Figure 103 Usetl refrigeration and net front of the Carnot cycle shown by areas Entropy, }7ke* K tn the temperatureenuiopy diagram. 104 Refrigerant ‘The working substance in a refigeation system is called the refriy ca She of a number of compounds may be used as the refrigerant. Specific r= frgerane wil be discussed later inthe chapter, and properties which make a successful refrigerant are examined in Chap. 15. 10.5 Conditions for highest coefficient of performance A high coefficient of perfor seca is desirable because it indicates that a given amount of refrigeration requires drly small amount of work. What can be done in the Carnot cele, then, to maintain ‘high coefficient of performance? rr cotrewer the question, fist we can expres the coefficient of performance of the Camot eyele in terms of the temperatures that exist in the cycle. The heat ahs pe Sima severable process Is rey = JT ds Ateas beneath reversible processes on the Temperatreentropy diagram therefore cepresent transfers of eat. Areas show tt Fieiod can represent the amount of useful refrigeration andthe net work, The sot ee poration ithe heat transfered in proces 41, or the area beneath ine 41. Te caer raer line 2-3 represents the heat rejected from the eycle. The difference betwee he heat rejected from the cycle and heat added to the yee & the net heat which or aesvelis process equals the net work. The area enclosed in rectangle 1-2-4 reprewtts a ereat work, An expression forthe coefficient of pesformance ofthe Carnot reffigera: tion eycle is therefore 1, Ts, - (7y-T YE, “The coefficient of performance of the Cammot eyce is entirely a function ofthe fem perature limits and can vary from zero to infinity. Poesanie of Ty wil make the conficient of performance high. A high valve of Ty ineress the numerator and dereases the denominator, both of which increase once of performance. The valve of Ty, therefore, has a more pronounced effect upon the coefficient of performance than 7). Cron ve fora high coefficient of performance (1) operate with Ty high and (2) operate with T> low. Coefficient of performance = - " TT‘THE VAFOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE. 191 — 30315 K umesphere 2215 K cold room “Temperature, K Entropy. kaTke* K Figure 104 Temperature requirements imposed upon a refrigeration eye, 1046 Temperature limitations If we left the analysis here, we would leave the false impression that we have complete control over 7, and T. If this were true, T could simply be set equal to Tp, which would make the coefficient of performance equal to infinity ‘Closer study shows that certain temperature requirements are always imposed ‘upon the refrigeration system. For example, ifthe refrigeration system must maintain 4 cold room at -20°C and can reject heat to the atmosphere at 30°C, these two tem- peratures are limitations within which the cycle must abide, The two temperatures are Shown as dashed lines in Fig. 10-4, expressed in kelvin. During the heat-ejection process, the refrigerant temperature must be higher than 303.15 K. During the re- frigeration process, the refrigerant temperature must be lower than 253.15 K in order to transfer heat from the cold room to the reftigerant. The cycle that results is the one shown in Fig, 10-4, It should not be called a Carnot eycle because all processes in the Carnot cycle are reversible and transfers of heat with a difference in temperature a irreversible processes. The cycle is now merely a rectangular cycle on the temperature entropy plane. ‘Temperature T> should be kept low, but it cannot be reduced below 303.15 K. ‘Temperature 7 should be kept high, but it can be increased no higher than 253.15 K. What control do we have, then, over the temperature? The answer is that we can con- centrate on Keeping the A as small as possible. Reduction of Ar can be accomplished by increasing A or U in the equation g=UA ar where q= heat, W ‘overall heattransfer coefficient, W/m? + K heat-transfer area, m? emperature change, K In order to decrease At to zero, either U or A would have to be infinite. Since infinite values of U and A would also require an infinite cost, the actual selection of equip- iment always stops short of reducing Af to zero.192. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 107 Camot heat pump A heat pump uses the sme equipret refrigeration AYzem bat operates forthe purpose of delivering het 8 high level of temperature. er ugh the equipment used in 2 refrigeration cycle 1) * hheat pump may be Even nthe objectives ae different, The purpose of refAeera0N cycle is to absorb identi yy temperature; that of seat pup is eet Neat ‘high temperature, heat at ne of heatpump opeaton is to take heat a Jow (POTN from outside nah or well water and reject it to heat buildings ome industrial situ ane Jang may be eequired in one part of the plant and Healing ‘in another. Both {hese functions might be served by a heat-pump syst. “clan ean be constructed to operate alterately 2 Neat PAT and a reftigera- tion system, Units ofthis type ae avaiable for airconditioning applications of cooling otiing during summer and heating it during winter. Tek ceformance of a heat pump is expressed by the perfomeics factor. In keep- ing withthe practice of defining the performance Index % the amount of the desired aaa alt divided by the amount of expenditure, the perfomance factor is Performance factor = heat rejected from ye ‘work required ste quanti of energy which make op the pesormane acon ca sent aston the temperatreeneopy dara of the Cnet 9 shown in se Te apn der ine 2-3 represent the heat sed oy the eyele, and the Fo yin vetangle 123-4 represents the net work The performance actor is therefore _ mes Th EG wh ‘ne eigrtin pl with he sre temperate Fi HOS wont aw The tea ace of TylT2 FTO mt Performance factor = =~? = TT Th Performance facto Baty 1 T7% - 41 = coefficient of performance + 1 mT = ‘The performance factor can therefore vay from 1 10 Heat rejected “Temperature, K Entropy. Wife K ‘igaie 105 Carnot heat pump evepede ‘THE VAPOR.COMPRESSION CYCLE 193 == Atmosphere == Cold 100m “Temperature, K Figure 106 Rettigeration cycle when tEniropy, tka K agavis the efrigerant, 108 Using vapor as a refrigerant Because the Carnot refrigeration cycle is the most efficient eycle, every attempt should be made to reproduce it with actual equipment Certainly the reversible processes cannot be duplicated, but a: least the rectangular shape of the cycle on the temperature-entropy diagram should be maintained. Doing fo means that all the heat can be received at one temperature level and rejected at nother, Ifa gas, such as ar, is used as the refrigerant, the cycle would appear as in Fig, 1045 rather than as the rectangle of the Carnot cycle. The isentropic compression and expansion are processes 1-2 and 3-4, respectively. Processes 2-3 and 4-1 are Constant-pressure cooling and heating processes, respectively. This cycle differs from the Camot eycle operating between the same two temperatures by the addition of areas x and y. At point 4 the temperature must be lower than the cold-room tempera- ture so that as the gas receives heat in the constant pressure process it rises to a tem- perature no higher than that of the cold room. For similar reaons Ty must be above the atmospheric temperature. The effect of area x is to incresse the work required, which decreases the coefficient of performance, The effect of area y is to increase the work requited and to reduce the amount of refrigeration. Both these effects of area y reduce the coefficient of performance. Instead ofa gas, refrigerant may be used that condenses during the heatrejection process and boils during the heat-adgition, or refrigeration, process. Such a refrigerant Could therefore operate between liquid and vapor states. With this refrigerant, the Carnot eyele ean fit between the saturatediquid and saturatedapor lines, as shown in Fig. 10-7. Processes 2-3 and 4-1 take place at constant temperature since constant- pressure processes in the mixture region proceed at constant temperature, Process 2-3 fs a condensation process, and the vessel in which it occurs is a condenser, Process 4-1 is a boiling process, and it takes place in the evaporator. 109 Revisions of the Camot cycle While the cycle shown in Fig. 10-7 offers a high coefficient of performance, practical considerations require certain revisions, de- Soribed in the next two selections; Sec. 10-10 discusses the changes in the compression. process, 1-2, and Sec. 10-11 considers the expansion process, 3-4. 10-10 Wet compression versus dry compression The compression process, 1-2, in Fig, 10-7, is called wer compression because the entire process occurs in the mixture region with droplets of liquid present. When a reciprocating compressor is used, several194 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING _— Atmosphere — cold room : Saturated Enropy. talk K sige 107 Carnot reeatin yle when» condensing nd evaporating ue teen factors discourage the practice of wet compression, One is that ligu efgeratt iy aeeeped in the head of the cylinder by the ring piston posit dansohe the os arr the cylinder head. Even though the point at the end of we comps tt vee oe ot 2 in Fig, 1027 [saturated vapor and thus shouldbe free from als sacs not the actual case. During compression the droplets of uid ar vaporized by sae emal heattransfer process which requires «finite amount of tine High-speed aa rcors ae suscepible to damage by guid because ofthe sor tine suahaie for corer tn a compressor that has a rtative speed of 30s, for example, HP mt prsion takes place in 5. At the end of compression, point 2on Ae saturated- ‘arene represents only average conditions of a mixture of superheated PY and emia. Another possible danger of wet compression i that the drones of liquid may da aa nseing oll rom the wal ofthe eyiner, accelerating wea Because 9f aa a cages dry compression, which takes place with no droplets of laut sree at is preferable to wot compression If the relgsrant entering hs comptes aero east, az in Fig. 105, the compression ftom point 1 2 called ty compression. py2909 “Temperate, K 22929209 peaaaa02 3oa8a330 Supertest Temperature K Entropy. tah eeere igure 108 Revision ofthe Carnot etigeraton cycle by sing dry comresion‘THE VAFOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE. 195 With dry compression the cycle loses the rectangular shaae of the Camot cycle, Compression of a dry vapor results in a temperature at point 2 which is higher than the condensing temperature. The refrigerant therefore leaves the compressor superheated. ‘The area of the cycle which is above the condensing temperature is sometimes called the superheat horn, On the temperature-ntropy diagram it represents the additional ‘work required for dry compression. 10-11 Expansion process Another revision is made on the Csrnot cycle to alter the ‘expansion process. The Carnot cycle demands that the expanson take place isentrop- ically and that the resulting work be used to help drive the compressor. Practical difficulties, however, militate against the expansion engine: (1) the possible work that can be derived from the engine is a small fraction of that which must be supplied to the compressor, (2) practical difficulties such as lubrication intrude when a fluid of two phases drives the engine, and (3) the economics ofthe power recovery have in the past not justified the cost of the expansion engine. The possibility of using an expan- sion engine should continue to be studied, however, asthe cost of energy increases, ‘The necessity still remains of reducing the pressure of the Lquid in process 3-4. A throttling device, such as a valve or other restriction, is almost universally used for this purpose, Barring changes in potential and kinetic energy and with no transfer of heat, dy = hg; that is, the process is isenthalpic, The constant-enthalay throttling process is inneversible, and during the process the entropy increases. The throttling process takes place from 3 to 4 in Fig. 10-9 10-12 Standard vaporcompression cycle The standard vaporcompression cycle is shown on the temperature-entropy diagram in Fig. 10-9. The processes constituting the standard vapor-compression cycle are: 1-2, Reversible and adiabatic compression from saturated vepor to the condenser pressure 2-3, Reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure, causing desupesheating and ‘condensation of the refrigerant Temperature K Entropy, kill» K Figure 10:9 The standard vapor-compresion cycle196. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 43-4, Irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy from saturated liquid to the evapore tor pressure - ‘4-1, Reversible addition of heat at constant pressure causirg evaporation to saturated vapor 10:13 Properties of refrigerants The only properties of refrigerants that have been Jjecussed #0 far are the characteristic temperature-entropy relationships of saturated liquid and vapor. Other thermodynamic properties ae necesary fr refrigeration work. ‘A the common reftigerants for vapor-compression systems exhibit similar character- ce although the numerical values of the properties vary from one refigerant to another. ‘The pressure-enthalpy diagram is the usual graphic means of presenting refrigerant properties. In other thermodynamic work the temperatureentropy, prssure-olume, vrpnthalpyentropy diagrams may be more popular. In refrigeration practice, the Shthalpy i one of the most important properties sought, and the pressure can usually be determined most easily. A skeleton pressure-enthalpy diagram is shown in Fig 10-10. The pressure is the ordinate and the enthalpy the abscissa. With the saturated-vapor and saturated liquid lines as the reference, lines of con stant temperature, entropy, and specific volume appear on the diagram. The constant- {Temperature line is horizontal in the mixture egion because here the temperature must Somespond with the saturation pressure, The subeooledsiquid or compressed-iquid sopion is tothe left of the saturated liquid line, In this regoa the constant-temperature Tine is practically vertical. The temperature of a compressed quid therefore determines the enthalpy and not the pressure. This statement conforms to the standard practice in using steam tables at moderate pressures. To find the enthalpy of liquid water that je gubeooled, the enthalpy is read as the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the existing Ccitical kPa Press saturated Tiga fine Enthaipy, Tk Figure 10-10 The presure-enthalpy diagram of a efrigerant.‘THE VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE 197 temperature, even though the actual pressure is higher than the saturation pressure. ‘The supetheat region isto the right of the saturated-vapor line. Inthe superheat region the line of constant temperature drops first slightly to the right and then vertically. When the line of constant temperature becomes vertical, Ak = (corst) (At), the typical relationship of enthalpy and temperature of a perfect gas. ‘The line of constant specific volume slopes upward to the right. Lines of higher specific volumes are found at progressively lower pressures. ‘The line of constant entropy runs upward to the right. A reversible and adiabatic compression, which is isentropic, shows the expected increase in enthalpy asthe pres: sure increases during a compression. Pressure-enthalpy charts for the superheated region of ammenia, refrigerant 11, refrigerant 12, refrigerant 22, and refrigerant 502 are shown in the appendix Figs. A-1 to A'S. Tabular property data are shown for these refrigerants in Tables A-3 to A‘. {All the tables pertain to liquid and saturated vapor except for Table A-7 which applies to superheated refrigerant 22 vapor. Refrigerant 22, for example, isthe generic name for a refrigerant that is marketed under such names as Freon 224 and Genetron 22.4 ‘Ammonia is the refrigerant used in many industrial refrigeration systems. A more thorough comparison of the various refrigerants will be found in Chap. 15. What would be the appearance of the standard vapor-compression cycle on the pressure enthalpy diagram? Figure 10-11a shows the processes which constitute the cycle,and Fig. 10-112 sa schematic diagram of the equipment. Process 1-2 is the ien- tropic compression along the constant-entropy line from saturated vapor to the condenser pressure. Process 2-3 is the constant-pressure desupetheating and con densation, which is a straight horizontal line on the pressure-enthalpy diagram. The throttling process, 3-4, is one of constant enthalpy and therefor is vertical on the chart. Finally, the evaporation process 4-1 isa straight horizontal lie because the flow of refrigerant through the evaporator is assumed to be at a constant pressure 1014 Performance of the standard vapor-compression eycle Wich the help of the pressure-enthalpy diagram, the significant quantities of the standard vapor-compression cycle will be determined, These quantities are the work of compression, the heat- rejection rate, the refrigerating effect, the coefficient of performance, the volume rate of flow per kilowatt of refrigeration, and the power per kilowatt of refrigeration. ‘The work of compression in kilojoules per kilogram is the chenge in enthalpy in process 1-2 of Fig. 10-114 or hy - fa. This relation derives from the steady-flow energy equation where changes in kinetic and potential energy are negligible. Because in the adiabatic compression the heat transfer q is zero, the work w equals hy ~ iy. The difference in enthalpy is a negative quantity, indicating that work is done or the system. Even though the compressor may be of the reciprocating type, where flow is intermittent 1 Freon iss reprered trademark of the Freon Divsion, E 1. du Pont de Nemours & Company. Genetron fe 3 repstered trademark of the Speciality Chemicals Diviion, Allied Chemical Corporation.198 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Pressures KPa Eathalpy. KITE @ 3 condense | =} Expansion valve (compressor 4 1 Evaporator Figure 10-11 (@) The standard faporcompresion cycle on the preseueenthalpy diagrams ” () flow diagram. rather than steady, process 1-2 still represents the ation of the comPrTS Ata short rater an the pipe away from the compressor, the low has smoowsea and ap froaches steady low. Knowledge ofthe work of compression {s important because it Igy be one ofthe largest operating costs of the system. ee ore rejection in Wlojoules per Kilogram isthe heat transloree from the refigrant in process 2-3, which 1 My ~ Ha This Imowledge oso CE from the seferow energy equation, in which the kinetic ere poll energy, and work sy Tem cuts he vale of fy ~ is negative ndsating that Wt transferred ser tpefigerant. The value of the heat rejection i weed ih Se the condenser from elating the requted flow quantities ofthe condenses oul fluid, ee ing etect in klojoles por Kilogram ithe heat cransere 9 process 4-1, ov hy. figs Keowledge ofthe magnitude of the term & nest? ‘because Per ong this process i the ultimate purpose of the enti s¥sem, we oeticient of performance of the standard vaporcompression cycle is the sefigerating eect divided by the work of compression Coefficient of performancs d2900 139929900 sbadaeaas‘THE VAFOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE 199 Sometimes the volume flow rate is computed at the compressor inlet or state point 1 The volume flow rate is a rough indication of the physical size of the compressor. ‘The greater the magnitude of the term, the greater the displacement of the compressor in cubic meters per second must be. ‘The power per kilowatt of refrigeration is the inverse of the coefficient of per- formance, and an efficent refrigeration system has a low value of power per kilowatt ‘of refigeration but a high coefficient of performance. ‘Aa example will illustrate the calculations for determining the performance of a standard vapor-compression cycle. Example 10-1 A standard vapor-compression cycle developing 50 kW of re frigeration using refrigerant 22 operates with a condensing temperature of 35°C and an evaporating temperature of -10°C. Calculate (a) the refegerating effect in Kilojoules per kilogram, (b) the circulation rate of refrigerant in kilograms per second, () the power required by the compressor in kilowatts, (d) the coefficient Of performance, (@) the volume flow rate measured at the compressor suction, () the power per kilowatt of refrigeration, and (g) the compressor discharge temperature. Solution As the first step in the solution, sketch the pressure-enthalpy diagram (Fig, 10-12) and determine from Tables A-6 and A-7 and Fig. A4 the enthalpies at key points. The value of ft is the enthalpy of saturated vapor at -10°C, which is 401.6 kl eg. To find hy move at a constant entropy from point 1 until reaching the satura tion pressure corresponding to 35°C. This condensing pressure is 1354 KPa, and the value of hy is 435.2 kI/kg. Pressure, KPa 435.21) Eatilpy. ka Figure 1012. The pressure-enthalpy diagar for the system in Example 104,200 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “The values of hy and fg ate identical and are equal to the enthalpy of satu rated liquid at 35°C, which s 243.1 ki/kg. Therefore hy = 401.6 Kifkg = 435.2 thy hg = 243.1 Kalk (@) The refrigerating effect is hy hg “401.6 ~ 243. = 158.5 1 kg () The circulating ate of refigerant can be calculated by dividing the re frigerating capacity by the refrigerating effect Flow ate= 22 = 0.315 ah wrt” 585 KK * {) The power required by the comprestor isthe work of compresion Pet Icogram multiplied by the refrigerant flow rate Compressor power = (0.315 kgs) (435.2 ~ 401.6 Ki fk) = 10.6 KW (a) The coofficont of performance isthe refrigerating rate divided by the compressor power soKW Coefficient of performance = = 4.72 pe 10.6 kW (6) The volume rate of flow atthe compressor inet requires knowledge of We specific volume of the refigerant at point 1. From Table A‘ or Fig, A this value is 0.0654 m3 /kg, and so (0.315 kels) (0.0554 m? /ke) = 0.0206 m/s = 20.6 Lis Volume flow rate () The compressor power per kilowat of refrigeration (which isthe reciprocal of the coefficient of performance) is 10.6 kW Power of reftigeration = ~~ = 0.212 KW/KW 50 KW (@) The compresior discharge temperature i the Lemperatore of superheated ‘vapor at point 2 which from Fig, A-4 is found to be S7°C. “ar he sropetivs in Example 10-1 could be extracted from Table A excePt and fy, which ae in the superheat region. The properties t point 2 can fe determined ane enc prewure-enthalpy diagram, Fig, A, or fom Table A7, More comic cither fom Topeties of supeteated vapor are avallabe," and corresponding ss tables eer vofigerant The properties at point 2 ae determined by interpolating in Table A-7 at the pressure and entropy applicable. 10.18 Heat exchangers Some refrigeration systems use a liguidtosuction hea! Ct qpangers which subeools the liquid from the condenser with suction vapor comin®‘THE VAPORCOMPRESSION CYCLE 201 Condenser Heat ‘exchanger Expansion vale ® Pressure, KPa Figure 1043 (@) Refrigeration system with 2 Seat exchanger to fubooo! the igaid from the con- Enihalpy, ke denser. @) Presureenthaly dia fram of the aystem using 2 eat © exchanger shown in (2). from the evaporator. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 10-132 and the corresponding pressure-enthalpy diagram in Fig. 10-136. ‘Saturated liquid at point 3 coming from the condenser is cooled to point 4 by means of vapor at point 6 being heated to point 1. From a heat bilance, hy ~ hg = hy ~ hg. The refrigerating effect is either hg ~ hs or hy ~ hs. Figure 10-14 shows a cutaway view of a liquid-tosuetion heat exchanger. ‘Compared with the standard vapor-compression cycle, the system using the heat exchanger may seem to have obvious advantages because ofthe increased refrigerating tffect, Both the capacity and the coefficient of performance may seem to be improved. ‘This is not necessarily true, however, Even though the refrigerating effect is increased, the compression is pushed farther out into the superheat region, where the work of202 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Figure 10-4, A tquidtosuction heat exchange Defoe enclosure with outer housing. (Ree tion Research, Inc) compression in kilojoules per kilogram is greater than its close to the saturated-vapor sae From the standpoint of capacity, point 1 has a higher specific volume than point Soo that @ compressor which i able to pump a certain vohime deliver less mast flow fran intake is at point 1. The potential improvements in aeormance are thus coun: ae ealanced. and theheat exchanger probably has negligible thermodynamic advantages rin heat exchanger is definitely justified, however, in situations where the vapor entering the compressor must be superheated to ensure tht no igud enters the com fessor, Another practical reason for using the heat exchange iso subeoa ts anit pth condenser to prevent bubbles of vapor from impeding the flow of refrigerant through the expansion valve. 10-16 Actual vaporcompression cycle The actual vaporcompression eycle suffers Terde gettciencies compared with the standard cycle. There are also other changes Tom the standard cycle, which may be intentional or unavoidable, Some comparisons crm drawn by superimposing the actual cycle on the pressureenthalpy diagram of the standard cycle, asin Fig. 10-15. Standard | oe Pressure ro | ° { Pressure KPa \ sent Enihalpy. Figure 1015 Actual vporcompresion eye compared with standard evePr rp9ga@_Vod0g;VYvO ‘THE VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE 203, ‘The essential differences between the actual and the standard cycle appear in the pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator, in the subcooling ofthe liquid leaving fhe condenser, and in the superheating of the vapor leaving the evaporator. The stan- dard cycle assumes no drop in pressure in the condenser and evaporator. Because of friction, however, the pressure of the reftigerant drops in the actual cycle. The result of these drops in pressure is that the compression process between 1 and 2 requires ‘more work than in the standard cycle. Subcooling of the liquid in the condenser is normal occurence and serves the desirable function of ensuring that 100 percent Tiquid will enter the expansion device. Superheating ofthe vapor usually occurs in the evaporator and is recommended as a precaution against droplets of liquid being carried ver into the compressor. The final difference in the actual cycle is that the com- pression is no longer isentropic and there are inefficiencies due :o friction and other losses. PROBLEMS 101 A Camot refrigeration eycle absorbs heat at “12°C and rejects it at 40°C. {G@) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle. () If the cycle is absorbing 15 kW at the -12°C temperature, how much power is required? {o) If Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the above reftigeration cycle, what isthe performance factor? (a) What is the rate of heat rejection at the 40°C temperature if the heat pump absorbs 15 kW at the -12°C temperature? Ans. 18 KW 10-2 If in a standard vepor-compression cycle using refrigerant 22 the evaporating temperature is -S°C and the condensing temperature is 30°C, sketch the cycle on pressure-enthalpy coordinates and calculate (a) the work of compression, (b) the re- Frigerating effect, and (c) the heat rejected in the condenser, all in kilojoules per kilo- gram, and (d) the coefficient of performance, Ans. (d) 6.47 103A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a reftgerating capacity of 80 KW. The cycle is a standard vapor-compression cycle in which the evaporating temperature is -8°C and the condensing temperature 42°C. Na) Determine the volume flow of refrigerant measured in cubic meters per second atthe inlet to the compressor. {(b) Caleulate the power required by the compressor. (o) At the entrance to the evaporator what isthe fraction of vapor in the mixture expressed both on a mass basis and a volume basis? Ans. (c) 0.292, 0.971 10-4 Compare the coefficient of performance of a refrigeration cycle which uses wet compression with that of one which uses dry compression. In both cases use ammonia sant, a condensing temperature of 30°C, and an evaporating temperature ‘Of -20°C; assume that the compressions are isentropic and that the liquid leaving the Condenser is saturated. In the wet-compression cycle the refrigerant enters the com- pressor in such a condition that it is saturated vapor upon leaving the compressor. “Ans, 442 versus 4.02 10-5 In the vapor-compression cycle a throttling device is used almost universally to reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant. (a) Determine the percent saving in net work of the cycle per kilogram of re~ ftigerant if an expansion engine could be used to expand saturated liquid refrigerant204 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 20 isentropially from 35°C to the evaporator temperature of O°C: Assume that com 2 ion is isentropic from saturated vapor at 0°C to a condenser pressure comespond- ing to 35°C. Ans. 12.9% Go) Calculate the increase in refrigerating effect in Klojoules per Kilogram re sulting from use o” the expansion engine. TO Since a refrigeration system operates more efficiently when the condensing so ttare is low, evaluate the possibilty of cooling the condenser cooing water of tener eration system in question with another refrigeraticn system. Will the com eer etformance of the two systems be better, the sime, or Worse than one indi vidual system? Explain why. 10.7 A refrigerant 22 vapor-compression system inchides ¢ Liquid-t-suction heat 1 er intthe system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapor coming fom the seepgmator from ~10 to 3°C with liguid which comes from the condenser at 30°C. The CRumpressions are isentropic in both cases listed below. Nicient of performance of the system without the heat ex- fa) Calculate the coe! chan bat withthe condensing temperature at 30°C and anevaporatingfemperatare of “10°C. Ans. 5.46 (@) Calculate the coef changer. Ans. 537 eit uhe compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 L/s measured atthe compressor uct anne isthe refrigeration capacity of the system witnout the heat exchanger? Ans. 30.3 kW (@) With the same compressor capacity as of the system with the heat exchanger? Ans. 29.9 kW ficient of performance of the system with the heat €x- in (c, what is the refrigeration capacity REFERENCE 1 Thermosiynamie Properties of Freon" 22 Refrigerant, Teh, Bll T-22S, Da Font de Nemours Inesnational S.A, Genera jortyaneird oe Se eGR oe~ CHAPTER ELEVEN COMPRESSORS 114 ‘Types of compressors Each of the four components of a vapor-compression system-the compressor, the condenser, the expansion device, ard the evaporator— has its own peculiar behavior. At the same time, each component is influenced by conditions imposed by the other members of the quartet. A change in condenser water temperature, for example, may change the rate of refrigerant the compressor pumps, which in turn may requite the expansion valve to readjust and the refrigerant in the evaporator to change pressure. We shall rst study the components of the vapor compression eycle singly, analyzing their performance as individuals, and then observe how they interact with each other as a system. The compressor is :he first component to be analyzed, "The heart of the vapor-compression system is the compressor. The four most common types of refrigeration compressors are the reciprocating, screw, centrifugal, land vane. The reciprocating compressor consists of a piston moving back and forth in 4 cylinder with suction and discharge valves arranged to allow pumping to take place. ‘The screw, centrifugal, and vane compressors all use rotating elements, the screw and ‘vane compressors are positive-displacement machines, and the centrifugal compressor operates by virtue of centrifugal force. The four parts of this chapter examine each of these types of compressors. PART I: RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS ‘The workhorse of the refrigeration industry is the reciprocating compressor, built in sizes ranging from fractional-kilowatt to hundreds of kilowatts refrigeration capacity. Modern compressors are singleacting and may be single-cylinder or multicylinder. In multicylinder compressors the cylinders are in V, W, radial, or in-line arrangements. 208206. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING rigue 114 A. \Geylinder reposting compressor for ammnia, (Vier Manuhecring Corporation|) “the compressor in Fig, [-1 has 16 cylinders, 2 in each of the heads, During 8 ree eo of the piston, low-pressure refiigerant gas i drawn in through the san tive, which may be located in the pston or in the ead. During the dsharge st ar paton compresses the eftigerant and then pusies it out through the dis Charge valve, which is usually located in the cylinder head. Towing the trend of most rotative machinery the operating sBeed Of Sone presors has generally increased im the past 20 years. From the 10% speeds of early Prsssors of about 2 of 31/5, the speeds have increased until compressors today operate at speeds as high as 60 1/5. 11-2 Hermetically sealed compressors A compresior whose crankshaft extends Te pine compressor housings that a motor canbe externally coupled (© 8 shaft ne ornype compresor. A seal must be ued where the shaft comes (COED i ee cor housing to prevent refrigerant gs (rom lebking out ora fom) eas a coreprenikese pressure is Tower than atmospheric. Eventhough designers fave S07 Misaaly developed better seals, piercing of the housing always eprests 8 So of venkage To avoid leakage atthe seal, the motor and comoressor ae often enclosed in the same housing, as shown in the cutaway view in Fig. 11°2 inno techniques fr insulating the motor electzally have alowed moO to pers eventhough they ae in contact wit the refigerant, In any oO the cold oe aes dawn aross the motor to Keep the motor cool. Almost all small TE aaesereear combinations wed in refrigerator, feezrs ard residential conditioners Sonera hermetic type. The only connections to the compressor housing a the‘COMPRESSORS 207 Figure 112 Cutaway view of a hermetically sealed comprestor (Carlyle Compressor Company Carrier Corporation) suetion and discharge fittings and electric terminals. Moisture ta the system can be damaging to the motor; therefore dehydration of hermetic units before charging is essential. On larger hermetically sealed units the cylinder heads se usually removable so that the valves and pistons can be serviced. This type of unt is called semihermeric. 113 Condensing units The compressor and the condenser of a system are conve rently combined into a condensing unit (Fig. 11-3). The motor, compressor, and con: denser may be compactly mounted on the same frame and located remotely from the expansion valve and evaporator. 114 Performance Two of the most important performance characteristics of a ‘compressor are its refrigeration capacity and its power requirement, These two char- acteristics of @ compressor operating at constant speed are controlled largely by the suction and discharge pressures. An analysis will be made first of an ideal re ciprocating compressor because it affords a clearer understanding of the effects of these two pressures. Trends established from a study of the ideal compressor hold true for the actual compressor, although adjustments must be made ir the numerical quan tities. These adjustments will be examined in the discussion of the actual compressor. 115 Volumetric efficiency Volumetric efficiencies are the bases for predicting per formance of reciprocating compressors, Two types of volumetric efficiencies will be208. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING gue 112 Comper and conden somtined nt a.condensing nit. (he Dane compony,) considered in this chapter, actual and clearance, The areal volumetric ficiency Tyg is defined by i ine” — aisplacement rate of compressor, m°/s ne flow rate entering compressor, m/s entering compressors IS yg (11-1) ., enero the iplasement ate fhe volume swept through y the patons in tha #0108 Stokes per unit time Kes et ut umetric efficiency depends on the expansion of as Wrapped the ea ame and ca be best explained by showing ressrewol: CURT ofa compressor, as in Fig. 11-4. The reainnum volume in the cylinder, which oceurs when 5 Fa 50 . 20 40, 60, 80 Figuie 1-10 Refrigeration fon a5 percent clearance, Condensing temperature, °C effect and refrigerating capacity for an ideal Refrigerant 22 compre "6 Ljs duplacement rate and 20°C evaporating temperate‘COMPRESSORS 215 necessary to develop 1 KW of refrigeration. A large volume flow must be pumped for 2 given capacity at low evaporating temperatuges because ofthe high specific volume. 11-10 Effect of condensing temperature Most refrigerating systems reject heat to the atmosphere, and the ambient conditions change throughout the year. Process re- figeration plants that operate year round are pariculasy subject to a wide range of condensing temperatures, The response of a reciprocating compressor to changes fn Condensing temperature ean be analyzed similarly to the evaporating temperature. Figure 119 shows the clearance volumetric efficiency as calculated from Eq. (11-6) for a compressor with an evaporating temperature of -20°C. As the conderising tem- perature increases, the volumetric efficiency drops off. Because the specific volume Of the refrigerant at the compressor suction remains constant, only the volumetric efficiency affects the mass rate of flow, which shows a corrésponding decrease as the condensing temperature Increases. Figure 11-10 shows such a progressive decrease. The refrigerating capacity is the product of the refrigerating effect and the mass rate Gf flow, both of which decrease with increasing condensing temperature. The result {2 that the refrigerating capacity drops rather rapidly on an increase in condensing temperature. "The remaining important characteristic is the power, shown on Fig. 11-11. The 129 ™ 109 x 5 sof 6 gf E z Bo ed é i 3 é 2 al 2 ok of compression aol 6 ag ao? Condensing temperature, "C Figue 11-11 Work of compression and compesor power for a de! Refrigerant 22 compressor, 11 percent clearance, 50 Ls eplacerent ate and -20°C evaporating temperature216 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘compressor power is the product of the work of compression in kilojoules per Kilo- gam and the mass rate of flow. The work of compression in klojoules per kilogram nereases and the mass rate of flow decreases as the condensing temperature increases, So that the power increases to a peak and then begins to drop off, a trend similar to the power asa function of the evaporating temperatare shown in Fig. 11-6. "a few comments on the significance of the trends in Figs. 11-9 to 11-11 follow. ‘The peaking of the power can occur in real compresors as well asthe ideal ones, but nly, when. pumping from low evaporating temperatures. Singlestage compression from 20°C evaporating temperature to. 60°C condensing temperature, which resulted in the peak in Fig. 11-11, is not common, With more moderat differences between the condensing and evaporating temperatures the expectation is that the power re- (quired by the comprestor will increase with an increase in condensing temperature, ithough the increase may be slight. The refrigerating capacity slways decreases with ‘in inerease in condensing temperatuee, Another important characteristic, not shown ton the graphs, i the coefficient of performance, which decreases monotonically as the condensing temperature increases. From the standpoint of power and efficiency, a low concensing temperature is desirable; thus the condenser should use the coldest air or water available, should operate with the maximum airflow or water flow that is economical and should have Ne surfaces kept clean. Air or noncondensable gases in the condenser also cause high condenser pressures. "All the calculations in Figs, 11-9 to 11-11 are based on 2 clearance volume of 145 percent, MeGrath' pointed out that increasing the percent clearance from about 4 percent, which is customary, to about 15 percent will give anearly constant power requirement regardless of the discharge pressure for airconditioning applications. This esign feature could be used to prevent overloading the compressor motor during hot weather, when the condensing temperature rises. This beneft would be achieved, owever, at the expense of reduced capacity fora given compressor displacement due to the reduced volumetric efficiency. 11-11 Performance of actual reciprocating compressors The trends in performance of reciprocating compressors developed analytically and shown in Figs. 115 to 11-11 are fecognizable in the performance of real compressors. Actual performance data are used fate in the analysis of the complete vapor compression system. Figure 14-1 is graph fom eatalog data and shows refrigerating capacity and power requirements as a func- tion of evaporating and condensing temperatures. The refrigerating capacity increases with an increase in evaporating temperature and decreases with an increase in con- Uensing temperature. The power required by the compressor in general increases with in increase in evaporating temperature, except at lower condensing temperatures, ‘here the peak that was first shown in Fig, 1146s evident. Increasing the evaporating Temperature above O°C with a condensing temperature of 25°C, a in Fig, 11, re- sults in a continued decrease in power requirement. Pigure 11-11 shows a peak power fequirement reached at high condensing temperatures. The corresponding range 9 Fig. 141 is to the left of the graph, where at very low evaporating temperatures the carves for power atthe various condensing temperatures are pulling together and could ‘even eross over each other. yar vreadCOMPRESSORS 217 7 Actual volumeti efficensy so 40] Volumeti efficiency ad + 4 5 é 7 Dischargeto-sction pressure ratio Figure 1-12 Clearance and actual volumeticstisiency of « Refrigerant 22 highspeed compres: on The iearance vlumeassumed (oy calculating the elearancevolumetic efficiency i 4S percent 1112 Actual volumetric efficiency The prediction of volumetric efficiency on the basis of reexpansion of vapor in the clearance volume isa good start toward predicting the actual volumetric efficiency. Other factors that influence the volumetric efficiency are the pressure drop across the suetion and discharge valves, leakage past the rings of the piston, and leakage back through the discharge and suction valves. Also cylinder heating of the suction gas reduces the volumetric efficiency, since immediately upon entering the cylinder the gas is warmed and expanded. The specific volume of the gas inside the eylinder is consequently higher than when entering the compressor, which is the position on which the volumetric efficiency is based. All the abovementioned factors result in a lower actual volumetric efficiency than thet predicted by the re- expansion of clearance gas alone. Figure 11-12 shows the actual volumetric efficiency? compared with the clearance volumetric efficiency. "The abscissa in Fig. 11-12 is the discharge-to-suction pressure ratio, a convenient parameter on which to base the volumetric performance of the compressor. The curve for the actual volumetric efficiency as a function of the pressure ratio applies to a wide variety of evaporating and condensing temperatures. When this curve is available, along with the knowledge of the displacement rate of the compressor, the refrigerating capacity of the compressor can be calculated over a wide variety of conditions. 11-13 Compression efficiency The compression efficiency ne ir percent is isentropic work of compression, kI/ky i pression, KIS 4g 7e = “etual work of compression, KJTKE318 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING sme suction ard discharge pres cating compressors are usuallY T the proceses that reduce the compression at are ition of rubbing surfaces and ahere the works of compresionafe refered the sa whee compression efiienies for PEAY recipr saitpe range of 65 to 70 percent. Sone © wr etency. from its ideal valve of 100 Pe pressure drop through wales sant 22 comptessor operating ; Example 11-1 Catalog date for asiceytindey refrige eae als indicate a ceiigerating capacity © requirement of ap RW at an evaporating temperate Of 5°C ture of Jor. The performance dats are based 09 '3°C liquid subeooling and 8°C super eating of the suction gas entering inder bore is 67 mm neat ston stoke is 57 mm. Compu CO) ric efficiency ane eaance volume is 4.8 percent (2) I and {) the compression efficiency the compressor. The cyl the clearance volume actual volumetsc efficiency Solution ‘The state of the refrigerant eae ME evaporator ard entering the Com: oats 57 saturation temperature (PSS of a8 kPa) and a temperature of me At this state the following Properies eval: = 4131 KOK: Y = 432 Tyugyand > 1.7656 kak ~ K. Follows Trentropie compression to S40 Ls aperture of 50°C (presture = 1947 ‘Epa the properties of the refrigerant ton erat 5 Kifkg and 9 = 14.13 Like. he 2 thalpy of the iquid leaving the a pao and entering te evaporator THE Sathalpy of liquid at 47°C = 259-4 Ks). (@) The clearance ¥ johumetric efficiency is 432 so -as( 2 a cemwentaec ows WR NNE ee oe econ coo (CSE wr) own gos me -The actual rate of refrigerant flow is sees 0.6260 kes qan-2590 frigerant measured at the compressor -the actual volumetric flow rate of the 12 suction is (16260 tals) (43.2 Lea) * 27.04 HE “The actual volumetric efficiency i, hens 27004 Lis 2704 HE 100 = 77.3% 3a97 Us te isentropi work of compression dvi? (6) The compression efficiency #ro vovODOVLUPP UVES COMPRESSORS 219 by the actual work of compression. The latter is, 289 kW - 0.6260 kis 6.2 klk so that HAS ~ 413.1108 49 6p : 46.2 kalkg . Ne 11-14 Compressor discharge temperatures If the discharge temperature of the refrg- rant from the compressor becomes too high, it may result in breakdown of the oil, causing excessive wear or reduced life of the valves, particularly the discharge valves, In general the higher the pressure ratio, the higher the discharge temperature, but the properties of the refrigerant are also crucial. Figure 11-13 shows the discharge tem- peratures for four refrigerants following isentropic compression from saturated vapor at 0°C to various condensing temperatures, Reftigerants 12 and 502 have low dis charge temperatures while refrigerant 22 experiences higher temperatures. Since the highest temperatures of the four refrigerants shown is ammonia, ammonia compres- sors are equipped with water-cooled heads. The water lines are visible on the com- pressor shown in Fig. 11-1 1115 Capacity control If a reftigeration system is operating in a steady-state mode and the reftigeration load decreases, the inherent response of the system isto decrease 120, Discharge temperature, °C ° 20S ‘Condensing temperature, °C Figure 11.13 Discharge temperatures following isentropic compression ftom saturated vapor at ve.4320 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING sre. This change in the evaporator condition re- nich ultimately matches the ceduced refrigera, ‘be undesirable for several block the airflow, further ¥y other products may be liquid may freeze the evaporating temperature and press Sule in reduced compressor capacity. sult The seduction in evaporator temperate 1 ti in airconditioning, the coil may calle? frost and veg th evapor.tor pressure: Stored e8y food and man} agen by Low temperatures. If the evaporslor chills a liquid, the and burst a tube in the evaporator a methods are commonly wsed to reduce He compresser capacity 1. tm eyeing the compressor stops and stats 3 needed. The method works well in small systems. 9, Beck pressure ceguatin throtles the suction gas between the evaporator and the Permpressor to Keep the evaporator Pressit” Constant. This method gives good compre the evaporator temperature but i inefiE 3, Boasting the discharge gis back t0 the we fine usually affords precise c& Bapy eduction, but the method f ineTe and the compressor often runs pasty ferred bypass circuit delivers the dschare that is bypassed back t0 the enteance of the evaporator ‘4, nother method is cylinder unloading on © multicylinder compressor by autor neil holding the suction valve open of Sere the discharge g28 from @ amir back t0 the ston ne before cone TY In the compressor of Fig. one are two horizontal Hines carving Neb PT ‘oll from the oil pump 1 cg end of the compressor to hold the Se ‘aves open when the Ui oe ey activated. The loss inefficiency wit cylinder unloading is moderate reader gontiol may be prowded which wrloads oS ‘and more cylinders as the suction pressure drops. PART II: ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSORS snpresor functions A erosssctional view 9 1 7 prin moreso Ay comprestot is shown in Fig, 14. 8 male te sere igh, ives the fae ctor in = se the major parts of the complete 11-16 How the screw co ipa rotating elements fotos with four lobes, sho rercking Figure 11-15 shows an exploded view °f Figure 1-14 Cross section ofthe Te raters of afew COMprEHOE Naame ve aaatyesovuvvvev0upposso ‘COMPRESSORS 221 SS, Figure 1115 Exploded view of main elements ofa ssrew compresor (Sulla? Rehgeration, In) compressor. The refrigerant vapor enters one end of the compressor at the top and leaves the other end at the bottom. At the suction position af the compressor a void js cteated into which the inlet vapor flows. Just before the point where the interlobe space leaves the inlet port, the entite length of the cavity or gully is filed with gas, As the rotation continues, the trapped gas is moved circumferentially around the housing of the compressor. Further rotation results in meshing of the male lobe with the fe rmale gully, decreasing the volume in the cavity and compressing the gas, Ata certain point into’ the compression process the discharge port is uncovered and the com pressed gas is discharged by further meshing of the lobe and the gully, ‘The screw compressor was developed in the 1930s and fist became popular for refrigeration service in Europe in the 1950s and 1960s. On some early compressors the two rotors were geared to each other and no lubrication was provided between the ro tors. Current practice is to drive the female rotor with the male rotor and inject oil between the two rotors for lubrication and sealing. In the package water chiller shown in Fig, 11-16 the serew compressor is just to the right ofthe control panel, showing its Figure 11-16 A waterchling package that uses screw compresor (Dunham. Bush, Inc)322 REFRIGERATION AND AIK CONDITIONING 100 90 0 70 ol CCompresion efficiency. % mS 8 Presute ratio gue 1:17 Compesion effcense of sro" comer ‘of various Suiltin volume and pres cetatvely small size compared with the condenses CN back) and the water-chiling senator at the bottom The vesel bso tontrol panel isthe oll separator, @ srargard component in a srew-comprestor SYS: 11:17 Performance characteistis of serew compreso™® ‘The explanation in Section 11-17 Peed that ata certain point inthe compression Pe the discharge port is 1 ed This pont is function of the design of We ‘compressor and establishes arceiein volume ratio of the compressor. Thi 200 as a corresponding built-in pres a bu asocited with it and any compressor BAS Ot performance ata certain pressure ratio. Figure 11-17 shows ry wes? of compression efficiency for several com Reesor of iffrent builtin pressure rates Normal operation of most refrigeration tems occurs over a ange of IESsue T08 2 the condenser and evaporator cond systems ge, 10 that a stew compressor does Sok Wat ‘operate at peak efficiency. on eceffcences are quite high, however, and there fs little sacrifice of efficiency if dhe pressure ratio does not change radially 11-18 Capacity control Many serew compressor are equipped witha sliding valve for ceotity contro. Ii in the housing of the compre ‘and can be moved axially. AS si is opened, it delays the postion at which ‘compression begins. The capacity the a odulted dow to about 10 percent of full capacity, although there i Toss of cfhicieney in the capacity reduetion. PART II: VANE COMPRESSORS 19 Vane compressors The two basic types of Yate compressors are the roller OF ri eomne type ana the muldptevane type, Vane compresors are used mostly in do {COMPRESSORS 223 2 2 2 x > Figuee 1118 Rollectype vane compressor. estic refrigerators, freezers, and air conditioners, although they can also be used as booster compressors in the low-pressure portion of large mulistage compression sys- tems. In the roller type (Figs. 11-18 and 11-19) the centerline of the shat is the same as the centerline of the cylinder. The centerline of the shaft, however, is located ec- entrically on the rotor, s0 that as the rotor revolves it makes contact with the cylin der, The rollertype compressor has a spring-loaded divider wh.ch separates the suction - and discharge chambers, Figure 1119 A rollertype vane com- presto. (Genera Electric Company.)224 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1-20 Multplevane compressors (@)twowane and () fourane Figure “The formula for the displacement rate D of the rollertype compressor is D= (a? -BPyL(cotatve speed) mh (1-10) where A = cylinder diameter, m B= roller diameter, m = cylinder length, m and the rotative speed is in revolutions per second. Tn the multiplevane compressor (Fig. 11-20) the rotor cevolves about its own centerline, but the centerline of the cylinder and the rotor do not coincide. The rotor es two oy more sliding vanes, which are held against the cylinder by centrifugal force. ‘ror the twowane compressor in Fig. 11-20 the displacement per revolution is pro- portional to twice the crosshatched area. For the fourwane compressor the displace: Trent per revolution is proportional to 4 times the crosshatched area. Up to 2 certain point, then, the displacement is greatest on the compressor with the largest number of vanes. In the two types of rotary compressors shown. and since the suction gas enters the compressor continuously, gas pulsation is at « here no suction valves are needed, PART IV: CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS: 11.20 Role of centrifugal compressors The first commercial centrifugal compres doy used in refrigeration service was promoted by Wills Carir in 1920. Since then the ‘centrifugal compressor has become the dominant type of compressor in large installations. ‘Centrifugal compressors serve refigeration systems in the range of 200 to 10,000 kW of refrigerating capacity. Evaporating temperatures in multistage machines may tXtend down to the -50 t0 100°C range, although one of the largest uses of the eevee carver earew ww Ware nes 1a amrnemraerereraeettts. Cee | |povuovvvELgyveLS ‘COMPRESSORS 225 Figure 1121 A centrifural comprestor system. The condenser isthe top vse, and the water cooling evaporator Is at the Bottom. The two impellers of the worstage compressor are driven by fm electric motor i the tear. (The Trane Company.) compressor is for chilling water to about 6 to 8°C in air-conditioning systems. A cut away view of a complete refrigeration system using a centrifugal compressor is shown in Fig, 11-21 1121 Operation Centrifugal compressors are similar in construction to centrifugal pumps in that the incoming fluid enters the eye ofthe spinning impeller and is thrown by centrifugal force to the periphery of the impeller. Thus the blades of the impeller impart a high velocity to the gas and also build up the pressure. From the impeller the ‘ flows either into diffuser blades or into a volute, where some of the kinetic energy is converted into pressure. The centrifugal compressor may be manufactured with only ‘one wheel ifthe pressure ratio is low, although the machines are generally multistage. Centrifugal compressors operate with adiabatic compression efficiencies of 70 to 80 percent. 11-22 Flash-gas removal A centrifugal compressor with two or more stages invites the use of flash-gas removal. Flash gas can be removed by partially expanding the liquid from the condenser, separating the flash gas, and then recompresting the gas instead of dropping its pressure further, Flash-gas removal, discussed furher in Sec. 16-2, in- sases the efficiency of the cycle and is conveniently achieved when two or more stages of compression are available. 11.23 Performance characteristics Impellers in centrifugal compressors are equipped with backward-curved blades. Section 6-16 on fans mentioned backward-curved blades ‘and showed performance characteristics of a fan with forward-curved blades. Admit.[AND AIR CONDITIONING 226 REFRIGERATION Discharee-to-stion pressure Low eicieney High efficiency Low speed igurs 1122 Performance of ‘eemsifal compressor Flow rte ced as an incompressible fluid while in the is clearly compressed. The predominant in that fo: a constant-speed com the pressure buildup developed by feses for a time, and then progres tealy the air flowing through a fan was teat caetrtugal compressor the refrigerant vapor cearrtenistic preva in both machines, HOWeN=t, Shenor asthe flow rate tarts at zero and nee reserpmpressor starts at some nonzero value, ine sively drops off Yee sice of coordinates for presenting the charsseisite shown in Fig. r1aarne cischageto-suctonpressure ratio versus the Nee OO “The graph shows dhe performance for several eiferent compres SP and isoefficiency lines (lines the atten eficiency). No performance curves ae own {2 the left ofthe surge line otis sage phenomenon wl Be dscussed in See, 11-26. cough estimate ofthe tip speed ofthe impel 11-24 Tip speed to develop pressure turbomachinery. ThE 1498 Tie by sing several fundamental elationships for fengue the impeller ideally imparts tothe Bass = wVoyra~ Yul) any porque, Nm mass rate of low, Kels ras al velocity of refeigerant eavingipellt m/s 7, = radius of exit of impeller, m V72 = tangential velosty of refegerant entering impeller, m/s 11 raius of inlet of impeller, If the refrigerant enters the impeller in an e where Yar sentially radial direction, the tangential veeeeanensta OWNER RE ;‘COMPRESSORS 227 ‘component of the velocity V, = 0, and so T= Wir (aia) “The power required at the shaft is the product of the torque and the rotative speed. P= Tw= WW yr 143), ower, W (2 rotative speed, rad/s ‘At least at very low refrigerant flow rates the tip speed of the impeller and the tangen- tial velocity of the refrigerant are nearly identical; therefore where ren and Pew¥, aii) ‘Another expression for ideal power is the product of the mass rate of flow and the isentropic work of compression, P= wah, (1000 33) aris) Euating the two expressions for power, Eqs. (11-14) and (1115), yes ¥3,= 1000ah, a6 Although Eq. (11-16) is based on some idealizations, it can provide an orderof- ‘magnitude estimate of the tip speed and can also show important comparisons, as in Example 11-2. Example 11-2 Calculate the speed of the impeller tip in order to compress the following refrigerants from saturated vapor at 10°C to a >ressure corresponding to a condensing temperature of 30°C when the refrigerant is () refrigerant 11 and (®) ammonia. Solution (a) In the isentropic compression of refrigerant 11 from saturated vapor at 10°C toa saturated condensing temperature of 30°C Ah, = 406.7 - 393.9= 12.8 kl/kg ‘The tip speed is Voy = VUOOOTZA) = 113.1 m/s (©) For ammonia 4h, 560 - 1472 = 88 ki/kg ‘The tip speed is Vy, = Vi 11.25 Choice of impeller and refrigerant Two crucial impeler dimensions are the wheel diameter and the width between impeller faces. The designer of centrifugal (88) = 297 m/s———$ 308 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING compressor system must select a combination ofthese dimensions along with a choice comPmagerant. The magnitude of the wheel diameter heavily dictated by the dis: Spare pressure that must be achieved, because (013 BA rotative speed a large wheel charg Piyil provide a higher tip speed, which rents in & higher pressure ratio. The stati of Example 11-2 provide some insight inte "he influence of the refrigerant ree or equied tip sped. If centrifugal compressors So by an electric motor spctting at 60 zfs, the wheel diameter needed oO 113.1 m/s ip speed (refrigerant Tip" Om, while forthe tip speed of 297 mls Wh axnmonia the wheel diameter sive 1 58'm.The required wheel diameter for anmoniy ‘would probably be imprac- must Oe rexmore, from the stnapoint of strength of the ‘whee, the tip speed for sae pi is nearing the usual limitation” of 300 mis rer iia conclusion is to choose a refrigerant with Propet similar to reftiger- ane 11 in preference to ammonia, Centrifugal comPmSOR “couli and do handle am- ant ja, but adeitional stages of compression might be required For example, if the moni jn in Example 11-2 were executed in two sags ihe ‘Ah; could be cut in half cert the tp speeds of oth wheels would be 210 rls the ti spon of the designer 8 the width of psiags 8 6 impeller. To in- reas the capacity, increase the with between the ess ‘of the impeller, which, of creas tag nereases the power sequirement, Centifug comer ‘designers con cour Srogle to maintain high efficiencies with machines ‘of small capacity. One samt ior the dropott of ficiency with low capacies that the impeller width reason as narzow and the ricton ofthe gas on the impale faces becomes large relative eetie low rate thcough the impeller. The choice of ¢ Tow-density refrigerant allows xo tg maintain a wide impeller width for 2 piven capeoly TRetigerants 11 and 113 expecially meet the requirenet® described above and are che popular refiigerants used in waterchiling em ‘with centrifugal compressors the Pormonia, erigerant 12, and other refgerants ae utd successfully with cen trifugal compressors, S73 TD corr Sia a ae ggan He eerera 11-26 Surging Figure 11-22 shows no performance, S68 the left of the suze dmelope, although the classic performance of 8 ackward-curved-blade pump, fan, and arepresor would be shown By the dashed line in Fi} 1123. As the refrigeration load compre and the low rate decreases from point A. he ‘performance rides up the Some reflow characteristic to point B. Further desea flow rate sends the oper rae int C where the pressureratio capability of Conse cops. The 6r0P on fase rato is due both to the inherent characeso ‘of backward-curvedbladé in pres sand tothe fat that flow separation begins 0°50 the blades. origi the compressor capacity drops significantly whet ‘operation moves t0 point C the heat load on the evaporator contines ‘bol off refrigerant, building uP pin yaporator presse and decreasing the presmuee 0. ‘The compressor is then therapy able to shift operation back to point A whee cele begins to repeat sro his sequence, called surging, is characterized 0) ‘objectionable noise and wide is Mon of load on the compressor and motor. The perod ‘of the cycle is usually sie's , depending upon the ize ofthe installation ‘Gag season for not showing data to the left of He our envelope is that steady One feas0n Fr ee ptained. Centrifugal fans (Chap. 6) have the same pressureCOMPRESSORS 229 Figure 11.23 Suing na centitueal Flow ate compressor. flow characteristis as the compressor shown in Fig. 11-23 and are thus subject to the same surge phenomenon. Many fans operate from time to time in the surge region, however, and the only undesirable result is a Low rumbling sound. In the case of cen- trifugal compressors, however, operating in the surge region is definitly objectionable land should be avoided, Some compressors are equipped with a discharge-gas bypass that at low refrigeration loads throttles discharge gas back to the suction line in order to provide a false load on the compressor. 11.27 Capacity control The two most efficient and most widely used methods of capacity control are (1) adjusting prerotation vanes at the impelir inlet and (2) vary ing the speed. Two methods that are not efficient and not widely used are varying the condenser pressure and bypassing the discharge gas. The latter was mentioned 3s 1 means of preventing surge and is sometimes combined with prerotation vanes. Equation (11-11) for the torque indicates that if a positive eemponent is provided for Vj, the torque will be reduced, which also translates into reduced pumping capa- bility. Prerotation vanes provide a swirl to the gas entering the impeller so that the inlet gas has a tangential velocity in the direction the impeller is rotating, Figure 11-24 shows how the position of the prerotation vanes influences the compressor character Se ‘a _A a Figure 11-24 Centifugslcompressor character . Istes at varus settings of the pretation Flow ate vanes230 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING tie, The use of prerottion vanes is an efficient method of control when the rones ite net fully open poston, but the vaes behave more ikea throting hs Ss ‘fey approach their neal closed postion. The vanes are vible a the net of the im- peer in the compressor shown in Fig. 1121 aoe corfupal compressor is driven by 2 steam orga tubine, varying the speed for capacity contol can be achieved ready. Figure 11-22 shows that the ca- tty drops ff at a gven presue ratio asthe speed decreases a 11.28 How the various types of compreson share the fed The four tyPss cf O° presors studied in this chapter, reciprocating, screw, vane, and centrifugal, all have Peso at alffrent qualities, s0 that each (ype has fourd a sphere of spelcatt® somewa advantages over the oes. A reasonably accumte statement of where Che Ne eysors are used can be based on thie eigerating capacity, Resioocicg Or eetors dominate from very small eigeating capacities aBo%t 900 kW. Centrif: ree compressors ae most widely used for units having refigeranng APS ‘of S00 aE se, The stew compressor has found a riche i the 30040 SO0-KY sips RW an perpter agains large ceiprocating compressors and aginst smal =n tes prssors, The vane compressor comptes aginst the reciprocating compscior simi in the matket for domestic erigerator and ai conditions yr Sy snore reciprocating compressors are manufactused than any o'er Oe eae ie the choice for smaller reigeration unis in high production, Pot Pepreapacity tefrigeration systems, the large physical sizeof the setproctoos et prssor shifts the choice in favor ofthe more compact sew ant centrifugal compres: Preset nch bate forthe market inthe 300: to SOON capacies, An tess Coe ee tanned atin indus refrigeration plans, where a combination of sory eciprocating compresors i used. The operating strategy i fous the sro So fies forthe baseload and bring on reciprocating compress accommodate the Pees fetspove the base. The reason fr this distribution of loud i that Ne SE veror i efficent when operating near fll oud it tas fewer moving PC than pe prciprocating compresior, and is developing a reputation for long ones ie. ie eeocating compressor seems to have better efficiencies at par load OFS St Tae erect compressor and can. accommodate the rarying potion of the load more efficiently. “The centrifugal compressor is the choice for largecapacty. units, particularly for weuecchling plans used for large airconditioning sstalatins, & ate of tor were installations i that air is cooled at lage numberof locations not from ios sper room, Since using water asthe heatconeying agent ia hee cooling aos erable to the complestis of delivering cefigerant, the ofa 8 wnt ce Paige aconditioning plants isa water chile. This concept coviges with Re Ghacteristes of a centrifuga unit which uses Low-lensity rege ‘The suc the cha rsharge pipes needed forthe low-density refrgeant are of large Qe ‘ion a dipractcal fo run them large distances, Inseac, they ae closely ‘coupled to ane water-hiling evaporator and the water-cooled condenser dae ny seem thatthe market distribution of compressors may tow Be stable, engineers shoud be alert tothe potential for new compressor develop ‘The screw crestor, for example, which was nota factor the industy a f2¥ ‘decades 80, has row established itself‘COMPRESSORS 231 PROBLEMS 11-1 An ammonia compressor has a $ percent clearance volune and a displacement rate of 80 L/s and pumps against a condensing temperature of 40°C. For the two dif- ferent evaporating temperatures of -10 and 10°C, compute ths refrigerant flow rate assuming that the clearance volumetric efficiency applies. Ans, 0.37 ke/s at 10°C 11-2 A refrigerant 22 compressor with a displacement rate of 60 Ls operates in a re-" frigeration system that maintains a constant condensing temperature of 30°C. Com- pute and plot the power requirement of this compressor at evaporating temperatures, of -20, -10, 0, 10, and 20°C. Use the actual volumetric efficiencies from Fig, 11-12 {and the following isentropic works of compression for the five evaporating tempera- tures, respectively, 39.9, 30.2, 21.5, 13.7, and 6.5 ki/kg. 113 The catalog for a refrigerant 22, four-cylinder, hermetic ccmpressor operating at 29 fs, a condensing temperature of 40°C, and an evaporating temperature of ~4°C shows refrigerating capacity of 115 kW. At this operating point the motor (whose efficiency is 90 percent) draws 34.5 kW. The bore of the eyclinders is 87 mm and the piston stroke is 70 mm, The performance data are based on §°C of subcoaling of the liquid leaving the condenses. Compute (e) the actual volunetrc efficiency and (®) the compression efficiency. Ans. (a) 77.4%; (6) 71% 114 An automotive sir conditioner using refrigerant 12 experiences a complete block age of the airflow over the condenser, so that the condenser pressure rises until the volumetric efficiency drops to zero, Extrapolate the actual volunetricefficiency curve of Fig, 11-12 to zeroand estimate the maximum discharge pressure, assuming an evap rating temperature of 0°C. Ans. 5300 kPa 11-5 Compute the maximum displacement rate of a two-vane compressor having cylinder diameter of 190 mm and a rotor 80 mm long with a diameter of 170 mm, The compresior operates at 29 1/s. Ans. 22 Lis 11.6 A twosstage centrifugal compressor operating at 60 sis to compress refrigerant 11 from an evaporating temperature of 4°C to a condensing tenperature of 35°C. If both wheels are to be of the same diameter, what is this diameter? Ans. 0.53 m REFERENCES 1. W. L, MeGrath: New Refrigestion System Reduces Hlectrial Demind of Air Conditioning Equipment, Refi. Ene., vl. 65, 20.2, p. 52, February 197. 2, “Trane Reciprocating Refrigeration,” The Trane Company, LaCrose, Ws, 1977 5. “Handbook and Product Director, Equipment Volume,” chap 12, American Socety of Heating, Refiigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineer, Atlanta, Ga, 1979. ADDITIONAL READINGS ON COMPRESSORS Methods of Testing for Rating Positive Displacement Refrigerant Compresor, Standard 23-18, “American Sockety of Heating, Refrigerating, and AicConditioning Engineers, Atlanta, Ga, 1978. W. D. Cooper: Refrigeration Compressor Performance as Affected by Sucion Vapor Supeheatin, ASHRAE Trans, vol. 80, pt 1, pp. 195-208, 1974 J. Brown and §. F. Peason: Piston Letkage in Refrigeration Compreson, J. Refi. val 6,0. 5, 104, September-October 1963,132. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Hu Jensen: Esfectof Compressor Charactrss on Motor Fsformane, ASHRAE Tans Vl “66. pp. 194-201, 1960. - ose Mie Tranter ina Retigcraion Comps, Kul wo 26m, Lp, 1, Fatwa 09. Yes: Hea Tignes of Speed on Compressor VolumetieHiseney, Ref, Ens vl 60,00 Sep 272, March 1982 4. poaceiten and 5 V. Keer: Analy of Valve Beavor in ReeposatingCompreiors, 1204 nt Cong. Refrie, Madrid, 1967, pap. 3.39 Oe cere stain and. Embik: Development of ObFree Compressor. Rei oh no. 2 March-Apail 1959. bs nr gic nal Roary Sew CompresorHeatig/Coling Syatms,ASHRAE Tons: 83, Pei pp. 177-184, 1977. -r sruvnsTMicio Rotary Seem Compresior Applications for Enry Conservation, ASHRAE vrs wo 83, pt 1, pp. 185-201, 1977.2099999999799 999n900 = ‘CHAPTER TWELVE CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS, 12-1 Condensers and evaporators as heat exchangers Since both the condenser and evaporator are heat exchangers, they have certain features in common. One classfica- tion of condensers and evaporators (Table 12-1) is according to whether the refrigerant is on the inside or outside of the tubes and whether the fluid cooling the condenser or being refrigerated isa gas or a liquid. The gas referred to in Table 12-1 is usually air, and the liquid is usually water, but other substances are used as wel ‘The most widely used types of condensers and evaporators ae shelland-tube heat exchangers (Fig. 12-1) and finned-coil heat exchangers (Fig. 12-2). Table 12-1 indicates that certain combinations are not frequently used, particulaly the configuration where the gas is passed through tubes. The reason is that volume ‘low rates of gases are high relative to those of liquids and would result in high pressure drops if forced ‘through the tubes. We shall study evaporators and condensers together to ike advantage of the features they have in common. For example, the laws governing the flow of water through the shell and over the tube bundle of a heat exchanger are the same whether the heat exchanger is an evaporator or a condenser. Iti importaat to realize, however, that the mechanisms prevailing when reftigerant boils are quite different from those when refrigerant condenses. 122 Overall heat-transfer coefficient The overall heat-transfer i evaporator or condenser is the proportionality constant, which, the heat-transfer area and the mean temperature difference bet334 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “Table 12-1 Some types of evaporators and condense ‘Component Refrigerant iui Gasoutsde Inside tubes Liquid outsiet Condenser = ——— Gas inset wtside tubes Liquid inside Gas outside Liquid outside ‘Gas insidet Tiguid inside ge 12.4 Shaandube waterconed condense (77 BAS Gorset~Fuid Handing Dbision) dense. (Kramer Trenton Co) igre 12.2 An air-cooled com dad dhe > 3 Salada . “ mended $d dd 6b bebatece‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 235 2299900 Lenten ye ire ey water temperature Figure 12:3 Heat transfer be- i teen refgerant and. water New —+ LLLLZIZZZZZIZIZIZIZZIZIZIZZZ. ha ie thetate ofheat transfer. If heat flows across a tube, asin Fig, 123, between refrigerant © on the outside and water on the inside, for example, under steady-state conditions the rate of heat transfer q in watts is the same from the refrigerant to the outside surface of the tube, from the outside to the inside surface of the tube, and from the inside surface of the tube to the water. The expressions for qin each of these transfers are, respectively, Ah Ag, fy) (ay a An log to) (122) ath Aft- 4) (023) where grate of heat transfer, W weat-transfer coefficient on outside of tube, W/m? + K yutside area of tube, m2 1, = refrigerant temperature, °C jemperature of outside surface of tube, -onductivity of tube metal, W/m * K thickness of tube, m jemperatute of inside surface of tube, °C wean circumferential area of tube, m? eat-transfer coefficient on inside of tube, W/m? + K A; = inside area of tube, m2 1, = water temperature, °C ‘To express the overall heat-transfer coefficient the area on which the coefficient is based must be specified. Two acceptable expressions for the overall heat-ransfer co- efficient are 4° UA gly ~1) (024) and a (2s) here Up = overall heat transer coset based on tie ae, Wn? = U;= overall heat-transfer coefficient based on inside area, W/m? + From Eqs. (12-4) and (12-5) itis clear that UyAy = U;Ay- The ra is always associated with an area. Knowledge of U,, or U; facilitates computation of the rate of heat transfer ‘To compute the U value from knowledge of the individual heat-transfer coeffi- cients, first divide Eq, (12-1) by fgg, Eq. (12-2) by BAyy/t, and Eq. (123) by1236 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING IyAp, Weaving only the temperature differences on the right ies ofthe equations Next add the three equations, giving 5 14 Bae to (26) trate expen for ae ral rom Ep. (124) 20 (25) cia pee ; aA, UA, “ saying fas (126) an (127) andcneing pois an exes fr ompuing eos [he TAS IAS thy A, os she pyc intrtation ofthe terms a (128) tat 1/0 an IE a Te py nereaon of efor btwee te setgent and wate, Ta fl 1. From the cefrigerant to the outside surface of the tube I/hy 4p 2. Through the tube x/(kAyp) 2. From the inside surface ofthe tube tothe water 1/4 Later in this chapter modifications will be made in Eq. (12-8) to account for fouling ofthe tube and performance of fins 123 Ligud in tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop The expression for the het 1253 il acont for lids flowing inside tubes, 38 was fst shown in Fig. 246, of the form Nu=CRe" Pr™ where n and m are exponents. The constant Cand exponent in the equation are 04 ) 29) where = convection coefficient, Wim? * K D=IDof tube,m ‘k= thermal conductivity of fuid, Wim °K = mean velocity of fluid, m/s p= density of fluid, kg/m? iscosity of fluid, Pa + gp =specific heat of fluid, kg” K afation (122) is applicable to turbulent flow, which typically prevails with the elo and fluid properties experienced in most commercial evaporators and con”DODD —900000000p I05u ‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 237 densers. McAdams" proposed. the constant of 0.023 in Eq. (129), but Katz etal.” found that the actual value in condensers is about 15 percent higher because the tubes are relatively short and the effects of higher turbulence due to entrance effects increase the rate of heat transfer slightly. Example 12-1 Compute the heatransfer coefficient for water flow inside the- tubes (8 mm ID) of an evaporator ifthe water temperature is 10°C and its velocity is 2mjs. Solution The properties of water at 10°C are 0.00131 Pa +s p= 1000 kgm? k= 0.573 Wim - K Sikg K ‘The Reynolds number is _ Gms) (0.008 m) (1000 kg/m?) 0.00131 Pars This value of the Reynolds number indicates that the flow is turbulent, so Eq. (129) applies. The Prandtl number is (4190 J/kg K) (0.00131 Pa 3) 0573 Wim K The Nusselt number ean now be computed from Eq. (129) Nu=0.023(12,214""8) 0.64) = 106 from which the heat-transfe coefficient can be computed as yn 0573 Wit °K 0.008 m 'As the fluid flows inside the tubes through a condenser or evaporator pressure drop occurs both in the straight tubes and in the U-bends or reads ofthe heat ex changer. Some drop in pressure is also attributable to entrance and exit losses. The expression for pressure drop of fluid flowing in straight tubes from Chap 7 is Lv elas = 4190 (106) = 7592 Wim? K (azt0) where Ap = pressure drop, Pa {{= friction factor, dimensionless = length of tube, m Since the pressure drop in the straight tubes in an evaporator or condenser may represent only 50 to 80 percent of the total pressure drop, experimental or catalog Gata on the pressure drop a8 a function of flow rate are desirable. Ifthe pressure drop atone flow rate is known, it is possible to predict the pressure drcp at other flow rates. ‘The expression applicable to straight tubes, Eq. (12-10), indicates that the pressure 4rop is proportional to the square of the velocity and thus the square of the flow rate.438. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING eure drop resulting from changes in flow and wre portional to the square ofthe Dow rte so if the ‘The other contributors t© Pres ried a are known, the pressure drop Aa ak ® ait Grection are also almost exactly pressure drop ani ferent flow rate 2 ; ") oun, 12-4 Liquid in shell; heat transfer and press drop In shelland-tube evaporators, a4 arlgerant als inside tubes, the Laud BOE cooled flows in the shell across ets of tubes, as shown schematically 9 16 ‘12, The liquid is directed by baffles ame lows across te tbe bundle many (HA “Ind does not short-circuit from the so tt ip outlet. The analytical prediction he heat-transfer coefficient of liquid let Tipe is complicated in itself, and the comes flow pattern over 2 Oe prediction even more dificult In ove proceed with Mjgnng heat exchanger, enginee’s £8071 (0 contelations that relate is, and Prandtl numbers to the geomelre ‘onfiguration of the by Emerson? can be modified to the form au geometry) (Re) "9 () «2 flowing norm: ‘bundle of tubes the business of de the Nusselt, Reyaol ubes and baffles, Such an equation nD WD _ (teams controlled by bulk temperature, Pa $ fewall temperature, Pa* § sian is GDJa, where G is tnemass velocity oF = viscosity of fluid at = viscosity of fluid at tubs ‘the Reynolds number in this equat Tre of flow divided by a characteristic low SF of ough in this text we shall delve no deeper Me the complexities of designing a shelvanastube heat exchanger, one import Tout simple realization emerges from fq (12-12): fora given evaporator or condendst inen water flows in the shell outside the tubes where i (const) (flowrate) (12-13) ‘compared with the Waterside heattransfer coefficien va coefficient vais asthe 0.6 power of the flow fe ‘The conveetio Mico ini tubes, as indicated by Ea-(12) 0.8 power for Liquid being ‘led Retest vcueure 12-4 Shell low of liquid across tube Bune. pods WOU 2 De} ist DOD . ere eee‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 239) so - 20 20 Pressure drop, KPa s + Figure 125 Presute drop of water dowing in Ss iis 20 ‘he shell of an evaporator. (York Dision of Water Now rate, Lis Borg Warner) ‘The pressure drop of liquid flowing through the shell across tube Bundles is also ifficult to predict analytically, but when an experimental point is available for one flow rate, predictions of the pressure drop at other flow rates can be made quite accurately. Figure 12-5 shows the water pressure drop taken irom catalog data of a water-chilling evaporator. The applicable exponent in the pressure-drop-flow-rate relationship here is 1.9. 125 Extended surface; fins Equation (12-8) expresses the resistances a heat ex- changer encounters when transferring heat from one fluid to another. Suppose that in Bq. (128) gyi 80 percent ofthe total estance to het transfer, forts to prove the U value by increasing h, provide only modest benefits. If, for example, hy Were doubled so that 1/hA; ie cut in half, the decrease in the total resistance could at best be reduced by 10 percent. The resistance on the outside of the tube, 1/fAg, is said to be the controlling resistance. ‘When one of the fluids in a condenser or evaporator is a gas (hereafter considered to be ait), the properties of the air compared with those of the liquid, such as water, result in heat-transfer coefficients of the order of one-tenth to one-wentieth that of the water. The airside resistance in a configuration such as shown in Fig. 12-2 would provide the controlling resistance. In order to decrease 1/hd, the area A is usually Increased by using fins. “The bar fin, shown in Fig. 12-6 is a rudimentary fin whose performance can be predicted analytically and will be used to illustrate some important characteristics. The fins are of length L and thickness 2y' m, The conductivity of the meta is k W/m + K, and the airside coefficient is hy Wim? » K, To solve for the temperature distribution through the fin, a heat balance can be weitten about an element of thickness dx m. ‘The heat balance states that the rate of heat flow entering the element at position 1240 REERIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 1, = ae temperature eX Cn Figure 1246 Bar fin from the end of the fin plus that transferred tothe element eo the air equals the from treat transferred obt ofthe element a position 2 foward the Uae For one-half tat tin and afin depth of Zm the heat balance in symbols is wo2(), any iy (48 ) Zax h/t, xy whet fg = temperature of ait temperature of fin Canceling Z and factoring ves »(@,-@] =aehlt,-9 235) or he afferent length dx the change in the temperature radent (,-G,-a6 ‘Substituting into Eq. 12-15, we get a246) at _ yl a 1247 ge 247) by solving the second-order difeentil equation (1217) the temperature distribution fvoughout the fin ean be shown to Be cosh M(L -») ex = 2) (aras) ‘cosh ML where fy = temperature of base of fin,"C Mw iy wen fined col cools i, points inthe fin farther away fom the base are higher‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 241 « © Figure 12-7 Determining fn effectivenese of a rectangular plate fn a) by treating it as an) an- rufa fin ofthe sme ae in temperature than points close to the base. The net result of the higher tempera ture of most of the fin is that less heat is transferred than if the entize fin were at temperature fy. The ratio of the actual rate of heat transfer to that which would be transferred ifthe fin were at temperature (Is called the fn effectiveness actual @ i fin were at base tempenture Fin effectiveness (12.19) Harper and Brown* found that the fin effectiveness forthe bar in at Fig. 1246 can be represented by tanh ME ML ‘The bar fin is not a common shape but the dominant type of finned surface is the rectangular plate fin mounted on cylindrical tubes. The net result Is a rectangular or square fin mounted on a circular base, one section of which is shown in Fig, 12-7a ‘The fin effectiveness of the rectangular plate fin is often calculated by using proper: ties of the corresponding annular fin (Fig. 12-76), for which a graph of the fin effec tiveness is available, as in Fig. 12-8, The corresponding annular fin has the same area and thickness as the plate fin it represents a Example 12-2 What is the fin effectiveness of a rectangular plate fin made of aluminum 0.3 mm thick mounted on 2 16-mm-OD tube ifthe vertical tube spacing is 50 mm and the horizontal spacing is 40 mm? The airssde heat-transfer coef ficient is 65 W/m? + K, and the conductivity of aluminum is202 W/m + K. Solution The annular fin having the same area as the plate fin (Fig. 129) has an external radius of 25.2 mm. The half-thickness of the fin y = 0.15 mm. ese -202(0.00015) /)M = (0.0252 - 0008) (46.3) = 8 5.218 a 3m From Fig. 12-8 for (— - r)M = 08 and fr, nis0.72. 15 the fin effectiveness242. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Fin effectiveness 10 20 30 (Ni gue 128 Fin esivenes of an aur in’ The extemal ano BE GH TER and the in ternal ads 67 ‘The aesie aren ofa finned condenser or evaporator is composed OW a “hee extended area, The prime area A, is that of the tube bowwsen the prime ine extended are Ais that ofthe in, Sine the prin 2088 the base emperature, it has afin effectiveness of 1.0. Its fa the extended surface thatthe fin seen less than 1.0 applies. Equation (128) for the over heat ansfer coef ficient can be revised to read the prime area and (0220) comm —l Figure 129 Annular of sare rea as rectangular plat fit i 5 1‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 243 126 Gas flowing over finned tubes; heat transfer and pressure drop A precise pre- diction ofthe arside heattransfer coefficient when the air fows over finned tubes is complicated because the value isa function of geometric factors, e., the fin spacing, the spacing and diameter of the tubes, and the number of rows of tubes deep. Usually the coefficient varies approximately asthe square root of the face velocity ofthe ar. ‘A rough estimate of the airside coefficient fy can be computed from the equation derived from illustrative data inthe ARI standard® 5 (1221) ‘where V is the face velocity in meters per second. Rich” conducted tests of coils of various fin spacings and correlated the dimen- sionless heat transfer numbers with specially defined Reynolds numbers. ‘The drop in pressure of the air flowing through a finned coil is also dependent ‘upon the geometry of the coil. Figure 12-10 shows the pressure drop of a commercial {Cooling coll when the finned surfaces are dry. As expected, the pressure drop is higher Ft Airpressure drop, Pape tube row r 2 74 Se Face velocity, mis Figure 12:0 Pressure drop of air owing through finned col (Bohn Heat Transfer Divton of, Gulf & Westen Monufactaring Company)244. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING for coils with a large number of fins per meter of tube length, The ordinate isthe pres: sure drop per number of rows of tubes deep, so the values would be multiplied by 6 for a six-row coil, for example. - For the coil series whose pressure drops are shown in Fig. 12-10 the pressure drop for a given coil varies asthe face velocity to the 1.56 power. Tha: exponent is fairly typical of commercial plate-fin coils. 12-7 Condensers The previous sections presented tools for computing heattransfer coefficients and pressure drops of the fluid exchanging heat with the refrigerant in ¢ Condenser of evaporator. For the condenser the fluid to which heat is rejected is sully either air or water, Air-cooled condensers are shown in Fig, 12-2 and a shell and-tube condenser in Fig. 12-1. Another type of water-cooled concenser has cleanable tubes (Fig, 12-11). When the condenser is water-cooled, the wateris sent to a cooling tower (Chap. 19) for ultimate rejection of the heat to the atmosphere. Some years 2g0 iveooled condensers were used only in small reftigeration systems (less than 100 kW refrigerating capacity), but now individual air-cooled condensers ae manufactured in Sizes matching refrigeration capacities of hundreds of kilowatts. The water-cooled con denser is favored over the air-cooled condenser where there is along distance between the compressor and the point where heat isto be rejected. Most designers prefer to Convey water rather than refrigerant in long lines, In centifugal-compressor systems large pipes are needed for the low-density refrigerants (See Sec. 11-25), so that the comprestor is closecoupled to the condenser, Watercooled condensers therefore predominate in centrifugal-compressor systems. 128 Required condensing capacity The required rate of heat transfer in the con denser is predominately a function of the refrigerating capacity and the temperatures Figure 12.11 Watercooled condenser with cleanable tubes, Holitead and Mitchel, « Dbision of, Halsteed Industries, Inc}CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 245 16 Ls =e evaporator : wah 8 g 2 1sb nab 0 30 0 30 0 Condensing temperature, "C Figure 12412 Typical values of the ratio of the heat rejected atthe condenser to the eftigerating capacity for rftgeanis 12 and 22. of evaporation and condensation. The condenser must reject both the energy absorbed by the evaporator and the heat of compression added by tne compressor. A term often used to relate the rate of heat flow at the condenser to that of the evaporator is the heat-rejection ratio rate of heat rejected at condenser, KW He pK Tate of heat absorbed at evaporator, KW trgjection rat ‘Theoretical calculations of the condenser heat rejection can be made from the standard vapor-compression eycle (Sec. 10-14), but they do not take into consideration the iclencies in the compressor. A gaph of typical values of hheat-ejection ratios is shown in Fig, 12-12, When the motor ériving the compressor is hermetically sealed, some of the heat associated with inefficiencies of the electric ‘motor is added to the refrigerant stream and must ultimately be removed at the con- denser. The heat-tejection ratios of the hermetically sealed comprestors are usually slightly higher than those of the openype comprestor. 129 Condensing coefficient The basic equation for calculating the local coefficient of heat transfer of vapor condensing on a vertical plate (Fig, 12-13) was developed by1246 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING vapor condenstelgye 12413 Condensation on vets plate pure physiea analysis, The equation for te oral condensin coefficient is hx feoth “) ua teak 2 (2 Mae | 5 : (te 02-22) «= Ioeal condensing coefficient on vertical plate, Wim? *K y= yetical distance measured from top of plate, m 7p acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/5? p= density of condensate, Ke/m atent heat of vaporization, STKE viscosity of condensate, Pa * § wy ae difference between vapor and the plate, K Nusselt by where Hey r= tempe sthemens condensing coeficent over he ctat height ofthe pats Perea ote agg ¥, o9a3 (2) Wim 2.23) toy L f wat I (12:23) ‘The equation forthe mean condensing coefficient for vapor condensing on the out side of horizontal tubes is 07a ( Di ons (= Win? © K. 2.24) abi ND, Ns 224) h umber of tubes in vertical row OD of tube,m where. scent investigators have found that the constant 0.725 ip 2 (12-24) agrees closely with experimental results. White? found the constant {9 bbe 0.63, and Goto Seat found it to be approximately 0:65. equations (12:2) and (1224) are Denil examples of equations of motion and nce combined. They ate expressions of the coef of heat transfer across the film of lig nee nich is continuously condensing 01 the surface and on aiwously draining away. A qualitative examination ‘of Eq, (1-24) shows that an in Linsey aerate because a grater rate of heat flow cas Be ‘ransferred across @‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 247 siven thickness of liquid fim, A high value of density p ora low value of viscosity i fevlts in more rapid draining of the condensed liquid, which decreases the lm thick- teas and increases i. A high value of hg means that foreach joule transferred a small Iiass of vapor condenses, which keepe the fil thinner and increases hy. Finally, a high Bs fadivates a high rate of condensation witha resultant thick fm, which de- creases hy Equations (1223) and (12-24) apply to film condensation, one of the two fypes of condensation. The other typeof condensation is dropwis. In lm condensation the Condensed ligid spreads over the entre condensing surface, whereas in dropwise con- ‘ensation the condensed liquid gathers in globule, leaving some ofthe vapor in direct Contact ith the surface. Dropwse condensation provides higher coeficient of heat transfer, but it ean occur only on clan surfaces, Tobe safe, therefore, performance of condensers is predicted on the bass of film condensation, Equations (1223) and (12-24) apply to condenatior on the outside of tes, were there is lite or no vapor velocity. When calculating the condensing cooficient On the inside of tubes allowance must be made forthe reduction in condesing area due to liguid collecting inthe bottom ofthe tube before ersining out the end. When {ubjsted to a vapor velocity, the drag of the vapor on the condensate may seeerate Gr retard draining, depending upon the relative directions of flow of the condensate and vapor. 1240 Fouling factor After a water-cooled condenser has been in service for some time its U value usually degrades somewhat because ofthe increased resistance to heat transfer on the water side due to fouling by the impurities nthe water from the cool- ing tower. The new condenser must therefore have 2 higher U'value in anticipation of the reduction that will occur in service. The higher capacty with new equipment is provided by specifying a fouling factor \/hy m2 + K/W. This term expands Eq, (128) for the U value into 1_1 (xd, Ay A dab Mo, 40440 (1228) Uy Hig Am MyyAy IheAy Several different agencies have established standards for the fouling factor to be used. ‘One trade association" specifies 0.000176 m? + K/W, which means that the condenser should leave the factory with a 1/Up value 0.000176 444; less than the minimum required to meet the quoted capacity of the condenser, 12-11 Desuperheating Even when the refrigerant condenses ata constant pressure, its temperature is constant only in the condensing portion. Because the vapor coming from the compressor is usually superheated, the distributicn of temperature will be as shown in Fig. 12-14, Because of the distortion in the temperature profile caused by the desupetheating process, the temperature difference between the refrigerant and the cooling fluid is no longer correctly represented by the LMTD _ Meet) inf, - IG, =1)) LMTD 2.26)1248 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Subcooting Desuperheating Temperature, °C Figure 12-14 Temperature distr Dotions ina condense. It is common practice to use Eq, (12-26) anyway with the following justification ‘Although the temperature difference between the refrigerant and cooling fluid i higher ih the desuperheating section than calculated from Eq. (12-26), the convection coef: ficient in this section is normally lower than the condensing coefficient. The two tnrors compensate somewhat for each other, and the application of Eq. (12-26) along vith the condensing coefficient over the entire condenser area usually provides reason- ably accurate results 12:12 Condenser design An example will illustrate how some of the principles de- scribed in the previous sections are combined in designing a condenser. Example 123 The condensing area is to be specified for a reftigerant 22 con- denser of a reftigerating system that provides a capacity of 80 KW for air con~ Gitioning. The evaporating temperature is 5°C, and the condensing temperature js 45°C at design conditions. Water from a cooling tower enters the condenser at 30°C and leaves at 35°C. “A two-pass condenser with 42 tubes, arranged as shown in Fig, 12-15, wll be used, and the length of tubes is to be specified to provide the necessary area ‘The tubes are copper and are 14 mm ID and 16 mm OD. Solution The steps in the solution of this design are as follows: calculate the re- Figute 12415 Tube arrngement of condesserin Example 125. y>2200 23929999 W wopanaransedesea 2 aD ls a cae aa> ‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 249 quired rate of heat transfer, the individual heat-ransfer coefficients, and the overall heat-ransfer coefficient; then compute the required area and tube length, ‘Rate of heat transfer From Fig. 12-12, assuming the compressor to be a her- metic one, the heat-rejection ratio at a condensing temperature of 45°C and an evaporating .emperature of S°C is 1.27, The rate of heat rejected at the condenser ais = (80 KW) (1.27) = 101.6 kW Condensing coefficient From Eq. (12-24) an o.ras (gk (AtND us ‘The density p and latent heat of vaporization hy, at 45°Care available from Table ne 1 —_____ = 1.109 ke/L = 1109 ka/m? 0.90203 L/kg. a e Iyg* 160900 Hg ‘The conductivity & and viscosity w of the liquid refrigerant at 45°C are available from Table 15.5 k= 0.0779 Wim*K = 0.000180 Pa +s “The average number of tubes in a vertical row Nis L2ad+dt SHAH SHAH IEA I ESTED B 3.23 ‘The temperature difference between the vapor and the tube is unknown at this point; therefore A¢ will be assumed to be 5 K and the value adjusted later if neoessary. Pacers oor} “ cont = 9725 | 990180(5)(3.23) (0.016) 1528 Wim? - K Resltance of metal The conductivity of cope i 390 Wim K, and the resistance ofthe tube fs (0016-00142 16 39014 + 16)/2 1000002735 m? + K/W «value that wil prove to be negligible in comparison to the other resistances. ‘Fouling factor From See. 12-10 1 > = 0.000176 m? + K/W Mp280. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘the flow rate of water needed to cary the heat away Waterside coefficient re rise from 30 to 35°C is from the condenser with a temperatur 101.6 kW ___101 SY __ = 48s (19 Kdikg * K) G5.0 - 30.0) BS kas and the volume flow rate is asskels ASSES «9.00485 mts 7000 elm b “The water velocity through the tubes V8 0.00485 m/s ee LS ms ye oa Gi tubes per pass) @/4) (0.0147) ) can be used to calculate the waterside heat-tranfer yperties at 32°C 9 =995 kelm? (000773 Pa s 674190 3kg*K k= 0617 Wim K 0.617(0.023) [1.5(0.014) coy pom gory" ‘Oo1s 0.000773 0617 Equation (129) efficient Fig using the water pro} aa Tt f= 1.014(2703008) (5.2504) = 6910 Wim? *K Required area 11g qnqqoa735 + 22%8 on0176) 2 U, 1528 ora ‘d.014 6910 U,=977 Wim?» K 001023, ‘The LMTD is 45 ~30)-(45-38) = 30) 15-39) 233% A, Length of tubes 843 m? Sen = 40m @ivbes) 0.016") the assumption of the 5-K temperature differ: ence wed in ealelatng the condensing coefficient A recalculation may bs Neceso eee caper would also check the water-pressure drop inthe condenser £0 35 that ie door not exceed a reasonable value (Pethaps ofthe order of 70 KFs) Lengt ‘A recheck should now be made of 1 Thee RNeREPI. HEMET WWE TE ey eae se‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 251 Figure 1216 A Wison plot to determine the individual heatransfer coefficients of condenser, 12-13 Wilson plots Constructing a Wilson plot is 2 technique of processing heat transfer data to determine the individual heat-transfer coefficients in a heat exchanger. ‘The concept was introduced by Wilson! and is often appied to condensers and evap orators to determine the condensing or evaporating heat-transfer coefficient along, with the ar- or water side coefficient. If it is a water-cooled condenser that is being analyzed, for example, a series of heattransfer tests is run and the U value determined for various flow rates of cooling, water If the condenser tubes are clean, Eq. (12-8) applies and A, slde coefficient and hy the waterside coefficient. is the condensing- 11x, 7 *40 , Ao 227) - U, 8, A, A; “The properties of the cooling water are primarily a function of temperature, and if the temperature range throughout the tests is nt large, the properties may be assumed Constant, Equation (12-9) can then be simplified to const) (V8) (1228) ‘The Wilton plot for this heat exchanger isa graph of 1/0, versus 1/198, as shown in Fig, 12:16. The intercept on the ordinate is 1/h, +xA,/kd,,. The resistance of the tibe, mdy/Rdy., can be calculated and then subtracted fom the intercept to {eld the reciprocal of the condensing coefficient, 1h. At any velocity the value of cfd, is also available from which the value of hy canbe extracted The significance | ‘of the intercept is that when 1/V° is zero, V is infinite. An infinite water velocity ‘would wipe out the waterside heat-transfer resistance completely, leaving only the ‘other two resistances. ‘Drawing a straight line on Fig. 12-16 is possible only when the value of ft, remains constant throughout the tests. The loading, or rate of heat removal, of the condenser has some effect upon A, since it controls the temperature difference across the con- densing film. “The Wilson plot is applicable to other types of heat exchangers in addition to the shelland-tube condenser. If a Wilson plot were applied to an air-cooled condenser where air flows over the outside of finned coils and refrgerant condenses inside the tubes, the tests would be run at various air velocities. Equation (12-21) indicates that the heattransfer coefficient for air flowing over finned surfaces varies 2s the square952. RRFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING root of the velocity, The abscissa of the Wilson plot in Ws se would be 1/795 in roto achive astraght ine tobe extrapolated tothe ordinate. utd Air and nonceadensables If air or other noncondenssie $e center the re fageration system, they wil ultimately collect fo he ‘condenser, where Foreign gases frgeratiy efficiency of the system for two reasons: (1) The Os Fi in the con ree levated, which requires more power forthe compress) Pet ‘unit refrigeration ergy The condenser pressure is raed over the SUT pressure of the reftiger- sat'by the amount of the partial pressure of the rnoncondensable gas. (2) Instead of ant by ti souphout the condense, the noncondensabes cing 01 condenser tubes. ras ondensingsrface area cedueed, which ao fends to ae the condensing pressure, UE densables can be removed ftom the condenser bY PUB ‘The purging peration consists of drawing mixture of refers Toe snd noncondensables ore Condenser, separating te refrigerant and dischasing ie noncondensibles reo gia evatems are commonly equipped with Puraes, YY the only other systems MMuipped with porger ae the c=nteifugal-compresor systems, which use low-pressure sefrigerants such as refrigerants 11 and 113. 2s Evaporators In most refrigerating evaporators the feng boils in the tubes roe a he Mul that pases over the outside ofthe ees, Peape ery that boll re frgeran in the tubes are often called direct exPonstn ‘evaporators, and Fig. 12-17 fcgeran! cooling evaporator and Fig, 12-182 igud cooler The tubes in the liquid gue 12:17 Along evaporator The dey om he to Isa refrigerant distributor to foot Figure 7s uniformly.(MeQuey Group, MeQuay Perfo tne]99990000009000p 2000 CONDENSERS AND EVAFORATORS 253 os Coot teat ae Refrigerant ‘uber oe segmental in ‘es and tube sheets hing evaporator in which sefrgerant bots ise finned tubes, (Dunhare Figure 12.18 A liq Bush, Ire) chiller in Fig. 12-18 have fins inside the tubes in order to increase the conductance on the refrigerant side, Directexpansion evaporators used for air-conditioning applications are usually fed by an expansion valve that regulates the low of liquid so thatthe refrigerant vapor eaves the evaporator with some superheat, as shown in Fig. 12-19a. Another concept is the iquid-ecireulation or iquid-overfeed evaporator in Fig. 12-19, in which excess liquid at low pressure and temperature is pumped to the evaporator (see Chap. 16). ‘Some liquid boils in the evaporator, and the remainder floods out of the outlet. The liquid from the evaporator is separated out, and the vapor flows on to the compressor. Low-temperature industrial refrigeration systems often use this type of evaporator, which has the advantage of wetting all the interior surfaces of the evaporator and ‘maintaining a high coefficient of heat transfer. tiguid™ Tiguid and vapor ‘Super Liquid heated @ Figue 12-19 (2) Airconditioning evaporator with refigerant ving ina superheated state, () Tid recinculation evaporator with liquid rtrigerant carried ot of the evaporator254 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING White refigerant boils inside the tubes of most commerci eMpeeIGr te evehilling evaporator the refrigerant bolls outside the (ubes- aise standard in centsifugal-compressor applications. Some times such an evaporator fon with reciprocating compressors, but times Sach cations provision must be made fr etuming 9 fo the compressor. In mt boils in the tubes, the velocity of the refrigerant the evaporators where refrie ov maintained high enough to cary oi back tothe compreor important class of lig ‘This type of evapora is used in conjuncti is dithcutt to predict the boiling coeficent accurately ihe mechanisms, Furthermore the coefficients follow the abell outside the tubes, in ends that usually occur will be presented 12:16 Boiling in the shell It because of the complexities of some different rules when thé sRntrast to boiling inside the tubes. Some t in this and the next section, ae etiton forthe heat-tranfer coefficient for peat BONE of water at atmospheric pressure i shown in Fig. 1220, The tests 60 conducted by immers: ing a heated wite ina container of water. Inthe DOWITE regime AB the boiling is called 108 re boiling, where bubbles form on the surface and Hse through the pool. The tavation of the cure is approximately decane a rate of heat transfer, W where q A= heat-transfer area, m? constant surface and boiling fuid, K 0 a v8] 2 08 10 igure 1220 Heatiranster coefficient in ing of water. (From W. H reat Tranansion,” 34 0 on v 0 Tempertrediference K rero0, McGrew Hil, New York, 1954)CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 255 T 2000] 1500 a : = 100 4 sw 4 a) z 3 3 40 = 0 4 : Figure 1221 Heatraserco Atfeents for retigeant soo “ag mabe "060 860 FOo00He22 boing eatse of tbe eat ox, Win? tides ‘To write the equation in another form divide both sides by Ar, a Aa where h, is the boiling coefficient, Wi(m? K). The value of h, increases at the tem: perature difference increases, which physically is due to the greater agitation. The dis- turbance frees the bubbles of vapor from the metal surface sooner and allows the liquid to come into contact with the metal “The rate of evaporation can increase to a peak, point 8, where so much vapor covers the metal surface that the liquid can no longer intimately contact the metal 'A further increase in the temperature difference decreases the rate of heat transfer. ‘The graph in Fig. 12-20 is useful in predicting the trends for heat-tranafer coef- ficients for boiling outside tube bundles. Hoffmann'* summarized the work of several investigators to provide the band shown in Fig. 12-21 care3 12:17 Boiling inside tubes When refrigerant boils inside the tubes, the heat-transfer coefficient changes progressively as the refrigerant flows through the tube. The refrig- trant enters the evaporator tube with a low fraction of vapor. As the reftigerant pro- teeeds through the tube, the fraction of vapor increases, intensifying the agitation and {nereasing the heat-transfer coefficient. When the refrigerant is nearly all vaporized, the coefficient drops off to the magnitude applicable to vapor transferring heat by forced convection, Figure 12-22 shows local coefficients throughout a tube for three different levels of temperature. The heat-transfer coefficient is highest for the high evaporating temperature, probably because at high evaporating temperatures and256 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 2000) “kK 3 5 CCostiient of heat transfer, Win 3 o or OaSCSSC«i SC sion of guid vaporize’ 2 Distance along tobe, m ire 1222 Heattensersonfcints of rgerant 22 boing inde cen Cure 1a 10°C, Paar eC. and curve 3 at 2.8°C temperatures of evaporation’ presures the vapor density is high, permitting 2 greater action of the meal fo be wetted with liquid. 12.48 Evaporator performance From the discussion of boiling heattransfer coef Fejents in Secs. 12-16 and 12-17 the coefficient will be expected to increase with 98 seer ie loading, Ths assumption is borne out by the performance of commercat seermerors. We encounter the performance of evaporators again in Chap.14, nd Fie 148 shows the performance of a water-chiling eaporator where the re Fe its inside the tubes, For a given temperature of entering water th lines on the ae paty-versus-craporatingtemperatare graph would be stright ifthe U alts cares ontant, Instead, the lines are curved upward indicating an increase in U7 iran d ore intense loadings due tothe improved boiling heat transfer coeicent. 12.19 Presure drop in tubes The pressure ofthe refrigerant drops as it flows throwg vacktype evaporators. The effect of presure drop on system performances thatthe carer must pump from a lower suction pressure, which increases the power 1‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 257 quirement. On the other hand a high refrigerant velocity can be achieved if more pres ‘sure drop is permitted, and this high velocity improves the heat-transfer coefficient. ‘Typical pressure drops for air-conditioning evaporators are 15 to 30 kPa. 12-20 Frost When the surface temperatures of an air-cooling evaporator fall below °C frost will form. Frost is detrimental to the operation of the refrigeration sys tem for two reasons:"* (1) thick layers of frost act as insulation, and (2) in forced- ‘convection coils the frost reduces the airflow rate, With a reduced airflow rate the U value of the coil drops, and the mean temperature difference between the air and refrigerant must increase in order to transfer the same rate of heat flow. Both these factors penalize the system by requiring a lower evaporating temperature. Numerous methods of defrosting are available, and probably the most popular ‘ones are hot-gas defrost and water defrost. In hot-gas defrost, discharge gas from the compressor is sent directly to the evaporator and the evaporator performs tempo: rarily as a condenser. The heat of condensation melts off the frost, which drains away. In water defrost, a stream of water is diected over the coll until all the frost is melted. PROBLEMS 12.4 An aircooted condenser is to rejet 70 kW of heat from a condensing refrigerant to ai, The condenser has an sirside area of 210 m? and a U value based on this area of 0.037 kW/m?» K: it is supplied with 6.6 m/s of air, which has a density of 1.15 Kgl Ifthe condensing temperature is to be limited to 55°C, what isthe maximum allowable temperature of inlet air? Ans. 40.6°C 122 Am air-cooled condenser has an expected U value of 30 W/m? + K based on the airside area. The condenser is to transfer 60 kW with an airflow rate of 15 kg/s enter ing at 35°C. If the condensing temperature i tobe 48°C, whe isthe required airside area? Ans, 184 mi? 123 A refrigerant 22 condenser has four water passes and a iota of 60 copper tubes that are 14 mm ID and have 2 mm wall thickness. The conductivity of copper is 390 Wm K, The outside of the tubes is finned so that the ratio of outside to inside area is 17. The cooling-water flow through the condenser tubes i 3.8 L/s (@) Calculate the waterside coefficient if the water iat ar average temperature of 30°C, at which temperature k= 0.614 Wim K, p= 996 kglm®, and 4 = 0.000803 Paes (b) Using « mean condensing coefficient of 1420 W/m? = K, calculate the overall heat-iranser coefficient based on the condensing area, Ans. 1057 W/m? + K. 12-4 A shelland-tube condenser has a U value of 800 W/m? ~ K based on the water- side area and a water pressure drop of $0 kPa. Under this operating condition 40 per- Gent of the heat-transfer resistance is on the water side, I! the waterflow rate is oubled, what will the new U value and the new pressure drop o¢? Ans, 964 W/m? = K, 200 kPa 125 (a) Compute the fin effectiveness of a bar fin made of aluminum that is 0.12 mm thick and 20 mm long when hy = 28 W/m? « K, the base temperature is 4°C, and the air temperature is 20°C, Ans. 0.775, {@) If you are permitted to use twice as much metal for the fin as orginally spect-4358 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING sid in pat (a) and you can either double the thickness oF dont the length, which Sed in Dat preferable in order to transfer the highest rats f flow? Why? ‘of an aluminum rectangular plate fin of a finned 1206 Com sraporator if the fin age 0.18 mm thick and mounict 2 16-mm-OD tubes. aoe apacing is 40 mm in the direction of airflow and 45. vertically. The air- Tigo coefficient is 55 Wm? * K. Ans, 0.68 we cnt it the UA vale of « dtect-expanion finned col NAPE having the» 12e nw areas refrigerant side, 18 m2;airside prime, 135 ‘m?; and airside extended followin ne refrgerantside heat-tansferconficien 1200 W/m? + K, and the air- 146 often is 48 W/m? ~ K. The ineffectiveness 0.68, de 4027 W/K a efrgerant 22 system having «refrigerating canals) KW operates with 178 vaporating temperature of SC and rejeets eat 10 ‘water-cooled condenser. The an capo Myermetialy seated. The condenser has aU yale of 450 Wim? * K and Gompressfer area of 18 m? and receives & flow rate of 12-6 Compute the fin effectiveness f cooling water of 3.2 ke/s at 2 ae 308 What ithe condensing temperature? Aas 61 2c when refrigerant 12 com- we alelate the mean condensing henttranser concent 129 Cael Te he onzotal be 2 Selene on eset om the Oe tube 1m and in the vr ove a aa side ameter, four, tre, and to tbs, Tee ata espe andthe empertre of the esis 44°C 4. OE Wim +K temper Syraor manufactur guasntess the U A oe rhe 120 condense Mand onthe waterside fa; In ore te alow (OF to 990 Wl ya seid when the condenser aver me acto? Ans 1200 wim?“ K 1241 In Example 12 fue was initially assumed £0 B= tube va ey ofthis asumption. Ans, A fom 8.210 123°C ca gn peti tobe contacted fra ine assole conden: OY 29° rae ene ot ariow, What should the abscia of hep! ee ots vo be constructed ora ahelhand tube Wats OE wich en eects in the tabs, THe ate of wate ow B f0 Pe waned for the einer. What should the abscissa of the plot be? Mito pe llowing valve were measure” onan ammonia conden a the temperature difference between the refigrant vapor 270 ein order to compute the condensing coefficient ao10 1920 | 1760 | 157, 1360 | 1130 $65 Uo, Wi + spe an Poors | ass [oa | oto | ose | o266} 0244 vials pes, and the tubes were 51mm OD and 46 mm 1D and het Water flowed inside the tut se aoa a Wilson plot, determine the condensing come a conductivity of 60 W/m * fiont, Ans, 8600 W/m? * K 12-14 Develop Fa. (12-23) from Eq. (12-22). ermine C and b in the equation h=C AI” ial range. Ans. h= 22241 the statement that on a graph of the “oordinates of Fig. 12-23 a curve for 12:18 From Fig. 1221, det applicable £0 values in the middle of the tyPi 12.16 Section 12-18 makes t Water-chilling evaporator with the € performance of # given enter ee DARD de> Sa lnBaBee Deeded: 2-2 als pcone.8 262‘CONDENSERS AND EVAPORATORS 259 Capacity, kW Figure 1223 Evaporator performance Evaporting temperature, °C cane, ing water temperature is a straight line if the heat-transfer coefficients are constant, Prove this statement. REFERENCES 1, W.HL MeAdams: “Heat Transmision," 34 ed, McGrawHil, New York, 1954 2. D.L, Kate, RE. Hope, S.C. Dats, sd D. B. Robinson: Condensston of F-12 with Finned ‘Tubes, Refi. Eng., vol. 83, 0.4, p- 211, March 1947. 3. W.H Emerson: ShellSide Pressute Drop and Heat Transfer with Turbulent Flow in Segmen- tally Baffled Shelkand-Tube Heat Exchangers, nt. J. Heat Mass Tunsfer, vol. 6,0. 8, PP. 649-668, August 1963, D_R. Harper Il and W. P, Brown: Mathematical Equations for Hest Conduction inthe Fins ‘of Air Cooled Engines, NACA Tech, Rep. 138, p. 677, 1922. 5, KA, Gardner: Efficiency of Extended Sutfaces, Trans. ASME, ol. 67, pp. 621-631, 1945. 6 Standaid for Forced Circulation AirCooling and AirHeating Cols, Standard 410, Ai Conditioning and Retrigeration Institue, Alington, Va, 1972, 7. D.G. Richt The Effect of Fin Spacing on the Heat Transfer and Friction Performance of, MultiRtow, Smooth Plate Fin-and-Tube Heat Exchangers, ASHRAE Trans, vol. 79, Bt 2, pp. 137-145, 1974 8, W7. Nussc: Die Oberflachenkondensstion des Wasserdampfes, Ver Dtsch, Ing, ol. 60, PP 541-569, July 1916. 9, RLE, White: Condensation of Refrigerant Vapors: Apparatus and Film Coefiients for F-12, Refe, Eng ,vol 58, n0.5,. 375, Apr 1948. 10. M. Goto. I, Hotts, and §” Tezuka: Film Condensation of Refrigerant Vapors on a Horizontal Tube, 15th ine, Congr. Refi, Venice, 1979, Pap. BI-2. 11, 5.€.Chato: Laminar Condensation Inside Horizontal and Inclined Tobes, ASHRAE ol. 4, 0.2, p82, 1962. Standuds ofthe Tubular Exchanger Manuftctoers Association,” Sth ef New York, 1970 13. EE Wilson: A Bass for Rational Design of Heat‘Transfer Apparatis, Trans. ASME, vol. 37, 47,1915. 14, B, Hoffmann: Woermeuebergangzahlen verdampfender Kaeltemittel, Kaeltetechn, vol. 9, ‘01, pp. 712, January 1957. 15, §.6 Kuvshinor, I. F. Yatsunov, ad NL. Ftolova: Perfomance of Shelland-Tube Evapora- tors with Refigerant Boiling inside Tubes, Kholod. Te, vo. $0, . 9, pp. 39-43, 1973, 16. W. F, Stoecker: How Frost Foomation on Coils Affects Refrigeration Systems, Refi, Eng, vol 65, no. 2, p-42, February 1957. 17. AP Keats, HJ, Macintie, and R.E, Gould: Heat Transfer in Ammonia Condensers, pl, Univ. Eng. Exp. Stn Bul, 208, June 17,1930.CHAPTER : THIRTEEN EXPANSION DEVICES 1341 Purpose and types of expansion devies The last of the basic elements the vapor compression cele, after the compressor, condenser and saps the ex: vreejon device, The purpose of the expansion device is twofold: ite reduce the Parone of the Liquid refrigerant, and it most regulate the low of repens to the evaporator. ator apter explains the opeation of the common types of expansion evens the coping tube, the superheatcontrlled expansion valve, the [oot valve, and the capita presere expansion valve. Operation of a refrigeration =H, SO ee ronces willbe discussed, with spedal emphasis ox balanced ant ‘unbalanced Trea, conditions oceurting between the expansion device and the eorPres The pow cont commonly used expansion devices, the capillary tube and the superheat ee as rpansioa vale, ae singled out for a more thorough study of thelr ating characteristics. 132 Capillary tubes The capillary tube serves almost ll smal refrigeration systems, sae eopentcation extends up to refrigerating capacities of the order Of 10 KW. A anasry tube is] to 6m lng with a inside diameter generally Tom © 5 to2 mm, Fen is a misnomer, since the bore i too large to perm capillary ace Liquid eae sramt enters the capillary tube, and as it flows though the rahe, pressure “Fem Pecaeof fiction and acceleration of the rfegerant, Some of he liquid flashes fnte vapor asthe refrigerant flows through the tube Foe combinations of bore and length are aalable to obtin (We desired cextnetons“Once the capillary tube hes been selected and installed, Rowe the vertipnot adjust to variations in discharge pressure, suction Pressure, of Toad. The 260 ‘ ; —ceetmmuacinaipeeniasEXPANSION DEVICES 261 Mas rate of flow, hls CCompresor NN =a Capillary tube ‘Suction pressure, KPa Figure 13-1 Balance points with a reciprocating compressor and capilly tube. compressor and expansion device must arrive at suction and discharge conditions which allow the compressor to pump from the evaporator the same flow rate of Irigerant that the expansion device feeds to the evaporator. A condition of unbalanced flow between these two components must necessarily be temporary For a closer look at balance points the mass rate of flow fed by the capillary tube can be plotted on the same graph as the mass rate of flow pumped by the compressor. Figure 13-1 is such a plot with the flow through the capillary tube shown in dashed lines and the pumping capacity of a reciprocating compressor siown in solid lines. At high condensing pressures the capillary tube feeds more refrigerant to the evaporator than it does at low condensing pressures because of the increase in pressure difference across the tube. The compressor-capacity curves are the same as those explained in Chap. 11 in the study of compressors. At a 30°C condensing temperature, for example, the compressor and capillary tube must search for a suction pressure which allows ‘them both to pass equal mass rates of flow. This suction presse is found at point 1, Which is the balance point at a 30°C condensing temperature. Points 2 and 3 are the balance points at 40°C and 50°C condensing temperatures, respectively, ‘The compressor and capillary tube do not have complet liberty to fix the suction, pressure because the heat-transfer relationships ofthe evaporator must also be satisfied If the evaporator heat transfer is not satisfied at the compressor-capllary-tube balance point, an unbalanced condition results which can starve the evaporator or overfeed the evaporator. ‘Starving the evaporator results when the suetion pressure rises and the capillary does mot feed sufficient refrigerant to refrigerate the evaporatcr surfaces adequately. Figure 13-2 shows a balance point for a constant condensing pressure between the compressor and the capillary tube at suction pressure A. A heavy heat load, when received at the evaporator, manifests itself as a high temperature of the fluid to be chilled. The suction temperature and pressure will rise to some point B, At suction262. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING copitary Tube Figure 132 Unbalanced _con- fitons causing starving oF flooding of the evaporator. The condensing pressure is Suation pressure, KPa constant Mass rat of ow, presuce B the compressor can draw sore efrigerant out of the evaporator than the rely tube can supply, 0 the evaporator soon becomes short of refrigerant Since de evayorator cannot be emptied infinitely, something must happen t0 restore the tessmee the corrective condition on most units without a receiver (vesel that stores ligotd between the condenser and expansion device) it that quid ack up into ‘he aMjenser The condensing area is thereby reduced and the condenser pressure rased Shah the elevated condenser pressure, the compressor capacity is reduced and the Tapillary-tube rate of feed is increased until balance is resored. Another possi for regaining 2 balanced flow rate is thatthe heattransfer coefficient inthe starved aporator decreases. A greater temperature differen must develop between he ‘tau being chilled and the refrigerant inthe evaporator, which occu By means of the hetion pressure dzopping back to pressure A and restoring balanced flow. xn opposite unbalanced condition results if the refrigeration loa falls off to less than the refrigeration capacity atthe balance point. Ifthe refrigeration load drops off, aanessgn temperature and pressure drop to some point C. At suction pressure C the capillary tube ean feed more refrigerant to the evaperator than the compressor aoe cari out, The evaporator fils with liquid and would spill ever into the con fresor with disastrous results were st not prevented. Slgging the compro, with Tiga can be prevented by limiting the charg of refrigerant inthe system. The Shares ae efully measured so that thece is enough refrigerant tc fill the evaporator but Te 5 ceipalance of flow is restored when some gas enters the capillary tube, reducing whe feed rate of the capillary tube® because of the high specific volume of the vapor ‘A new balance point is at point Din Fig. 13.2. "Aithough point D represents balanced flow, itis not asatsfctory condition, The state of the reigerant entering the capillary tube shown on the pressure-enthey is in the mixture region, which reduces the refrigerating effect yhen saturated or subeooled liquid enters the capillary tube. Each ut the digram in Fig. 13-3 ‘compared with that w Kilogram of refrigerant provides a reduced refrigerating eect in Fig, 13+ work per kilogram remains unchanged. any caplay tubes are installed so that they become pat of a eat exchaner™ The a epnger i constructed By attaching te svetion Hine to the capillary 9Sry ose 90 uae 20965 I h EXPANSION DEVICES 263 é O : & Refrigerating effect Figure 135 Reduction in refigerat- ing effect when some vapor enters ay, RE the capa ube ‘The cold suction gas from the evaporator retards the flashing of the liquid flowing through the capillary tube Capillary tubes have certain advantages and disadvantages. Their advantages are ‘predominant enough to give them universal acceptance in fatory-sealed systems. They fre simple, have no moving parts, and are inexpensive, They zlso allow the pressures in the system to equalize during the off cycle. The motor driving the compressor can then be one of low starting torque. “The disadvantages of capillary tubes are that they are not adjustable to changing load conditions, are susceptible to clogging by foreign matter, and require the mass of refrigerant charge to be held within close limits. This last feature has dictated that the capillary tube be used only on hermetically sealed systems, where there is less likelihood of the refrigerant leaking out. The capillary tube is designed for one set of ‘operating conditions, and any change in the applied heat load or condensing tempera- ture from design conditions represents a decrease in operating efficiency. 133 Selection of a capillary tube The designer of a new refrigeration unit employing a capillary tube must select the bore and length of the tube so that the compressor and tube fix a balance point at the desired evaporating temperature. Final adjustment of the length is most often “cut and try.” A longer tube than desired is first installed in the system with the probable result that the balance point will occur at too low an evaporating temperature. The tube is shortened until the cesired balance point is reached. “The method of calculating the necessary bore and length of a capillary tube using ‘graphs? will be summarized in Sec. 13-7, As a preparation fo: that method, a purely ‘analytical technique based on fundamental laws will be described in Secs. 13-4 and 135. The method and illustration in Example 13-1 are influenced by proposals of Hopkins’ and Cooper et al but modified to take advantage of a digital computer to assist in the computations.366 REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING rast gue 134 tncrmenta engin of aplary es: 134 Analytical computation of pressure drop i a capillay tube The equations re- taung states and conditions at pois 1 and 2 in 9 1% ‘hort length of capillary tube sare. 13d wl be written using the following notation rosssectional area of inside of tube, > WD of tube, m ction factor, dimensionless n= enthalpy, KI/Ke hap= enthalpy ofsaturted igus AB HE = enthalpy of saturated vapor, KI/KE ip = length of increment, m p= pressure, Pa {Re = Reynolds number = VD/v# = specifie volume, m3/kg p= spciic volume of strated Higuid, m3 ks 1 = specific volume of saturated ‘vapor, mks if = velocity of refrigerant, m/s jw = mass rate of flow, kels fraction of vapor ia mixture of liquid and vapor = viscosity, Pa" s wip viscosity of saturated liquid, Pa = if, = viscosity of saturated vapor Pa” $ 4 ‘the fundamental equations applicable to the contre woh ‘pounded by points 1 and in Fig: 154 ate (1) conservation of mas, (2) ‘conservation of energy. and ( ‘conservation of momentum. sie equation for conservation of mass states ‘hat eiaral es a3) " or th 032) a and w/A will be constant throughout the length of the capillary tube.EXPANSION DEVICES. 265 “The statement of conservation of energy is n 8 1000, + “1 = 1000h, + 22 433) which assumes negligible neat transfer in and out of the tube "The momentum equation in words states that the difference in forces applied to 2 the element because of drag and pressure difference on opposite ends of the element 5 equals that needed to accelerate the fluid Beda suv} > As the refrigerant flows through the capillary tube, its pressure and saturation temper- ture progresively drop and the fraction of vapor x continuously increases. Ata point he iy(l =x) +h (035) and yao fl =x) tox (36) In Bq, (13-4) ¥, », and fall change as the refigerant flows from poitt 1 to point 2, but some simplifistion results from Eq. (132), which shows that Vis constant so that a3) In the calculation to follow in Example 13-1 the V used in Eq, (13-7) will be the mean velocity v= (13-8) Since expressing the friction factor f forthe two-phase flow is cemplex, we shall use an approximation and later compare the calculation with experimental results as 4 check on the validity of this approximation as well as of any other approximation » built into the method. For Reynolds numbers in the lower range of the turbulent region an applicable equation forthe friction factor fis fo oor aieaons (139) RO” WD Iay The viscosity of the two-phase refrigerant ata given postion inthe tube isa function of the vapor fraction x maul x) ta (23410) ‘The mean friction factor fy, applicable tothe increment of length 1-2is +f, _0.33/Re0-?5 + 0.33/Re9-28 asan266 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 135 Calculating the length of an increment The essence, of the analytical calculation 136 cae to detenine the length of the increment 12 in Fig, 12 for a given re- nee in seturation temperature of the refigerant The How oe and all the condi duction Point [are known, and for an arbitrary selected teneret at point 2 the tons af poondtion a point 2and the AL will be computed the following specific see BS a ahaa ay il of hanson of 2, Compl ra te i) and ney eaion 2) so, +73)" s0008 + (342) 2° 2 \a 12 Substitute Eqs. (13-5) and (13-6) into Eq. (13-12) 0001-3 + 1000, = fg + ga -"a)"() = ro00h, + 2 ig hp 7 nt 3.43) Everything in Eg, (1313) is known except x, which ca be solved by the quad rate equation -bs VET ohae aos ta ze) ns i \a} 2 where 0-2 M\? = 100042 Nya) *¥y2¢2 “A () iN? © so000a-m+(%) 44 with te value of x known, iy, ¥2,and V2 can be compules 4S eeeemite the Reynolds number at point 2 using the scour from Eq, (13-10), Com on factor at point 2 from Eq. (139), and the mean fiction factor for the increment from Eq. (13-11), 6 mip subetute Eas. (13-7) and (138) into Ba, (134) 0 soe for AL. = 1.63 mm) will drop the pres: 1 What length of capillary tube (1D ation temperature of ted liquid refrigerant 22 at 40°C to the satur “C2 The flow rate is 0.010 kes. Example 13+ sure of satu the evaporator of 5" Solution Since the calculation wll be performed on acomputer (2 facilitate the coe Sacre oy TORE. 6 ANNE RROEXPANSION DEVICES 267 computation equations for properties of saturated refrigerant 22 applicable to a temperature range of -20 to 50°C wil be used. 24184 a(Z) =1506- (13.15) i BS v¥p__0.777 + 0,002062¢ + .0000160872 ype The = TTF OOOO6REY DONNIE (13:16) F100 1000 26 + 94050(¢ + 273.15)/p gaan (13.18) 105.5 + 0.3636r - 0.002273? (13.419) 10002367 ~ 1.715 x 10°%r+3.869 x 10%? (13.20) y= 11.945 x 10°F + 50.06 x 107% 40.2560 x 107%? (13-21) Conditions at entrance to capilary tube, point 1 The entering eeigerant is saturated liquid at 40°C, and with x = 0 the properties from E3s. (13-15) to (1321) ae Py = 1,536,000 Pa ¥4 = yp, = 0.000885 m3/kg hy = hy = 249.9 kik | pip, = 00001823 Pa 5 w_ 0010 A x(0.001632)/4 4792.2 kgls + m? 242m/s °, Fi ggo.as = 0.0229 Re? 19°C. Then Conditions at point 2 Arbitrarily select ty Pr = 1,498,800 Pa ipa = 248.5 kI/kg gy = 416.2 KI ¥4y = 0.000882 m3 kg pq = 0.01533 m3 kg sy = 0.001833 Pa + s ‘p3 = 0.00001429 Pa «+ From Bq. (13-14) x= 0.008 From Eqs. (13-5) and (13-6) and using an equation of the same form for viscosity, we get fy = 249.84 KS Ikg vy 1 = 0,0001820 Pa + s 0.009952 m3/kg268 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘The following terms can now be calculated: 769 mis Rey = 42,923" 0229 010229 + 0.0229 =0,0229 4.242 + 4.769 y,, Ata 4769. 6 2 From Eq. (13-4) the magnitude of the expression 506 js found to be 34,964, and when the known values are substituted, Ady. =0.2306m Continuation to succeeding increments The condiions at point 2 that have just been computed are the entering conditions to the next increment of length, in ‘which the saturation temperature drops to 38°C. Table 13-1 presents a summary Of the calculations near the entrance to the tube and as the temperature ap proaches the evaporating temperature of S°C. The cumulative length of the Capillary tube required for the specified reduetion in presure is 2.118 m. 13.6 Choked flow Table 13-1 shows that near the end of the capillary tube the incre- ments of length needed to drop the saturation temperature 1°C become progressively ‘Table 13-1. Capillary-tube calculations in Example 13-1 Seen —— Incre- Cum Pree Specific Ee ment tate sure, volume, —thalpy, Velocity, length, length, kee x mike ke msm ™ 1 4015364 0.000 0.00088S 249.85 4.242, 2 3914988 0.008 0.000995 249.84 4.769 0.2306 0.231 3-38 «M61 0016 COOLIO. 249.86 5.320 02013 0.432 4 37 14258 0023 Oon1230 249.88 5.895 01770 0.609 S36 1390.3 0031 0001355 249.83 6.496 01565 0.765 ot o— Fs . ea et 32 65.68 0194 OoTe60 "249.48 36.71 2.089 3 8 63790 0199 OOog0s 249.11 3837 0.0085 2.098. 3 TIGL 0208 «OMNES? 249.03 4051 0007S 2.105 & $99.78 0.209 0008873, 24895 4252 00066 2.112 $ $8138 0.213 0.009309 248864461 0.0049 2118[EXPANSION DEVICES 269 ‘Table 13-2 Continuation of capillary-tube calculation - Incre- Came ‘Temper Pres: Specifle En. ment lative Pose ature, sre, volume, thalpy, Velocity, length, length, tin °C RRs x mks kgs om = 42-1 47997 0.239 0.01231 248.11 $9.00 000172137 43-2 46850 0.243 0.01288 24795 61.73 omol2 2138 43 faga1 0247 091387 247.77 6436 0.0007 2.439 45-4 43471 0250 00140924758 6730 0.0003. 2.138 4% “S$ ~—42038 0284 00147224737 7055 -0.0001, smaller. It might be interesting to ask what happens i the evaporating temperature is lowered, sy, £0 -10°C. Table 13-2 shows a continuation of Table 13-1. To drop the pressure from 434.7 to 420.4 KPa (saturation temperature from 4 to -5°C), a nega tive length of capillary tube is required. Clearly an imposible situation has developed, called choked flow. The phenomenon is similar to flow in & converging nozzle when the outlet pressure as been reduced until sonic velocity occurs tthe that. Further reductions in the discharge pressure fail. increase the flow rate through the nozzle. ‘An occurrence of choked flow more closely related to the flow ina =apllary tube is in jong gas pipelines where because of the pressure diop due to friction the specific volume and velocity increase until sonic velocity occurs. The thermodynamic cond- tions are represented by the Fonno line® shown on the enthalpy-eatropy dagram of| Fig, 1355, where the enthalpy decreases while the entropy increases asthe Mud flows though the tube, At the sonie velocity the Fanno line demands a decrease in entropy, which is forbidden by the second law of thermodynamics for this adiabatic process. Nature adjusts the flow rate so thatthe sonic velocity occurs atthe very exit of the tube, ‘The implication of choked flow in a capillary tube of a refrigeration system is that at some suction pressure the flow-rate curves of the capillary tube shown in Fig, 13-1 may reach a plateau, as shown in Fig. 13-6, where further decreases in suction pressure do not increase the rate of flow through the capillary tube. For system per- Sel / / Z Enthalpy Figure 135 anno line show: Emory Ing choked ow conditions.270 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING choked flow “a % Figore 13-6 Flow through 2 capi Suction preware dary tube. Flow ste formance this means that to achieve a flow balance between the compressor and capil: lary tube the suetion pressure must drop until the flow rate through the compressor matches the flow cate through the capillary tube. The result is a penalty in operat: ing efficiency. Many appliance manufacturers bond the sucti line from the evapo ator to the capillary tube to remove heat {rom the refrigerant in the capillary tube, Towering the specific volume and thus retarding choking, 137 Graphical method of capillary-tube selection Graphs* to facilitate the selec tion of capillary tubes are based on data by Hopkins? and revised with data by White seL™ The frst graph (Fig. 13-7) presents the refrigerant flow rate as a function of a AZ ga Flow rte, els 0.002 001s 001 150 209300 400500 1000. 1500 2000 2500 Inlet pressure, KPa Figure 137 Flow rate of refrigerant 12 of 22 through a capillary tube 1.63 mm in diameter and 2.03 m fongunder choked flow conditions. } , } ! ; ; ;EXPANSION DEVICES 271 Flow correction factor os Py 7 oe Length, ofesplasy tubes. the entering pressure to the capillary tube for a tube that is 1.53 mm in diameter and 3.03 m long. The various curves in Fig. 13-7 represent performance at a variety of inlet ‘onditions--magnitudes of subcooling and fractions of vapor. The companion graph to Fig. 13-7 is the one in Fig, 138, presenting correction factors to the flow rate of Fig. 13-7 for other lengths and diameters. ‘Both Figs. 13-7 and 13-8 apply to choked-low conditions, and the ASHRAE Handbook? contains further graphs to correct for non-choked-flow conditions. The Jength chosen that is based on choked low conditions may be only slightly different from that needed for the nonchoked condition. Example 13-1 indicates that for the evaporatoring temperature of 5°C the required length of capillary tube is 2.118 m, ‘while if the expansion proceeds to the choked condition at ~4°C, the length is 2.139 m. ‘The data in Fig, 13-7 also provide a check on the accuracy of the calculation method used in Example 13-1. The diameter of the tube in Example 13-1 is the same ts that in Fig. 13-7, and the flow rate of saturated liquid entering at a pressure of 11536 kPa fs 0.01 kg/s in both Example 13-1 and Fig. 13-7. The comparison arises in the length of the capillary tube for choked-flow conditions: 7.03 m in Fig. 13-7 and 2.14 m in Example 13-1; therefore the calculation method shows a length 5 percent areater than the graph, 138 Constant-pressure expansion valve The contant-pressure expansion valve main- tains a constant pressute at its outlet, the entrance to the evaporator. It senses the ‘evaporator pressure, and when that pressure drops below the control point, the valve272 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING of Row els Mass age Fier 13.9 Balanced and un- faned condoning = contantpemare expansion sabe Te condensing prs Control pressure Suction pressure, KPa opens wider. When the evaporator pressure rises above the control point, the valve partially closes, “The effect of the valve operation on the performance of the system is charted in Fig, 13.9. At a constant condensing pressure the compressor sapacity and the feeding capacity of the expansion valve at several degrees of opening of the valve are shown. Point A is the balance point, where the expansion valve feeds as much as the com- pressor pumps from the evaporator. If the refrigeration load drops off, the suction Temperature and pressure attempt £0 drop but the valve ressts the drop in pressure by opening wider. Under the new condition the compressor capacity remain at A but the feed rate of the valve changes to B. The evaporator vill then flood under this unbalanced flow condition. Starving of the evaporator can cccur if the refrigeration toad increased and the valve operated at point C. Use of the constant-pressure expansion valve has been limited to systems of re feigerating capacity less than about 30 KW, in which a critical charge of refrigerant it feasible to prevent liquid from flooding out of the evaporator. Its primary use is where the evaporating temperature should be maintained ata certain point to control humid- ity or to prevent fieezing in water coolers. The pressuredimiting characteristic can be used to advantage when protection is required against overload of the compressor due to high suction pressure. 139 Float valves The float valve is a type of expansion valve which maintains the liquid at a constant level in a vessel or an evaporator. A float switch which opens com- pletely when the liquid level drops below the control point and closes completely Rihen the level reaches the control point will give the same net performance as 2 ‘modulating type of float control. ‘By maintaining a constant liquid level in the evaporator the float valve always e tablishes balanced conditions of flow between the compressor and itself. Figure 13-10 Shows an original balance point at A. If the refrigeration load should increase, the tvaporating temperature and pressure rise, which momentarily allows the compressor soy 99999 aeaeseeeEXPANSION DEVICES 273, Mass rate of flow, kes Figure 1-10 Balance points with tarlous load conditions using a Moat ve. The condensing pres Suction presure, Pa sie iscamstant to pump a greater rate of flow than the valve is feeding. The valve reacts to keep the level constant by widening its average opening. A new balance point occurs at point B. If the refrigeration load decreases, the suction pressure drops and the level rises, ‘prompting the valve to close somewhat and give a balance point at C. Float valves and float-switch-solenoid combinations are sed primarily in large installations. They can regulate the flow to flooded evaporators in response to the level of liquid refrigerant in the shell of the evaporator or in a chamber connected to the evaporator. They should not be used in continuous-ube evaporators, where itis im- possible to establish a level of liquid refrigerant by which they can be controlled. 13-10 Superheat-controlled (thermostatic) expansion valve The most populr type of expansion device for moderate-sized refrigeration systems isthe supesheat-controlled valve, usually called a thermostatic expansion valve. The name may be misleading be- cause control is actuated not by the temperature in the evaporator but by the magni- tude of superheat of the suction gas leaving the evaporator. Tre superheat expansion valve regulates the rate of flow of liquid refrigerant in proportion to the rate of evapor- ation in the evaporator. The balances of the flow rate between the compressor and Superheat-controlled expansion valve are therefore practically identical to those shown for the float valve in Fig. 13-10, Figure 13-11 is a photograph of a thermostatic ex- ‘pansion valve. "The superheat of the suction gas operates the thermostatic expansion valve as follows. A feeler bulb (Fig. 13-12) is partially filed with liquid of the same refrigerant as that used in the system. The fluid in the bulb is called the power fluid. The feeler bulb is clamped to the outlet of the evaporator so that the bulb and the power fluid Closely assume the temperature of the suction gas. The presure of the power fluid bears on the top of the diaphragm, and the evaporator pressure pushes on the bottom of the diaphragm. A slight force exerted by the spring on the valve stem keeps the Valve closed until the pressure above the diaphragm overcomes the spring force plus the force of the evaporator pressure. For the pressure above the diaphragm to be higher than the pressure below the diaphragm, the power fluid must beat a tempera-74 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Figute 1311 A_ thermostatic & Tamsjon mabe. (Sporn Valve Co) Diaphragm ese bal Vat = toenportor Inte igure 12412 A hemate gram of he basi speeat contol examin Te ture higher than the saturation temperature inthe evaporator The Wee must hich ta eee superheated in order to bring the power uid w2 ro the presire wh opens the valve ‘The expansion val J that in the pneumatic ve experiences throttling range lik Jin amount of suction controls diseused in Sec. 9-8. As shown in Fig. 13:13, 2 cof f Superheat, ‘Temperature °C Figore 13.16 Evaporator and powsrsluid temperate in a thermostatic expansion valve with @ eros charge.278 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Apnled voltage ——— expansion Liquid vahe sensing Sf seer Evaporator — Li T t Figute 13:17 An lectic expansion valve 13.12 Electric expansion valves The electric expansion valve, shown schematically in Fig, 13-17, uses a thermistor to sense the presence of liquid inthe outlet stream ofthe tvaporator. When no liquid is present, the temperature of the :hermistor increases, sohich drops its resistance and permits a greater curtent flow through the heater atthe valve, The valve is thereby opened, allowing an increased refrigerant flow rate. One of The applications of the electric expansion valve is for heat pumps (Chap. 18), where the flew rate of refrigerant is reversed in order to change from heating to cooling Since its control is independent of refrigerant pressures, the electric expansion valve ‘can function with flow through the vale in either direction. 13.13 Application While there is some latitude in selecting the size of an expansion device, faulty operation results if the device is too large or too small forthe installa tion, A valve that is too large often overfeeds or “hunts” and may allow some liquid to fload out of the evaporator to the compressor. A valve that is t90 small passes insuf- ficient liquid so that a balance point occurs at a low suction gressure, reducing the capacity of the system. During winter operation the condensing pressure drops on systems that use a cooling tower, an evaporative condenser, or an aircooled condenser, and the pressure ‘Gfferential across the valve may become inadequate. To establish a balance of flow, the suction pressure must drop in order to develop the required pressure differential Tnatead of achieving the higher capacity normally associated with a low condensing pressure, the low suction pressure causes a reduced capacity Sometimes the com Tensing presaure must be Kept artificially high during the winter so that the expan Non valve ean feed properly. Another danger in operating a hermetically sealed motor sr fow suction pressures and mass flow rates is that the motor will not be cooled ‘sufficiently and will burn out. y92999 22229993EXPANSION DEVICES 279 In a not uncommon operating problem the valve passes insufficient refrigerant be- cause vapor is mixed with the liquid entering the valve. The high specific volume of the vapor compared with that of the liquid means thatthe valve can pass asa vapor only a fraction of the mass flow of refrigerant it can pass as aliquid. Two frequent causes of losing the liquid seal to the valve are (1) an insufficient charge of refrigerant and (2) 4a high elevation of the expansion valve above the condenser or receiver. Ifthe valve is higher than the condenser or receiver, the difference in static head may make the pi sure low enough at the valve to flash some liquid into vapor. A liquid-to-suction heat ‘exchanger (Sec. 10-15) sometimes corrects this situation. PROBLEMS 13-1 Using the method described in Sec, 13-5 and the entering conditions given in Table 13-1 for Example 13-1 at position 4, compute the length af tube needed to drop the temperature to 36°C. Use property values from refrigerant 22 tables when possible. 13-2 A capillary tube is to be selected to throttle 0,011 kg/s of refrigerant 12 from a condensing pressure of 960 kPa and a temperature of 38°C to an evaporator operating at 20°C. (a) Using Figs. 13-7 and 13-8, select the hore and length of a capillary tube for this assignment, Ans. For example, 1.63 mm diameter and 1.2 m long. (®) If the evaporating temperature had been $°C rather than -20% selection of part (a) be suitable? Discuss assumptions that have been made, 133 A refrigerant 22 refrigerating system operates with a condensing temperature of 35°C and an evaporating temperature of -10°C. If the vapor leaves the evaporator saturated and is compressed isentropically, what is the COP of the eycle (a if saturated liquid enters the expansion device and (b) if the refrigerant entering the expansion de- vice is 10 percent vapor asin Fig. 13-3? Ans. (@) 4.71, (0) 4.20 134 Refrigerant 22 at a pressure of 1500 kPa leaves the condenser and rises vertically 10 m to the expansion valve, The pressure drop due to friction in the Hguid lines 20 kPa. In order to have no vapor in the refrigerant entering the expansion valve, what js the maximum allowable temperature at that point? Ans. 35.3°C 13-5. Asupetheat-controlled expansion valve in a refrigerant 22 system is not equipped with an external equalizer. The valve supplies refrigerant to an evaporator coil and comes from the factory with a setting that requires $ K superheat in order to open the valve at an evaporator temperature of O°C. (a) What difference in pressure on opposite sides of the daphragm is required to pen the valve? (®) When the pressure at the entrance of the evaporator 's 600 KPa, how much superheat is required to open the valve if the pressure drop of the refrigerant through the colli $5 kPa? Ans. 7.4 K 13.6 The catalog of an expansion-valve manufacturer specifies 3 refrigerating capacity of 45 kW for a certain valve when the pressure difference acress the valve is 500 kPa. ‘The catalog ratings apply when vapor-free liquid at 37.8°C enters the expansion v land the evaporating temperature is 4.4°C. What is the expecced rating of the v when the pressure difference across it is 1200 kPa? Ans. Catalog specifies 69.4 kW , would the280 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING REFERENCES: 1. L.A: Stasbler: Theory and Use of a Capillary Tube for Liguid Refrigerant Control, Refit. Fg, vol 55, n0.1,p- 55, January 1948. 2. mbssRAE Handbook and Product Ditectory, Equipment Volume,” American Socity of eating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers, Atanta, Ga. 1979. 3, MAE"E souine Rating the Restrictor Tube, Refi. Eng. vl. $8, no. 11 p. 1087, November 1950. to eaecopets C.K. Cha, and W. R. Brisken: Simple Selection Method for Caples Deived c cetnual Flow Conditions, Refi. Eng, vol. 65, 0.7, . 37, July 1887. 5 eer ysiad and B.C. Jordan’ Theory and Use of the Capillary Tube Expansion Devie, [Rafts Eng, vo. 56,70. 6, p-519, December 1948. 6 eet Sete ee Dynamics nd Thermodynamics of Compressible Fi Flow,” Ronaky ‘New York, 1953. 7 Nem Wiel: Capillary Two-Phase Flow, Refi. Eng, vo. 65,04, p42, April 1987. Fe cel: Capillary Two-Phase Flow, pt. My Refi. Eng, vo 65,f0. 9, p. 38, September 1957, 0. 1 pasqua: Metastable Flow of Freon 12, Refris. Eng. vol. 6, n0 10, p. 1084, October 1933, — ——_—————————— SSS ae t- CHAPTER FOURTEEN VAPOR-COMPRESSION-SYSTEM ANALYSIS 14-1 Balance points and system simulation The performance characteristics of indi vidual components making up the vapor-compression system have been explored in Chap. 11 for compressors, Chap. 12 for condensers and evaporators, and Chap. 13 for expansion devices. These components never work in isolation but are combined into 4 system, so that their behavior is interdependent. It isthe purpose ofthis chapter to predict the performance of the entire system when the characteristics ofthe individual Components are known. A further function of the techniques to be explained in this chapter is to analyze the influence of externally imposed conditions. For example, system analysis can predict the influence on refrigeration capacity of @ change in am- bient temperature ofthe air serving the condenser. 'A traditional method of system analysis used by enginesrs has been through the determination of balance points. In this process the performance characteristic of two interrelated components ate expressed in terms of the same variables and plotted on @ graph. The intersection of corresponding curves indicates the conditions at which the performance characteristics of both components are satisfied, and it is at this point that the system composed of these two components will opente, In recent years another approach to system analysis hes emerged, called system simulation’ ‘which is performed by mathematical rather than graphical procedures. ‘The intersection of two curves, which determines a balance point, suggests the mathe- matical counterpart of the simultaneous solution of two equations. System simulation is indeed the simultaneous solution of the equations representing the performance characteristics of all components in the system as well as appropriate equations for en- tray and mass balances and equations of state. To simulate steady-state performance, ‘which is our interest, all the equations are algebraic; the simulation of dynamic per- formance of systems must include differential equations. ‘Systems with a small number of components such as the vaporcompression sys- 281282 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING tem can be simulated either graphically or mathematically. Bomb techniques will be imuated in this chapter. The technique chosen-for the ‘mathematical simulation seit be the method of successive subsrtuion, which sone of the Tost straightforward wuhnigue of simultaneously solving the pecformance equations ae opterfat presents performance data in both graphic sng mathematical form for a reciprocating compressor and an aircooled ‘condenser. The first simulation ror fot combining those two components into condense OA Next, typical per: 3 te ofan evaporator is presented, and chen this conponset ‘combined with formanctgsing uit to provide the performance of 2 Compt: SS ‘The influence aoe corespansion device is then shown qualitatively. The fiat topic is that of sensi Shity analysis, were the degzee of influence ofeach OF He “components—compressor, Ca ray evaporator-on the refrigeration capacity expr 142 Reciprocating compressor The expected wends of rtigwacets capacity and power sequiements a functions of the eraporsing Condensing temperatures Were Pieented in Chap. 11. Indeed the tends als preva for actual compressors, as shown Bite pot of catalog data for 2 given compresor In Fit 14-1. The upper family of 130] Refrigerating captity and power, KW condensing temp ssc 20 asc oc ae o S10! ° 5 0 Evaporating emperstre,“C igre V4 Refigeratingcapsity and power seqement of 4 ots HER of BorgWarne igure 1 fori H62SP22E,cetigeant 2, 1750 in compreVAPOR-COMPRESSIONSYSTEM ANALYSIS. 283, curves shows the refrigerating capacity, it being understood that the compressor does not possess refrigerating capacity of itself but is capable of compressing a flow rate of refrigerant that provides the given refrigerating capacity atthe evaporator. An increase in evaporating temperature or a decrease in condensing temperature results in in- creased refrigerating capacity. ‘Thelower et of curves in Fig. 14-1 displays the power required by the compressor. One choice of the form of the mathematical equations that represent theper- formance data of Fig. 14-1 is dee Heat, Heyl? Hoyt, ef? egg + eR, Hogi tD + OBE? as and 2d, tdyt, tdyi2tdgt tdgl? tdett, +dqt2t, + dgt 12+ dgt2? Pady tdyt, tdy2 tdyt, tdg2 tye, tay, tyre tage! (42) where q, = reftigerating capacity, kW ‘P= power required by compressor, kW 1, = evaporating temperature, °C #, = condensing temperature, °C ‘The constants applicable to Eqs. (14-1) and (14-2) for the compressor in Fig. 14-1 are determined by equationsfitting procedures, e., the method of least squares or select- {ng nine points off the graph and substituting into Eq. (141) or (14-2) to develop a set of nine simultaneous equations for the ¢ ord constants. The numerical values are shown in Table 14-1 In addition to the refrigerating capacity and the powe: requirement of the com pressor, another quantity of interest isthe rate of heat rection required at the con- ‘denser, Some compressor catalogs show this quantity, and usually itis simply the sum ‘of the refrigerating capacity and compressor power at a given combination of evapo- rating and condensing temperatures 44,4? (43) where qc is the rate of heat rejection at the condenser in kilowatts. A graph of the heat rejection rate for the compressor of Fig. 14-1 is showniin Fig. 142. The abscissa ‘Table 14-1. Constants in Eqs. (14-1) and (14-2) = 137402 00618 4.60837, a = 0893222 0.061652 1426 118187 0.870028 “0.001525 = -0.0063397 “po109119 a= 0.033889) “o.00040148 ‘45 -0.00023875 -0.00026682 0,0000038731284 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 200 T T T T T 7 , 7 1 7 1m 1 2 150 4 a £10 se + § 130) 3% i20F oc 2 100] asc 7 7 7 1 55 30 35 40, 45 30 55 Condensing temperature, igre 142 Heatacetion rate of « York (Division of Borg Warne) hemeti reiprocating com presor, H62SP-22E, reigerant 22,1750 ein has been chosen as the condensing temperature for future convenience, and each ‘curve in the family applies to different evaporating temperature. 143 Condenser performance The precise representation of the heattransfer perfor nance of a condenser can be quite complex, because the sfrigerant vapor enters the Condenser superheated and following the onset of condensation in the tube the frac- tion of liquid and vapor changes constantly through the condenser, A satisfactory rep Feentation of air-cooled condenser pecformance for most engineering calculations is ‘mailable, however, through an assumption of a constant heat-exchanger effectiveness for the condenser, namely 4, = Fle tamp) (14-4) where F= capacity per unit temperature difference, KW/K amp = ambient temperature, °C Figure 143 shows the catalog performance for a eettan aircooled condenser for which Fin Eq, (14-4) is 9.39 KW/K. 14-4 Condensing-unit subsystem; graphic analysis The first system—or more correctly subsystem-to be analyzed is that of a condensing unit. It consists of a compressor and Condenser (Fig. 144) and performs the function of drawing low-pressure vapor from the evaporator, compressing and condensing the refrigerant, and supplying high pressure liquid to the expansion device. Condensing units can be purchased asa pack:\VAPOR-COMPRESSIONSYSTEM ANALYSIS 285 us 150 ns 8 eatreection rate, kW Sr Condensing temperature, °C Figute 143 Performance of Bohn Heat Transfer Division aircooled condenser, refrigerant 22, ‘model no 36. age and may be installed outdoors to serve an at- or liqui- a. (143) te Eq. (14-2) fp] ee iore Ee (ia) 35°C Fn939 Trials, = SOC Figure 147 Informationslow diagram for condensing unit With tygy = 35°C and fg = 10°C.288. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 142 Calculations through information low diagram of Fig. 147 . vale % P te te 1 Tien 320604877, S08 2 Me gaas TT 50.74 3 Visas gaat «147908008 4 ey saat 1478B STS Simitar computations are performed for other vauss of ey and Me results are shown tn Table 143. The refrigerating capacity, evaporting enpent ‘and con- spoting temperatures correspond to those derived frem the ‘gaphical method shown in Fig. 1456. Hn te sucessvesubstitution method of system simelation should be aware hat ai calclation sequences wil converge, Other information Dt diagrams than span re used in Fig, 14-7 can be devised to relate te fou eqnsvons four variables. the one ulation sequences will converge, a8 Table 142 Shasalts and some will STvenge. Ifthe sequence diverges, a diferent arrangement should be tried. 146 Evaporator performance Chapter 12s explained, the ene of individual 146 ror coefficients, particularly the boling coefficient on Oe performance of erent evaporator. For sytem simulation we ae comes with the overall per 2 traf ae evaporator, one ofthe forms in which the behave it be displayed fovmanes Fig 14-8 fora specific evaporator. The genera wend evident from Fig. i shown (jy hat the capacity increases with a zeduction in raporttoe ‘temperature vere an increase in the temperatre of entering water at (2) that the capacity is wager jhen the rate of water flow is decreased ata given eh ‘temperature. ced We ue ofthe evaporator retained constant over the FO (anes of opera: tion shoven in Fig, 14-8, the lines representing 2 given fen Pron of entering water tn rag (Gee rob. 12-16) Instead they ae curved wowarh slightly, indicating Mat the J value increases as the refrigeration capacity Increases. Ths trend can be &X- plained by the increase in the boiling heat transfer ‘coefficient (as discussed in Chap. 4) as the heat flux increases. nthe Hesequent mathermaicl simulation, an equation fs wesded {0 express the ‘Table 143 Performance of condensing unit with an am bient temperature of 35°C wee aekw KW GerkW te te fe ms re le 10 1s 324 179 (508 s 919 301 1280486 ° 819 28 jou? 467 3 675 asa 39449 10 550 26 ne 33 so meVAPORCOMPRESSIONSYSTEM ANALYSIS. 289 Refigeatng capacity, RW 8 5 ° 3 10 1 OS Evaporating temperature, °C Figure 148 Refigerating capacity of a Dusham-Bush, refrigerant 22, directexpanson,inne-fin liquid chiller CHSGOB, The tls Hines show performance wth 2 ky/s water ow and the dashed line with 15 als. evaporator capacity shown in Fig. 148. An adequate equation could originate from = Hei fe) where fj = temperature of entering water, °C “= proportionality factor, KW/K If the U value were constant and the lines on Fig. 14-8 were straight, G would be a constant. Instead G increases with the temperature difference ty; =f» and a8 an sp- proximation G can be propoted asa linear function of the temperature diference. For the evaporator in Fig, 14-8 witha water flow rate of 2kels G = 601 + 0.046(t ~ 19] (145) thus de = 6.01 + 0.046(6,~€,)) (bj fel 46) 1427 Performance of complete system; graphic analysis The complete system consists of the compressor, condenser, and evaporator and the performance of the combins tion of two of these components (the compressor and condenser) has already been predicted in the balance-point determination that resulted in Fig, 14-6. By the super- position of Figs. 14-6 for the condensing unit and Fig. 148 for the evaporator the performance of the complete system can be predicted. Figure 14-9 shows this com- bination and the balance points of the system that occur at various temperatures of the return chilled water ‘In summary, 2 graphic simulation of the vapor-compression system can be per- formed by first establishing the balance points for the condensing unit and then com-290 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 0 2 0 * a %. . 5 i a, Z a fo a s 2 2! 70 Condensing unit. Smbicnt temperate ° 0 15 Evaporating temperature, °C “o gue 169 Pevlornnce of crete este fund by deeming te baas Bo Ofe i er eorntor a vous empertres of ening wate os cle an 25°C Smblant temperate bining the evaporator performance withthe condensingsnit performance to Bn the balance points ofthe entire system. 148 Simulation of complete system; mathematical analysis In the mathematical 1a atom it is not necessary to combine the components in pais: instead the tee Soments can be simulated simultaneously. The sequeree of the calculation i sorneorths information flow diagram in Fig. 1410. Stating with tral values of Faden [a | Fates 4 Faotyte) we Eq. (14-2) a_| 00 Patgtd CA) ne asec wre 1 deals {reat = 15°C ge 1410 Infomatonfow, dram for simulating the comrlte vaprcomprnion son Fath gy 20°C a fam = 38°C:VAPORCOMPRESSIONSYSTEM ANALYSIS 291 Table 14-4 Simulation using information-low diagram of Fig. 14-10 for ambient temperature of 35°C and entering- water temperature of 20°C aekW RW gg kW 1580 25.2 1842 ° 876 318 ug 1204 310 isa 1035 ais 1353 m8 ais 1433 1077 318 1403 109.7 318 1408 108.7 318 1403 109.2 316 1408 109.0 318 108 1091 36 1407 109.0 31s 1408 0°C, Table 14-4 shows the values of the operating variables as iterations through the calculation loops proceed. The comrerged values of capacity and evaporating temperature, 109.0 KW and 82°C, respectively, from Table 14-4 check with the balance point for 20°C enteringewater temperature from Fig. 14:9 In addition, the mathematical simulation shows f, = 50.0°C, which checks with the condensing temperature shown in Fig, 146 at the evaporating temperature of 8.2°C. 149 Some performance trends The results from the simulation of the complete ‘vapor-compression system for various temperatures of entering water to be chilled are ‘summarized in Table 14-5. Each time the temperature of en:ering water drops SK the evaporating temperature drops too, but by less than SK. The refrigerating capacity progressively decreases, due primarily to the compressor characteristics, which result in a reduced pumping capacity as ¢, drops. As the refrigerating capacity falls off, the rate of heat rejection at the condenser also diminishes, permitting the condensing tem- perature to decline for a given ambient temperature ‘The power required by the compressor is greatest at the highest temperature of entering water. The operating range in which to be most concerned about overloading Table 14.5 Operating variables at various temperatures of entering water to be chilled “Ambient temperature = 35°C Cte aga kW KW geek as a sur 1233 334 156.7 20 82500 109.0 61406 15 830 aaa 956 28 154 10 04468 a mo td292. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING the motor driving the compressor is at high temperatures of entering chilled water Wien the temperature of entering wate is 10°C the evaporating temperature is 0.4°C, Which is drawing close to the freezing temperature of water, Catalog data would Frobably not be shown fora chiller at lower temperatures than these, or ifthe data ae Frown, there would be a reminder to the user to protect the water from freezing by adding an antifreeze. 14.10 The expansion device Up to now in this chapter the complete vapor compression system has been described as consisting of three components, the com pressor, condenser, and evaporator, and no mention as been made of the expansion vivjce, In predicting system performance so far it has tacitly been assumed that the expansion device is able to regulate the flow of refrigerant into the evaporators ‘hat car heat transfer surfaces on the refrigerant side of the evaporator are wetted with Tiqud refdgerant, Chapter 13 on expansion devices explained that the eaplary ube aeavives this goal in only certain combinations of condensing and evaporating pres aaa The superheat-controlled expansion valve operates on the principle of maln- taining a amall amount of supesheat in the evaporator but does provide most of the Sraporator surfaces with liquid throughout a wide range of condensing and evaporating pressures “The consequence for system performance of the expansion device starving the ‘evaporator is illustrated in Fig. 14-11, showing the balance points between the Fon Gerwing unit and the evaporator. When the evaporator is starved, the overall heat teats coefficient of the evaporator drops and the balance point shifts to # lower evaporating temperature and refrigerating capacity. rac when using the controlling type of expansion device, such as the superheat controlled valve, there may be conditions that result in a staved evaporator, ¢ 8. (1) the expansion valve is too smal, (2) some vapor is present inthe liqud entering the expansion valve, or (3) the pressure difference across the val is too smal. Condition se ikely to occur if the refrigerant charge in the system & too small the pressure drop in the liquid line is high due to friction, or the valve and evaporator are Located # seiner elevation than the condenser. Condition 3 occurs many times in systems with sirepoled condensers when the ambient temperature is Iow. In such cases the condens Refrigerating capacity, KW Figure M41 Reduction in capac land eniporating temperature duc 1° feeding insufficient sergeant t0 the erapontor. Evaporating temperature, °C da920d d2999909 seasaedoo p92AVIIvx0099 VAPOR COMPRESSION SYSTEM ANALYSIS. 293, ‘Table 14.6 Sensitivity study of vapor-compression systemt SSS eee Ratio of component capacity to base capacity ~ ——e— Refriguating Percent Compresor Condenser Evaporator capaci, KW ines a 10 10 10 956 i 10 10 101s. 63+ 1 a 10 968 13 10 10 rat a6 21 1 im 1 1082 100 1 a “pte stady analyzes the effect on the retigrating capacity ofthe system caused by 10 per cent jnccnses In component capacities. The ambient temperature is 35°C, andthe temperature of atering water tobe eiled is 15°C. ing temperature drops so low that there is insufficient pressure difference across the valve, The extreme consequence of this condition is that the evaporating temperature nd pressure drop so low that the flow rate of refrigerant diminishes considerably. With hermetically sealed compressors and motors, the motor is cooled by the flow of refrigerant across it, and if the flow rate of refrigerant becomes too low, the motor may burn out 1411 Sensitivity analysis In engineering terminology sensitiviry analysis means the process of examining how one variable ina system is affected by a change in another ‘ariable or parameter of the system. Of special applicability to the vapor-compression system is the exploration of the influence on reftigerating capacity of changes in ca- pacity of each of the components—the compressor, condenser, and evaporator.? A ‘imple extension of the computer runs of the sequence of Fig. 14-10 permits such an ‘analysis, Table 14-6 summarizes the effects of increasing the capacity of each com ponent, one at a time, by 10 percent. A 10 percent increase in compressor capacity means 2 10 percent increase in refrigerating capacity and powe: for given evaporating. fand condensing pressures. A 10 percent increase in condenser capacity means 2 10 percent increase in F in Eq, (14-4), and a 10 percent increase in evaporator capacity means a 10 percent increase in a, in Eq. (14-6) for piven values of fy; and fe. Table 146 shows that the compressor capacity has a dominant influence on the system ca- pacity and that the evaporator is next in importance. These influences agree approxi Thately with those of Kaufman,? whose results were derived from a graphical analysis, ‘The relative influence shown in Table 14-6 will not apply orecisely to all vapor- compresion systems because the influences are also affected by the choice ofthe base Condition. For example, ifthe base condition has an extremely large condenser, a 10 percent increase in this large condenser will nt show as much increase in refrigerating capacity asthe 1.3 percent indicated by Table 146. "An important advantage to a designer of having information like that shown in ‘Table 1446 is that the data can be used for optimization. By combining the data from Table 14-6 with knowledge of the costs of increasing (or the savings of decreasing) ‘component capacity the designer can decide how to reduce the frst cost of the system that produces a given refrigerating capacity294, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING PROBLEMS 141 Either graphically or by using the computer, for an ambient temperature of 30°C develop the performance characteristics of a condensing unit (of the form of Fig. 146 cermtle 14) if the compressor has performance shown by Fig. 14-1 (or Eqs. (14-1) Sra clap] and the condenser has characteristics shown by Fig. 14-3 [or Ba. (14-4)] Ans, : aekW 1281048893 tek age ere 10 so 0 50-100 142 Combine the condensing unit of Prob. 14-1 (using answers provided) with the dvaporator of Fig. 148 to form a complete system, The water low rate to the evapo- Sater is 2 ke/s, and the temperature of water to be chilled is 10°C a) What are the refrigerating capacity and power requirement of this system? Ans. 4, = 87.6 kW, P= 26.4 KW (GS this system pumps heat between 10°C and an ambien: temperature of 30°C, which fs the some temperature difference as from 15 to 35°C, for which information wvailable in Table 14-4. Explain why the refrigerating capacty and power require: iment ate less at the lower temperature level. 143 Section 14-11 suggests that the influences of the several components shown in ‘Table 14-6 are dependent upon relative sizes of the components atthe base condition Ii the base system is the same at that tabulated in Table 14-5 except that the con enter bs twice a large [F'= 18.78 kW/K in Eq (14-4)], what is the increase in system caeecity of a 10 percent increase in condenser capacity above this new base condition? recebient temperature is 35°C, and the entering temperature of water to be chilled is 15°C. Ans, 0.62% 14-4 For the components of the complete system described in Secs, 14-7, 14-8, and 1&1 the following costs (or savings) are applicable to a 1 percent change in com> ponent capacity. An optimization is now fo proceed by increasing or decreasing sites ae ncrniponents in order to reduce the frst cost of the system, What relative changes 2h cStponent sizes should be made in order to reduce the first cost ofthe system but 1 stan fixed refrigerating capacity? Ans. Decrease evaporator capacity 3 times the {increase in compressor capacity Increase (saving) in fist cost for 1 increase (decrease) Component in component expacity Compressor $2.80 Condenser 087 Evaporator 140 OO III me ee tine aeVAPOR-COMPRESSIONSYSTEM ANALYSIS. 295 REFERENCES 1, Stoecker, W. F: “Design of Thermal Systems,” 2d ed, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980 2, Backstrom, M.: The Use of Influence Numbers in Calulating Retigeration Pant, Kyltek Tidsr., oh, 22, no. 3, pp. 43-48, June 1963, 4 Kaufinan, B Graphical Analy for Air Conditioning System Performance, Ree. Eng, Vo 61, 0. 7,9. 52, July 1986,‘CHAPTER FIFTEEN ee REFRIGERANTS 15-1 Primary and secondary refrigerants Most of tis chapir is devoted fo Pret repgenns by whichis meant the refrigerants used in vapor compression Sct Sec: ret ea yaeribes the properties of secondary refrigeans, which ar igds ood To" ansporting low-temperature heat energy from one loation 40 another ‘Other to a er oecondatyfelrigeants ate antifeezas and brines, Two substanes fore matrgerant combination in absorption retigeration systems, but tel characteris ‘ill be presented later in Chap. 17. on re common refrigerants are the fluorinated hydrocarbons, but numerous ‘ther subotances aso function well as sefigerants, including many inowmanis Su founds and hydrocarbons. This chapter will deseibe and present characteristics of, nly the most widely used refrigerants. 152 Halocarbon compounds The halocazbon proup includes refrigerants which ToT) ra ater more of the three halogens chlorine, fluorine, and bromine. The numerical “Ee uation, the chemical name, and the chemical formula of some of the ‘commercially vailable members of this group are shown in Table 15-1, ae rer pring sytem in the hatocarbon group follows this pattern: the fst aN con the sight the number of rine atoms in the compound the secon’ 8 from ee ght is one more than the muraber of hydrogen atoms i He ‘compound; and the ae eat frm the right is one Tess than the number of carbon atoms. When the third digit is zero, it is omitted. 296REFRIGERANTS 297 ‘Table 15-1 Some halocarbon refrigerants ‘Numerical eipmton Cremianane —_ Chem formals 11 Tikhbrononotioromethae CLF 1b titemiane GLP, 1 Moneciotitaoromehane ct c 22 Mometioaitoorometane CHC, 1 Methyloine cia 113 Thetotroetane —CCRFCCF, Hy Siilctentusortise CORO, 153 Inorganic compounds Many of the eatly refrigerants were inorganic compounds, dnd some have maintained their prominence to this day. These compounds are listed in Table 15-2. 15-4 Hydrocarbons Many hydrocarbons are suitable 28 refrigerants, especially for aerfcein the petroleum and petrochemical industry. Several such refrigerants are listed in Table 153. 155 Azeotropes An azcottopic mixture of two substances is one which eannot be separated into its components by distillation. An azeotrope evaporates and condenses sei single substance with properties that are different from thote of either constituent, ‘The most popular azeotrope is refrigerant 502, which is a mixture of 48.8 percent refrigerant 22 and 51.2 percent refrigerant 115. The properties of saturated refrigerant 502 are given in Table AS, and the properties of supesheated vapor are shown in Fig. As. 154 Thermodynamic comparison of some common refrigerants Some thermody ramic and efficiency characteristics of several common refrigerants are presented in Table 15-4. The pressures, refrigerating effect, volume flow per unit refrigeration capacity, and the Coefficient of performance (COP) are based on the standard vapor- Compression eycle (See. 10-12) with an evaporating temperature of =15°C and a con- densing temperature of 30°C. ‘Table 15-2 Some inorganic refrigerants Numerical dedgnationt Chemical mame Chemea formula aati ee 717 Ammonia Ni ie Water 1,0 nm Ait 744 Catbon dioxide co, 764 Sulfur dioxide sO; 14 __ Soler done ___ 4 The las two digs ase the molecular weight298 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 153 Hydrocarbon refrigerants ‘Nameical edgnationt Chemical mame Chemical formula tat eo so Methane cH 170 Ethane Calle 290 Propane Hs . 4 Follows same principle as the halocarbon scheme. ‘The operating pressures should be low enough for lightweight vessels nd pipes to ‘contain the refrigerant. On the other hand, pressures below atmospheric pressure, hich occur in refrigerant 11 evaporators, have the disadvantage of drawing air into the evaporator if there are any leaks. Systems using this refrigerant should be equipped vith 2 purger to eliminate any ait that leaks in. A low pressure ratio is desirable rom the standpoint of any type of compressor—reciprocating, screw, or centrifugal "The refrigerating effect would at first seem ¢o be a good indicator of the cycle efficiency, but this property must be considered in combnation with the work of Compression, Refrigerant 717 (ammonia), for example, has refrigerating effect much finger than the other refrigerants, but the work of compression of ammonia is also high, so tha its COP is of the same order of magnitude as that of the other refrigerants shown. “The flow rate of suction vapor per kilowatt of refrigeration influences the pump- ing rate andjor the type of compressor. Refrigerants 22, 502, and 717 show com porable values of this term, while refrigerant 12 is less dense than those three and Tequites higher vapor flow rate. The high volume flow rate of refrigerant 11 Indicates ‘why itis used in centrifugal compressors (Sec. 11-25). The coefficient of performance of a standard reftigeration cycle using refrigerant 11 is higher than the others, but this advantage isnot sufficient co permit its appl ation in any but systems using centrifugal compressors. The COPs of refrigerants 12, SB, and 717 ace nearly the same, and while that of refrigerant 502s the lowest shown, ‘Table 15-4 Thermodynamic characteristics of several refrigerants COpeeation on a randard vaporcomprcaion cycle with an evapcrating temperature of CPSC anda condensing temperature of 30°C Section Bvap- Condens Refi: vapor flow orating ing erating perkWof Refrig- premure, pressure, Pressure effect, retigeration, rant KPa Ps tio KU Us cor un posts GAS SS 490 5.03 ben? Tage 8116.30.78 470 yb t9s8 tga 403,—= 162 TE. 466 soz 496 «13086 = «374 (1062 OB 437 throes sos 493100340 476REFRIGERANTS 299 this refeigerant has some other advantages that will be discussed in the next section. ‘As a basis of comparison the COP of a Carnot cycle operating at the evaporating and ‘condensing temperatures of Table 15-4 is 5.74, 15-7 Physical and chemical comparison Two important characierstic of refrigerants from a safety standpoint are its flammability and toxicity.! OF the refrigerants listed in Table 15-4, ammonia is listed as flammable with 16 to 25 percent ammonia by * volume in air, while the others are considered nonflammable, With respect to toxicity, refrigerant 12 is considered nontoxic in concentrations up to 20 percent by volume for fan exposure period of les than 2 h, while ammonia is assigned to a group of refiig- rants considered injurious or lethal in concentrations of to I percent for exposures of }h duration. Refrigerants 11, 22, and 502 are in clas slightly more toxic than refrigerant 12. How the refrigerant combines with ol in the system isa factor in its selection. No chemical eaction between the refrigerant and the lubricating of of the compressor is anticipated, but the miscibility of the oil and the refrigerant is of concern. In re ciprocating and screw compressors some oil cartes out of the compressor with the refrigerant discharge gas. This oil passes through the condenser and on to the evapo: fator, where the refrigerant vaporizes off, leaving the oil to reduce the heat-ransfer effectiveness of the evaporator. ‘Several procedures are available to prevent oil from reaching the evaporator or to emove it after it collects. An oil separator placed inthe discharge-ga line removes oi! continuously and returns it to the compressor, where it belongs. Refrigerant 12 and Cllare miscible, whereas refrigerant 22 is partially miscible and ammonia is not miscible ‘vith of. Oil in the evaporator of a refrigerant 12 system is not nearly so detrimental to heat transfer as in an ammonia system, where it separates. Ol can be drained from ammonia evaporators, but in refrigerant 12 systems the velocity in the suction Line must be kept high enough to carry oil back to the compressor. The popularity of Several rftigerants rises and falls over the years: refrigerant 12 was most popular and ‘was then supplanted in popularity by refrigerant 22 because ofits lower volume flow rate per unit capacity. Refrigerant 502 has become popular lately, because it has comparable volume flow rates to refrigerant 22 but oil is more miscible init and be- ‘cause it has lower discharge temperatures (see Fig. 11-13). ‘When a leak occurs in refrigeration system, the refrigerant may come in contact with the product, such as food. The halocarbons are generally considered to have negligible effect on foods, furs, or fabrics for short exposures. Prolonged exposure to ammonia could result in food tasting or smelling of ammonia, although it should be remembered that a small amount of ammonia (0.01 to 0.1 percent) is present in foods naturally? Reaction of a refrigerant with a material of constmuetion used in the piping, vessels, and compressor does not usually influence the selection of the refrigerant, but the refrigerant used does frequently dictate the material emloyed in the system. Certain metals may be attacked by refrigerants. Ammonia, fo: example, reacts with copper, brass, or other cuprous alloys in the presence of water. Iron and steel are therefore used in ammonia systems. The halocarbons may reict with zinc but not copper, aluminum, iron, or steel. In the presence of a small quantity of water, how-300 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ever the halocarbons form acids which attack metals, The halocarbons attack ever uber therefore synethetic material should Pe cused as gaskets and for other sealing purposes. 154 ‘Thermal conductivity and viscosity of refrigerant ‘Occasionally the engineer will 158 acon and thermal-conductvty data for Soe heat transfer and/or flow ne ions; Table 15:5 presents a summary of these Proper 159 Ozone depletion An alarm was sounded? in We ‘mid-1970s that the chlorine 153 erogenated hydrocarbons released tothe envisoneiee ‘using up ozone in the Foor apes A redvetion in the azone composition of ithe stratesphere would permit ante 155 Thermal conductivities and viscosities of saturated refrig: cerant liquid and vapor! » ‘Viscosity, Pa Conductivity, Wim * K i a : 00000022 nn z em TCTy o.ie0 : an oonanse6 0343 = 20 «(0.000441 (0,0000103 0.0890 * 20 oanse7 —ooooli 0.0832 ONES 49 Gooosi2 00000177 0.0777 _ 00089 0.0931 “40 0.000409) 49 Gooosns oango108 908s? CONSE 2 0 ooone? — .00noLie 0.0784 Dora a Yoooans 020000126 OTA OES 20 Goooiss — 0.000013 0.0637 CONT 9 Gvores —_.0ano14s —_o.0se4 CONE 6 To o00s30 oooa1ar 0320 SNE 0 GoooaTs — oa000tt9 9110 SEE 2 8 ppooa3T 0.000020 0100.09? a Qeooane —0.0000130 0.080, S01 5 20 Gooois2 —ognoa14# 0080S OPI 5 4 opie? 0.000160 0.0704 00159 ‘ [Jo onoase 00000100 90898 NNN . A Gooonse 0.000182 0.0820 DOTHT 502 9 Otonss 00000120 00742 OFT 28 Soooiss 00000132 0.0665 DATE 20 Goootss 0.000014 0088S FONE 4 Gogol? —_o.000r61 0.0486 00144 “40 0632 G 8 qooonse — oano0097 0585 OE : 1 8 Yooors0 0090104 OSH NET ; oo Seoois — Ogonoir2 0493S . 29 oooiz2 0000120 0447S : 40 Goon0gs 0.000012 040000981 : —REFRIGERANTS 301 more ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth and might cause cancer. The initia Teactions to the wamings were to stop using the offending halocarbons as the pro- Dalen in aerosol containers and to reduce their use in foam insulation, Although the pplication of halocarbons as refigerants is only one of the uses of these substances, ‘$RF worldwide basis Considerable quantities of halocarbons are used for refrigeration ‘Purposes, and the immediate response of the refrigerant industry* has been to tighten re procedures for preventing spils into the atmosphere. Refrigerants 11 and 12, with ~ ther three and two chlorine atoms, espectively, have a greater impact than refrigerant 2D) which has one chlorine atom. During the coming years the situation will be mon- toned carefully and the need for protection of the environment may demand that still more care be exercised andfor new refrigerants be employed. weve vey 15:10 Basis of choice of refrigerant The characteristics of refrigerants presented in this chapter are dominant factors in the choice. The following isa brief and rough re view of the principal applications of some refrigerants, “Air, The major use of air as a refrigerant is in aircraft, where the light weight of an ait system compensates for its low COP. “Ammonia, Large industrial low-temperature installations are the applications where ‘ammonia is most frequently used. Many new ammonia systems come into opera- tion each year. Carbon dioxide. This reftigerant is sometimes used for directeontact freezing of ood. Its high condensing pressure usually Limits its application to the low- temperature side of a cascade system where a different refrigerant operates in the high-temperature section. Refrigerant 11, Along with refrigerant 113 this rftigerant is popular for centrifugal compressor systems. Refrigerant 12. This refrigerant is used primarily with reciprocating compressors for service in domestic refrigeration appliances and in automotive air conditioners Refrigerant 22. Because a smaller and lower-cost compressor can be used with se frigerant 22 than with refrigerant 12, this refrigerant has taken over many alt- conditioning applications from refrigerant 12. [Refrigerant 502. This is one of the newer refrigerants, with some of the advantages of refrigerant 22 but with the further advantage of better tehavior with oil and lower compressor discharge temperatures than refrigerant 22. 15-11 Secondary refrigerants Secondary refrigerants are fluids tat carry heat from @ substance being cooled to the evaporator of a refrigeration system. The secondary Tefrigerant experiences a change in temperature when it absorbs zhe heat and Uberates jt at the evaporator, and the secondary refrigerant does not change phase. Technically speaking, water could be a secondary refrigerant, but the substances we particularly ‘wish to explore are brines and antifreezes, which are solutions with freezing tempera- tures below O°C. Several of the most widely used antifrezes are solutions of water and ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, or calcium chloride. Propylene glycol has the tunique feature of being safe in contact with foods. The propertes** of these anti- fieeves are similar; those of ethylene glycol will be presented so that some quantita- tive implications can be derived,1402. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 9 =20| reszing pint, °C 40 ~so ee Ethylene elvcl.% by mass igure 15-1 Freezing point of ethylene glycol slstlons. ‘one ofthe most important properties of antfeeze solution ithe ening poet shown Fig, 15-1. The freezing points form the casial phase Her shown in sin ot in Fig, 152. Te curves of the Freezing points show that (he solution of | Fee constituents has a fower frezing point than ether sbsine® individually. gure 15-2 shows possible phases and mixtures that can exit a yaous concentrations t \ \ oben Temperature, Liquid and ice eee ° TOO igre 152 Phase digram of an anth Concentration, solute in mixture freeze.REFRIGERANTS 303, and temperatures. If the antifreeze at temperature A has a concentration M, what will the behavior of the antifreeze be as it progressively cools? The antifreeze remains a liquid until the temperature drops to B. Further cooling to C results in a slush which is a mixture of ice and liquid. The antifreeze at Chas concentrated itself by freezing ‘out some of its water into ice. The percent of ice in the mixture at Cs given by Percent ie say and the percent liquid is given Percent liquid (asa) Cooling the solution below D solidifies the entire mixture, Point £, called the eutectic point, represents the concentation at which the owest temperature can be reached with no solidification. Strenghhening the solution ‘beyond the eutectic concentration is fruitless, because the freezing temperature rises. Further properties of ethylene glycol solutions are presented in Fig 15-3 (specific gravity), Fig. 15-4 (thermal conductivity), Fig. 15-5 (viscosity) and Fig. 156 (specific heat), 12 110 1.06 Specific gravity baved on water 102 “40 -30~« 20 10 ° 020 Antfeeze temperature, °C Figue 153 Specitic gravity of ethylene plycol-water solutions based on water at 4°C (density = 1000 kg/m?)0.65 ' . , 0.60 } E oss se : 2 ~—] } pon oo - 4 A os iy od ; i “od ; 2 oss 8% 3 Fig 4 Tum contin fen ewan, } oe ous 0.05 4 oot : om ; 2 i i £ oo i on os oo 1.001 Go a30 20 IDO «IO igure 15-5 Viscosity of ethylene elyeol~ Antifreeze temperature, °C water solutionsREFRIGERANTS. 305 45 = F 10% 40 20% = 30% z = ____ El z35 dog i i ~ ” 20} oo as ve a a eT) Atitreze temperature, °C Figure 15-6 Specific neat of ethylene siycol-water solutions. In designing a refrigeration system, it may be necessary to convert a manufacturer's data given for water into data for an antifreeze. For pressure drop in straight tubes the following ratio hotds| (as3) Where the @ subscript refers to antifreeze and the w subscript refers to water. The Velocity is Vand the density is p. For a given heat exchanger the length Z and diam- eter D for the two fluids cancel. An expression for the friction in the low Reynolds ‘umber range of turbulent flow was presented as Eq. (13-9) 033 ar as) If the properties and velocities of water and the antifreeze are known, pressure found, for example, in a dairy where one evaporator operates at -35°C to harden ice cream while another tvaporator operates at 2°C to cool milk, Another typical application might be in 2 proves: industry where a two- or threestage compression arrangement serves an evap: ‘ator operating ata low temperature of -20°C or lower. “This chapter considers only multipressure systems having two low-side pressures, but the principles developed here will apply to more than two low-side pressures. Two fanctions often integral to multipressure systems are the removal of flash gas and inter~ cooling, They will be discussed first. Then several combinations of multiple evapora- tors and compressors will be analyzed. 162 Removal of flash gas A saving in the power requirement of a refrigeration sys ‘tem results if the flash gas that develops in the throtting process between the con- ilenser and evaporator is removed and recompressed before complete expansion. When saturated liquid expands through an expansion valve, the fraction of vapor or flash gas progressively inreases. The expansion process shown on the ressure-enthalpy diagram in Fig, 16+] takes place from 1 to 2. The state point, as the expansion proceeds, moves into a region of a greater fraction of vapor. ‘The end point of the expansion, 2, could have been achieved by interrupting the expansion at 3 and separating the liquid and vapor phases, which are 4 and 6, respec tively. The expansion could then continue by expanding the liquid at 4 and the vapor 308-MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 309 Pressure, kPa Figure 164. Expansion process show. ing replacement of proces 3-2 with Failaipy. AIRE the comb nation of 4-5 snd 6-7 at 6 to the final pressure, giving S and 7, respectively, The combination of refrigerant at states 5 and 7 gives point 2 Inspection of the expansion from 6 to 7 confirms that it is wasteful, In the fist place, the reftigerant at 7 ean do no refrigerating; in the steond place, work will be Tequited to compress the vapor back to the pressure it had at 6. Why not perform part of the expansion, separate the liquid from the vapor, continue expanding the Tiquid, and recompress the vapor without further exparsion? The equipment to achieve this separation is called a flash tank (see Fig. 16-2). The expansion from 1 to 3 fakes place through a float valve, which serves the further purpose of maintaining a ‘Constant level in the flash tank. To recompress the vapor al 6, a compressor must be srailable with a suction pressure of 6. Thus two compressors are needed in the system. ‘The Mash tank must separate liquid refrigerant from vapor. The separation occurs when the upward velocity of the vapor is low enough for te liquid particles to drop back into the tank. Normally vapor velocities less than 1 m/s will provide adequate separation. This velocity is found by dividing the volume flow of the vapor by the surface area ofthe liquid. 8+ To compressor 4 _Q——~ renrontor Expansion valve Figure 162 Flash tank for removing ash gas during expansion process310. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Area representing A saving in work S| compression i Low-stage E)intercooting: en 1 Figure 163 Intecooling i» ewostage com- Displacement, pression. ‘The most efficient way to remove flash gas would be to separate the vapor con- tinuously as it forms and Jo recompress it immediately. No practical means has yet ‘been developed to accomplish this. 163 Intercooling Intercooling between two stages of compressor reduces the work Of compression per kilogram of vapor. In two-stage compression of air, for example, Gn intercooling from point 2 to 4 on the pressuredisplacement diagram of Fig. 16-3 tives some work. If the processes are reversible, the saving is represented by the shaded area in Fig. 1653. Figure 16-4 shows how compression with intercooling appears on the pressure- enthalpy diagram of a refiigerant, Processes 1-2-3 and 4-5 are on lines of constant entropy, but process 2-3 falls on a flatter curve than process 4-5. Between the same two pressures, therefore, process 4-5 shows a smaller increase in enthalpy, which indicates that less work is required than in 2-3. "Another way of showing that the work of compression increases when the process ‘moves out farther into the superheat region is to examine the equation for work in a reversible polytropic compression of a perfect gas w=-fodp opie py, 1-(2 a3) VL where p = pressure, Pa ‘y= specific volume, m3 kg r= polytropic exponent relating the pressure and specific volume during com pression, pv = const and where subscript 1 refers to the entrance and 2 to the exit ofthe compressor. Be teen two piven pressures, the work of compression is proportional to the specific sme of entering gas. The specific volume at 2 in Fig, 16-4 is greater than it is a 4; yo the work required for compressing from 2 to 3is greater than in compressing from 4105. Tatercooling in a refrigeration system can be accomplished with a water-cooled heat exchanget or by using refrigerant. (Fig. 16-Sa and b). The water-cooled inter- cooler may be satisfactory for two-stage air compression, but for refrigerant compres LORIN RMSE FMRI RNERRRER CREE RRMA: 9MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 311 Pressure Pa Figure 164 Intercooting of tefigerant in Twostage com pession TEntaiey, he ‘don the water is usually not cold enough. The alternate method of Fig. 16-5b uses Tiquid refrigerant from the condenser to do the intercoolina. Discharge gas from the rowstage compressor bubbles through the liquid in the intercooler. Refrigerant leaves the intercooler at 42s saturated vapor. Tntercooling with liquid refrigerant will usually decrease the total power require iments when ammonia is the refrigerant but not when refrigerant 12 or 22 is used, as illustrated in Examples 16-1 and 16-2. In the examples of this chapter, assume that Tiquid leaves the condenser saturated, vapor leaves the evaporator saturated, and the ‘compressions are isentropic. [Example 16-1 Calculate the power needed to compress 1.2 ke/s of ammonia from Saturated vapor at 80 kPa to 1000 KPa (a) by single-stage compression and (b) by tworstage compression with intercooling by liquid refrigerant at 300 KPa. Solution Table 16-1 shows the summary of the caleulations with the subscripts referring to state points in Fig. 16-4 "The high tage compressor in the intercooled system must compress 1.2 ke/s plus the flow rate of refrigerant that evaporates to desuperheat the gas at 2. The flow rate of ammonia compressed in the high stage can be calculated by making, fa heat and a mass balance about the intercooler, a8 shown in Fig. 164. Heat balance: (316 KBP) + (1.2 kes) (1588 kA) = w4(1450 197K) Mass balance: wet l2=wy Solving gives 4 = 1346 kas Intercooling the ammonia with liquid reftigerant reduced the power require: ment from 468 to 453.2 KW.312. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘aignstase compresior Lowstage ” Highstawe compressor Liquid fom condenser Intercooler © Figue 165 Intecooing with (2) watercooled heat exchanger, and (b quid efigerant ‘A futher benefit of intecooling the ammonia i thatthe discharge temperature tron ths mesage compressor will be reduced from a value of 146°C, the tempers: fro ne ion igenteopie compression, to 77°C. The lower discharge temperate tarts etter ubction and results in loge of the compressor. Example 162 Compate a compression of 3.5 kgls of rtigerant 22 from satu Fhed vapor at 100 kPa to a condensing pressure of 1000 KPa (a) by single-stage Compression and (b) by twostage compression with intercooling at 300 KPa, using : liquid refrigerant “Solution Table 16.2 shows the summary of the calculations with the subscripts referring to state points in Fig. 16-4,= MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS 313 ‘Table 16-1 Comparison of ammonia compression with and without intercooling ‘Without intercooing, ‘Wit ntercooling processes, processes 1-2 and 2-3 12,24 anaes Ing hy te 1588-1410 1588-1410 ie ohy. KK 1800-1388 iaohg. Kk . 1628-1450 * Flow ste kal, 1602 ia 12 203 12 4003 : 1346 Power quite, KW, 1102 aii ans 203 54 405 2395 ies 4932 “otal power, kW — ‘Table 16-2 Comparison of refrigerant 22 compression with and without intercooling Without intercoling, With itercoling,proceses processes J-2 and 2-3 1-2,2-4,andd-S yh | 416-387 416-387 Way es 449-416 hgh a 430-399 Flow rate, kal, 1102 33 35 2003 35 405 zi 34 Power requlzed, KW, 1102 11s ois 2103 uss 405 A uso ‘Total power, kW ate ars he 1401s : L2kwls 198 kale From condenser = 316 Wik Figure 16-6 Heat and mass balance around intercooler in Example 16-1314. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING. For refvigerant 22 intercooling with liquid refrigerant midway during the compres: sion is ineffective, The dissimilarity during intercooling of ammonia and refrigerant 22 Systems results from the difference of thei properties. The lines of constant entropy for ammonia become more flat in the superheat region than those of refrigerant 22. In a refrigerant 22 system, therefore, the saving in work per kilogram by performing the Compression close to the saturated-vapor line does not compensate for the increased flow rate which must be pumped by the high-stage compressor. 7 “There is an optimum pressure at which the intercooling should take place in an ammonia system. In the compression of air, where the intercooling is achieved by se- Jeeting heat to the ambient or to cooling water, that intermediate pressure for mini- ‘mum total power is 2,2 VPPa (6a) where p;= intercooler pressure, KPa , = suction pressure of low stage compressor, KPa P= discharge pressure of high stage compressor, KPa ‘The development of the equation does not consider the additional refrigerant com- pressed by the high-stage compressor, but i¢ does provide an approximate guideline for the optimal intermediate pressure 16-4 One evaporator and one compressor The flash tank and intercooler appear in most -multipressuse systems and will now be examined in various compressor evaporator combinations. With one compressor and one evaporator the flash tark may function as shown schematically in Fig. 16:7. A pressuce-reducing valve throttles the flash gas from the intermediate pressure to the evaporator pressure. The throttling is necessary because a7 ' (compressor { i 1 t t ' Lt 1 It 1 1 1 ' hash tank Evaporator Machine room Figate 167 System with one compressor and one evsporator using fash tankMULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS 315 Condenser 4 [Airconditioning | 1 (‘compressor 4 [lortempenne] more Preseure, KPa Figure 168 () One compressor and two eazoraiors with the sizcon Enthalpy. Re Aitioning erporator operating at “IOC. () Presureenthalpy dls co) ram forsytem of) there is no compressor available with a high suction pressure. Calculations would show that the flash tank does not improve the performance of thesystem. The only reason for using the flash tank would be to keep the flash gas in te machine room rather than sending it to the evaporator. The flash gas in the evaporator tubes and long suc- tion line does no refrigeration but does increase the pressure drop. This system is used infrequently. 165 Two evaporators and one compessor In many situatiors one compressor serves ‘wo evaporators having different temperature requirements. An example is an industry Which needs low-temperature refrigeration for a provess and which must also provide airconditioning for some offices. Figure 16-8a shows one method of arranging this sys- tem, and Fig. 16-8 shows the corresponding pressure-enthalpy diagram, In Fig, 16-82316. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Condenser 2 : °C pressure oe [Compressor er 7 =10°C 8 Pressure, KPa Enthay. Re o Figure 16.9 () One compresior and two evaporators with 2 presse coducing vate to mains Pi espero In the airconditioning evaporator. (b) Pressursenthay diagram for sytem ore) the air-conditioning evaporator operates at -10°C even though a higher temperature inthis evaporator would cool the air suficiently. Furthermore, difficulties may arise ween an evaporator operates at an unnecessarily low temperature: an evaporator witch cools air for air conditioning may collect frost which blocks the flow of air, an WMiporator which chills aliquid may freze the liquid ané an evaporator which cool spor zoom where meat or produce is stored may dehumidify the ar so much that the products will be dehydrated, rTe overcome the drawbacks of the system in Fig. 16384, a revision may be made as shown in Pig, 16.52. A pressure-reducing valve installed after the high-temperaturepovevevaevevooguuuss MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 317 evaporator regulates the presure and maintains a temperatue in the air-conditioning Srporstor of S°C, for example. Figure 169 shows the corresponding pressure enthalpy dagram, Differences in performance between the systems in Figs, 1680 sng 1650 are as follows. In the system of Fig. 16:9, the rfigeratng effect in the Hish-temperature evaporator is greater than it isin the system of Fig, 16a. This san ee atage for the system of Fig. 16:92, To counterbalance this advantage, the com- ession in Fig. 1690 occur father out in the supeheat region than in Fig. 1689. The system of Fig 169a therefore demands more work per kilogram of refiigerant. rom s power standpoint, the systems are practically a standoff, but for proper operation of the high-temperature evaporator the system of Fig. 16a is prefered 166 Two compressors and one evaporator Twostage compression with intercooling ‘and removal of flash gas is often the ideal way to serve one low-temperature evapo- itor, This system requires less power than with a single ccmpressor, and often the “aving in power wil justify the cost of the extra equipment. Example 16-3 Calculate the power required by the two compressors in an am nonia system which serves 2 2504W evaporator at ~25°C. The system uses two- Stage compression with intercooling and removal of fash gas. The condensing temperature is 35°C. Solution Fist sketch the schematic diagram of the system (Fig, 16-102) and the soon lng pesste-ontalpy diagram (Fg. 16-108). The funetions of the in- fercoulr and flash tank are combined in one vessel “rhe intermediate prewure for optimum economy can be calculated from Eq, (16:) p, = saturation pressure at -25°C = 152 kPa ‘py = saturation pressure at 35°C = 1352 kPa Dy = VI82(1352) = 453 KPa “The enthalpies at all points can now be determined from Table A’ and Fig, Al Jy = hy at -25°C = 1430 KS) fhe tat 483 kPa after sentrope eompresion = 1573 = hg at 453 KPa = 1463 11352 KPa after isentropic compression = 1620 hig =hyat 38°C= 366 hg 1 = fy at 453 Pa = 202 Next, the mass rates of flow though the compresios can be ealulted by means of heat and mass balances Heat balance about the evaporator: 2505 205 tah 1430-202 * = wy = wy = Wy = 0.204 Kas318 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Highstage compressor intercooler and G flash tank Lowstase compressor Evaporator 2S0KW 2c @ Pressure, KP Eaihalpy. © Figure 3610 (2) Two compresirs and one evaporator in Example 163. (b) Pressre-enhaly tiagara fr system in), Heat and mass balance about the intercooler: hy + Wah wea andy Wo 10.504(1573) + w3(366) = 0-204(202) + w,(1463) w= 0.255 kels ee er ron eer n in eat sereneeauesdesIaVVUHMIEDD MULTPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 319 Low:stage power: (0.204 kals) (1573 - 1430 kifkg) = 29.2 kW High stage power: (0.255 kgs) (1620 ~ 1463 klfkg) = 40.0 kW Total power: 28.2 # 40.0= 69.2 kW This power requirement can be compared with that of a single-compressor system developing 250 kW of refigeraton at -25°C with a condensing tempera- ture of 35°C. The pressureenthalpy diagram 4s shown in Fig. 16-11. The,en- thalpies y= 1430 Ka 250 kW RON = 0.235 kals 1430-366 Power = 0.235(1765 - 1430) “The two-stage compressor system requites 69.2 KW, or 12 percent less power than the singlecompressor system. 8.7 kW 16-7 Two compresors and two evaporators The system which has two evaporators operating at eifferent temperatures is common in industrial refrigeration, A dairy cool ing mak and manufacturing icecream has been mentioned A frozenfood plant may requie two evaporators at different temperatures, one at -40°C to quick freeze the food and the other at 25°C to hold the food aftr its fren, Process and chemical industries often requte different temperatures of refrigeration in various sections of the plant. Evaporators at two different temperatures can be handed efficiently by @ twostage system which employs intercooling and removal of fash gs. Example 16-4 In an ammonia system one evaporator is to provide 180 kW of refrigeration at -30°C and another evaporator is to provide 200 kW at 5°C. The system uses two-stage compression with intercooling and is arranged as in Fig. 16-124, The condensing temperature is 40°C. Calculate the power required by the compressors, Pressure, KP Figure 611 Pressurcentalpy dis gram fr singe-compressor Enthalpy. 107k for conditions in Example 163.320 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING. s ‘ 2 tense compen, Brapontor 1. -@| “Se 200kW Trapontor 7 Intercooler ane ssh tank 50°C ® |_isouw ® TSSTRPS sc SIT KPa we Pressure, KPa ‘Enalpy, KITE ® igure 16-12 (2) Two compresion snd two evaporators operating with intecooing and Hasha2s Low-stase compressor eee ay The presureenthalpy diagram corresponding fo the syter in.> > ° ° ° ° ° MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 321 Solution Sketch the pressureenthalpy diagram of the cycle as in Fig. 16-126, ‘The discharge pressure of the low-stage compressor and the suction pressure of the high stage compressor are the same as the pressure in the 5°C evaporator. ‘Next determine the enthalpies atthe state points, Ing at -30°C= 1423 b/g Hat $17 kPa after isentropic compression = 1630 : 625 “The mass rates of flow are 180K 0.150 el 473-23 0.150 ke/s Probably the simplest way to calculate the mass rate of flow handled by the high-stage compressor is to make s heat and mass balance about both the high temperature evaporator and the intercooler as shown in Fig, (6-13, 200KW Intercooler and flash an [gute 16-13 Heat and mass balance about hightemperature evaporator and intereooler in Exam 2 ple 16,322. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Heat balance: Whig + 200 KW + Wah, = Why + Wty Mass b wy = w; =0.150 kels ‘Therefore . Ws ews Combining gives 390.615 + 200 + 0.150(1630) = 1467w, + 0.150(223) Solving leads to 75 = 0.382 kals “The power required by the compressors can now be calculated: Lowstage power: 0.150(1630 ~ 1423) = 31.1 kW Highsstage power: 0.382(1625 - 1467) = 604 Total 91.5kW If one compressor served each evaporator in single-stage compression, the power requirements of the two compressors would have been as follows Flow through low-temperature evaporator _180 kW wv 174 ke/s 1423-3906 Flow through hightemperature evaporator: 200 _ 0.186 els 1467-3908 Power for low-temperature system: 0.174(1815 - 1423) = 68.2 kW Power for high-temperature system: 0.186(1625 ~ 1467)= 29.4__ Total 97.6KW ‘The combined power for the compressors serving the exaporators individually is seater than with the combined system in Fig. 16-12. The power required for the high- temperature evaporator is the same in both cases, so all of the saving is attribut ble to flash-gas removal and intercooling of refrigerant sewving the low-temperature evaporator. "The intermediate pressure of the system in Fig. 16-122 is the saturation pressure corresponding to 5°C. This pressure is fixed, therefore, by the temperature ofthe heh femperatue evaporator, In the system of one evaporator and two compressors dis ‘ued earlier, the intermediate pressure could be adjusted by varying the relative pumping capacities of the two comprestors. Procedures for selecting compressors 19 ceded Dede dede be dee De Me OE RINE ea ae1999299999902 0000000u MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS 323 To highest [Or comarsior From condenser ‘To expansion vale of fow-temperatue ceraporstor Figure 16-14 A tguid subcooter, sive a specified intermediate pressure are extensions of the techniques of system simu Jation discussed in Chap. 14 (see Prob. 16.6). 168 Auxiliary equipment Modifications are sometimes made in the equipment for intercooling and removal of flash gas. Ifthe temperature ofthe discharge ga from the low-stage compressor is sufficiently high, a water-cooled heat exchanger may remove some of the heat from the discharge gas before it flows into the main intercooler ‘A device which gives the same result as flash-gas removal is called a liquid sub cooler (see Fig. 16-14). It cools the liquid refrigerant by evaporating a small fraction of the liquid, Compared with the directcontact flash tank, the subeooler cannot cool the liquid to quite as low a temperature. On the other hand, the subcooler maintains the liquid at a high pressure. If the liquid must flow through a long line before it reaches the expansion valve, there is less possibility that the pressare drop in the line will flash the liquid to vapor and thus restrict the flow through the expansion valve, 169 Compound compressors In the systems shown in this chapter, where there are two levels of compression, the flow diagrams have shown two compressors. Single compressors are available that accept both high and low suction pressures and can. thus serve the purpose of the two compressors shown in Fig. 16-10.In compound re ciprocating compressors, four cylinders of a six-cylinder compressor might perform the low-stage compression and the remaining two cylinders would accomplish the high- stage compression. In a compound serew compressor, the entrant of gas atthe intr. ‘mediate pressure takes place part way along the compression process. 16-10 Liquid-tecirculation systems Section 12-15 on evaporators referred to liquid recirculation systems. A schematic diagram of a liquid-rcirculation system is shown in Fig. 16-15. A liquid pump delivers the low-temperature liquid to the evaporators, ‘which can be regulated by thermostatically controlled solenoid valees. Since the pump supplies several times as much refrigerant to the evaporator as can be evaporated, some liquid washes out of the evaporator and returns to the separator. Liquid-ecirculation324, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING condener Enron High . ne ote toa = Liu ad terol Sper Pam Figure 1615 4 liqui-ecrculation sytem, systems usually achieve good feeding ofthe evaporators and provide high heat-transfer eieincients on the refrigerant side, [tis not essential thats liquid-recireulation system be served by 2 multistage compression system, but they ate usually associated because the liquidecitculation syster is particularly advantageous in the low-temperature systems that multipressure compression usually serves. 16-11 Summary In mulipressure systems the removal and recompression of flash gas before complete expansion decrease the power required by the compressors. Inter- tooling between stages of compression reduces the power requirements, a least when srrmonia is the refrigerant. Intercooling decreases the discharge temperature of the sirigerant from the bighstage compressor. High discharge temperatures cause oil TEybonization, sticky compressor valves, and lubrication difficulties in reciprocating ‘compressors. "any decision to use multiplestage systems should be based on an economic an- alysis. The savings in power must be compared with the additional cst of equipment te determine whether the added investment is warranted. Factors such as the reftig: veant used, the type of compressor (whether reciprocating or screw), and the size of the system also have an influence. Using ammonia as an example, the practical mini tram cvaporating temperatures fr reciprocating compresors ae approximately “30°C Tor a aingleatage, -SO°C for a twosstage, and -70°C for a three-stage system. Screw)OVDV2@2dvVVDVOYIUE~ MULTIPRESSIRE SYSTEMS 325 compressors are capable of operating against larger pressure ratios than reciprocating ‘compressors. A further advantage of multistaging is that it decreases the pressure dif- ference across which the compressor works, thus reducing wear on bearing surfaces. PROBLEMS in the following problems, liquid leaves the condensers saturated, vapor leaves the ‘evaporators saturated, and compressions are isentropic. 16-1 A cylindrical tank 2 m long mounted with its axis horizontal ito separate liquid ammonia from ammonia vapor. The ammonia vapor bubbles through the liquid and 12 m3js leaves the surface of the liquid, If the velocity ofthe vapors limited to 1 m/s and the vessel is to operate with the liquid level two-thirds of the diameter from the bottom, what must the diameter of the tank be? Ans. 0.636 m 162 A liguid subcooler as shown in Fig. 16-14 receives liquid ammonia at 30°C and subeools 0.6 kels to S°C. Saturated vapor leaves the subcooler forthe high-stage com pressor at -I°C. Caleulate the flow rate of ammonia that evaporates to cool the liquid. Ans, 0.0575 kis 163 In a cefrigerant 22 refrigeration system the capacity is 180 kW at a temperature of -30°C. The vapor from the evaporator is pumped by one compressor to the con~ ‘Gensing pressure of 1500 kPa, Later the system is revised to a twostage compression ‘operating on the cycle shown in Fi, 16-16 with intercooling but ro removal of flash ‘gas at 600 KPa. (2) Calculate the power required by the single compressor inthe original system. (b) Caleulate the total power requited by the two compressors in the revised system, Ans. 70.9 kW 4 Condenser 1500 KPa — CR Intercooler 600 KP Evaporator L LQ “tao kw =30°C Figure 16-16 Intecooling system in Prob, 16-3.326 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Trapontor 180 KW wc Ce eee ee Figure 16-17 Flashgas emoval system in Prob, 16-4, EW atan evaporating temperature 16-4 A refrigerant 22 system has a capacity of 180 Je so'c when the condensing pressure js 1500 KPa. i soe Sante the power requirement for a system wih single compress B O orite tne total power required by the two comprsaon 48 00 ONE shows in Fig, 16-17 where there is no intercooling but here i Hashes removal at {600 kPa, Ans. 60.7 XW TT] Pumping capacity, kes fC 700 300 700 300 oo Intermediate pressore, KPa capacity of low: and hghstage compresion of the system (9 FI 165. fos kPa (40°C), and the dicharee PSH" Figure 1618 Pumpint e Figs hon presue of the low-stage compressor i Trthe high stage compressor fs 1192 KPa (20°C) SsMULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS. 327 16-5 A two-stage ammonia system using flash-gas removal and intercooling operates fon the eycle shown in Fig, 16-122. The condepsing temperaturs is 38°C, The satura- tion temperature of the intermediate-temperature evaporator is 0°C, and its capacity is 150 kW. The satuiation temperature of the low-temperature evaporator is 40" its capacity is 250 kW. What is the rate of refrigerant compressed by the hightage compressor? Ans. 0.411 ke/s 16-6 A two-stage refrigerant 22 system that uses flash-gas removal and intercooling serves" fa single low-temperature evaporator asin Fig. 16-102. The evaporating temperature is — 40°C, and the condensing temperature is 30°C. The pumping capacities ofthe high- and low-stage compressors are shown in Fig. 16-18. What is (a) the eefrigeratng capacity ofthe system and (8) the intermediate pressure? Ans. (a) 318 kW, (8) 396 KPa= CHAPTER SEVENTEEN EEE ee ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 17-1 Relation of the absorption to the vaporcompression cycle Ferdinand Carré, a Frenchman, invented the absorption system and took out a United States patent in 1860. The first use of the system in the United States was probably made by the Confederate States during the Civil War after the supply of natural ice had been cut off from the North. ‘The absorption cycle is similar in certain respects to the vapor-compression cycle. A refrigeration cycle will operate with the condenser, expansion valve, and evaporator shown in Fig, 17-1 if the low-pressure vapor from the evaporator ean be transformed into high-pressure vapor and delivered to the condenser. The vapor-compression sys tem uses a compressor for this task. The absorption system first absorbs the low- pressure vapor in an appropriate absorbing liquid. Embodied in the absorption process is the conversion of vapor into liquid; since this process is akin to condensation, heat ‘must be rejected during the process. The next step isto elevate the pressure of the liquid with @ pump, and the final step releases the vapor from the absorbing liquid by adding heat, ‘The vapor-compression cycle is described as a work-operated cycle because the clevation of pressure of the refrigerant is accomplished by a compressor that requires ‘work. The absorption cycle, on the other hand, is referred to asa heatoperated cycle ‘because most of the operating cost is associated with providing the heat that drives off the vapor from the high-pressure liquid. Indeed there is a requirement for some work in the absorption cycle to drive the pump, but the amount of work for a given quan tity of refrigeration is minor compared with that needed in the vapor-compression eyeleABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 329 PF Hisorssre [Vapor compression air 1 comer [te —o) conte 1 Awortin | [ate eprint tut whe removing on | apansice abe [a Elevate presure of | . | 7 tod poms | Low peste 3, Rel vapor DY for } 3 Seivasten” fp ont 1 — Figure 174. Methods of transforming low presse vapor into hghpesmre vapor ina efsgration 17.2 The absorption cycle The basic absorption cycle is showr in Fig . 17-2. The con: denser and evaporator are as shown in Fig. 17-1, and the compression operation is provided by the assembly in the left half of the diagram. Low pressure vapor from the Evaporator i absorbed by the liquid solution in the absorber. If this absorption process vrow executed adiabatically, the temperature of the solution would rise and eventually Theabsorption of vapor would cease. To perpetuate the absorption process the absorber fe cooled by water or air tha ultimately rejects this heat to the atmosphere. The pump iescives low-pressure liquid from the absorber, elevates the pressure ofthe liquid, and olivers the liguid to the generator. In the generator, heat from a high-temperature SGurce dtives off the vapor that had been absorbed by the solution. The liquid solution ‘etume to the absorber through @ throttling valve whose purpose is to provide a pres- fre drop to maintain the pressure difference between the gene-ator and absorber. ‘The pattem for the flow of heat to and from the four heatexchange components in the abvorption cycle is that high-temperature heat enters the generator while low- High-pressure vapor Solution pate Generator ‘Condenser Expansion ‘Thuotling vale vale Lowpressure vapor Evaporator FS Haat Pa Figute 172 The basic absorption unit330 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING temperature heat from the substance being refrigerated enters the evaporator. The heat rejection from the cycle occurs at the absorber and condenser at temperatures such ‘that the heat can be rejected to atmosphere. 173 Coefficient of performance of the ideal absorption cycle The coefficient of per formance of the absorption cycle COP,y, is defined as : refrigeration rate ae etic 7. ‘rate of heat addition at gen2rator ar) COP, In certain respects applying the term COP to the absorption system is unfortunate be cause the value is appreciably lower than that of the vapor-compression cycle (0.6 Yersus 3, for example). The comparatively low value of COP,y, should not be con sidered prejudicial to the absorption system, because the COPS of the two cycles are ‘efined differently. The COP of the vapor-compression cycle is the ratio of the re frigeration rate to the power in the form of work supplied to operate the cycle. Energy in the form of work is normally much more valuable and expensive than energy in the form of heat. Further insight into the distinction of the effectiveness of the absorption and sapor-compression cycles is provided by the exercise of determining the COP of the {deal absorption cycle. Stated more precisely, the COP of an ideal heatoperaced refrigeration cycle will be evaluated. Figure 173 suggests how to proceed with the ‘analysis, because the processes in the box on the left consist of a power cycle that evelops work needed to perform the compression of the vapor from the evaporator to the condenser. These two cycles are shown schematically in Fig. 17-3, The power cycle receives energy in the form of heat dg at an absolute temperature 7,, delivers Some energy Win the form of work to the refrigeration cycle, and rejects a quantity of energy dj in the form of heat ata temperature 7. The refrigeration cyete receives the work Wand with it pumps heat q, at the reftigercting temperature of 7, to a temperature T,, where the quantity 4. is rejected. "The ideal cycle operating with thermodynamical reversible processes between two temperatures is a Camot cycle, which appears as a rectangle on the temperature: 4c OS 7, 4 w T, 1, Figure 17-3 Heat-operated reftis~ af _™ mh inion eyele at combination of Mower cyte and regan Power cycle Retiieration cycle yeesuasay ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 331 entropy diagram, For the power eycle onthe lft sie of Fig. 173 Te WHT, 7a) and forthe cefigeration eel on the ight side of Fig: 173 «,_T, ‘The sfeigration sat in a, (174) yan the ae of heat ado at the generator igs cans om (03) 8 73 ty, 73) a, WE, TT, TM,-T,) copa42 2% Te TT) wT, TT,-7) ara) Example 17-1. What is the COP ofan ideal heat-operated refrigeration system that has a source temperature of heat of 100°C, a refrigerating temperature of 5°C, and an ambient temperature of 30°C? Solution (5 +273.15) (100 -30) “(100 + 273.15) (30-5) Several trends are detectable from Eq. (17-4) 1, AsT;, increases, the COP increases. 2. As T; increases, the COP increases. 3. As 7, increases, the COP decrease. 17-4 Temperature-pressure-concentration properties of LiBr-water solutions Lithium bromide is a solid salt crystals in the presence of water vapor it will absorb the vapor and become a liquid solution. The liquid solution exerts a watervapor pressure that is ‘function of the solution temperature and the concentration of the solution. If two vessels were connected as in Fig. 17-4, one vessel containing LiBr-water solution and a | Water vapor pa 738K be 80°C, $93 LiBr ater solution Figure 174 Equilibrium water-apor pressure.a ‘sunsond ode, 1 Joy oF Ep WH po fs 018-1611 poteits fou "9 se 4g 6 99 19 eal ‘s (= paosg wen ox z 190 ei out vez we wy ws seu a6 cut est 6st ose vie 99 var sus VoL on oct 0 st 0 of se sy 0 ss : oe se os 06 nenusouossunsaidaimeduey $1 Smt jaye aid Jo aumpesoduray uoneies de 332“ 3 ° 2 ° ° ° ° 2 2 ° 2 2 ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 333 the other pure water, each liquid would exert a water-vapor pressure, At equilibrium the water-vapor prestures exerted by the two liquids would be equal. An example of ‘one equilibrium condition is noted in Fig. 17-4, Ifthe temperature of pure water is 40°C, its vapor pressure is 7.38 kPa, That same vapor pressure would be developed by 4 LiBe-water solution at a temperature of 80°C and a concentration x = $9% LiBr on 4 mass basis. Many other combinations of temperatures and concentrations of solu- tion also provide a vapor pressure of 7-38 KPa. Figure 1755 is a temperature-pressureconcentration diagram for LiBr-water solu- tions. Concentration is the abscissa of the graph and water-vapor pressure could be Considered the ordinate, as shown on the vertical scale on the ight. For convenience the saturation temperature of pure water corresponding to these vapor pressures is Shown as the ordinate on the left. The chart applies to saturated conditions where the Solutions in equilibrium with the water vapor, asin the vessel onthe right in Fig. 17-4 “The pressures, temperatures, and concentrations chosen as example conditions in Fig. 17-4 can now be verified, If the temperature of pure water is 40°C, the vapor pressure the liquid exerts is 7.38 KPa, which can be determined irom the opposite Netical scale in Fig, 17-5. A LiBr-water solution with a concentration x of 59% and temperature of 80°C also develops a water-vapor pressure of 7.38 KPa If the solution hhad 1 concentration x of 54% and temperature of 70°C, the water-vapor pressure would likewise be 7:38 kPa. the absorption cycle The fist stage in analyz 17 Calculation of mass flow rate ing the simple LiBr-water absorption refrigeration cyele can now be performed by using the property data presented in Fig: 17-5 Example 17-2 Compute the rate flow of refrigerant (water) through the con: denser and evaporator in the cycle shown in Fig. 17-6 if the pump delivers 0.6 40°C; kkgls and the following temperatures prevail: generator, 100°C; condenser, evaporator, 10°C; and absorber, 30°C. © _ water vapor : oe 3 100°C Ss 40°C : 1/0 3 3 Liquic i 3 Ome rae Foam © we. eRe] Oo tels Figure 17-6 Absouption cycle in Example 17-2334. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING. 0 138 A & 3 seneator 4 E g . Leaving E c 5 Sorter ze vas § a Concentration, by mass Figute 17-7 Conditions of solution in Example 172. Solution The computation of the mass flow rate incorporates material balances, wang applicable concentrations of the LiBr inthe solution. Two diferent pres- sane erat in the aystem: a high pressure prevals in the generator and condenser, she the low pressure prevails in the absorber and evaporator. Since a saturated vnvition of pure water prevails in the condenser due to simultancous existence of Ilquid and vapor, the condensing temperature of 40°C fixes the pressure in the afeneer (and thus in the generator) of 7-38 kPa. From similar reasoning, the SCipcrator temperature of 10°C establishes the low pressure at 1.23 KPa, Figure Try tse skeleton poet diagram extracted from Fig. 17-5 to display the state points of the LiBr solution, The solution leaving a component it representative pairks solution in the component, 30 the state point of the solution at point 2 feaving the generator is found from Fig. 17-7 at the intersection of the solution (Srpeature of 100°C and the pressure of 7.38 kPa. This concentetion is 2 = Coes = 66:4%. Leaving the absorber at a solution temperature of 30°C and pres sete 123 kPa, x, = 0.50 = 50%, Two mass flow balnoes can be written sbout the generator: ‘Total mass-flow balance: Ww, #W3=W1 "06 LiBr balance: wk, = W282 0.6(0.50) = w3(0.664) Solving the two balance equations simultaneously gives w,=0452kg/s and ws = 0148 kels [Approximately 4 kg of solution is pumped for each kilogram of refrigerant water vapor developed. 17.6 Enthalpy of LiBr solutions In order to perform thermal calulations on (he tesepton refigration cycle, enthalpy data must be avaable forthe working sub, in and aeeeees at all erucial positions in the cycle. Water in liquid or vapor form flows i i j)9909000000000090000 CUO OK ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 335 out of the condenser and evaporator, so enthalpies at these points can be determined froma table of properties of water. In the generator and absorber, LiBr-water solutions exist for which the enthalpy isa function of both the temperature of the solution and the concentration. Figure 17-8 presents enthalpy data for Li8r-water solutions. The data are applicable to saturated or subcooled solutions and are based on a zero enthalpy of liquid water at O°C and a zero enthalpy of solid LiBr at 25°C. Since the zero en- thalpy for the water in the solution is the same as that in conventional tables of properties of water, the water-property tables can be used in conjunction with Fig 200 190 10 40 129 Soi 100 ing bn 20 A 25 «| ae 0 4 . Zio ——| 2 x ey — Fo Lio | ~ 100" | ay —} «o| > Te] “oho : so 0 2) = os 30 35 wo © 770 Pesce lithium bromide, % by mass igure 17-8 Enthalpy of Lir-water solutions data from Ref.1336 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 178, The enthalpy values shown in Ref. a8 based on a different datum plane forthe qefid LiBr, but the end results of calculations are essentially the same 17-7 Thermal analysis of simple absorption system Example 173 For the absorption system of Example 17-2 shown in Fi 176 compute dg, des e>er and the COP, ‘solution The flow rates and solution concentrations have already been deter sea in Example 17-2: w, = 0.6 kel, w2 = 0452 kas, and ws = wa = Ws = (0.148 ke/sixy = 50%, and x2 = 66.4%. "The enthalpies of the solution can be read off Fig, 17-8: ny = rat 30°C and x of SO = -168 Kg hiya eat 100°C and x of 65.4% = -52 Ke “The enthalpies of water Liquid an ny = h of saturated vapor at 100°C = 2676.0 kg ahr of saturated liguid at 40°C = 1675 ekg ns = eof saturated vapor at 10°C = 2520.0 Ke “The rates of heat transfer at each of the components can now be computed from enexgy balances: 1 vapor are found from Table A-l: dg alta * walla — wih 0, 148(2676) + 0.452(-52) - 0.6(-168) = 473.3 KW ag = Wty ~ Wah = 0.482676 - 167.5) = 371.2 EW Gg = Waly + welts = wy 0.45 2(-52) + 0.148(2520) -0.6(-168) = 450.3 KW 148(2520 - 167.5) = 348.2 KW de> Wshts ~ wah Finally, 348.2 ae g, 4766 736 cor, 178. Absorption cycle with heat exchanger An examination ofthe spi absorption aie and operating temperatures shown in Fig, 17-6 revels hat 1 ‘solution at point core aie absorber at a temperature of 30°C and must be heared © 100°C in the fenerator-Simifaly the solution at point 2 leaves the gereraton 100°C and must be ene 30°C in the absorber One of the major operating costs of the OS the ‘eer aed in the generator ¢, and realistically tere willbe some com associated with heat et of est in the absorber dA logical ation fo the simple © heat are anger az shown in Fig. 17-9 to transfer heat between the fwo stant ‘of solutions. xchanter Sechanger heats te cook solution from the absorber on its Way to the gem" He Pols the solution returning from the generator tothe absorberi 2 2 ° ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 337 © weer sre =f il Q ey at F 4 Me Pe eons Sore i oO Ovraares Figuee 179 Absorption system with heat exchanges Example 17-4 The simple eycle operating atthe temperacures shown in Fig. 17-6 js modified by the insertion of a heat exchanger, as shown in Fig. 17.9, such that the temperature at point 2 is 52°C. The mass rate of flow delivered by the solu- tion pump is 0.6 kg/s, What are the rates of energy transfer at each of the com ponents and the COP,y, of this cycle? Solution Certain quantities are unchanged from Examples 17-2 and 173: 452 kals “4 and Weg = We = Wy = O148 Kes w, "06 kels ws => ‘The enthalpies that remain unchanged are 168 kifkg, hy = -S2KI Ike 2676.0 kilkg hig = 167.5 Ki/kg hy = 2520.0 [kg ‘The heat-ransfer rates at the condenser and evaporator remain unchanged T2kW and q, = 3482KW ‘The temperature of the S07 solution leaving the heat exchanger at point 2 js 52°C, and the solution at that condition has an entalpy of -120 IU/kg, 2s indicated by Fig. 17-8, The rate of heat absorbed by the solution passing from the absorber tothe generator dy is v4 (hy = hy) = 0.6[-120 - 168)] = 28.8 KW axJFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Since this same rate of heat trnafer must be supplied by the solution that flows from the generator to the absorber, 338 RE tye" IBBEW= Why hy) = 045252) ands0 hy=-116 Ik Fro x8 sows tat he 66 sloon wah ane of UIT sf 64°C. The rates of heat transfer in the gererator and absorber caf temperature o now be computed ag = Wslts + walts— wala 9 448(2576.0) + 0.452(-52) -0.6(-120) = 444.5 KW and ce wghy + wag yy 10 148(2520) + 0:452(-116) ~ 0.6(-168) = 421.3 KW ice of the system that incorporates the heat exchanger 4% “The coefficient of performan “this COP is an improvement over the value of 0.736 apoieable fo the simple sys- tem without a heat exchanger. interest is that ofthe absorption cycle tothe ideal hea sed by Eq. (17-4). Equation (17-4) expects just T,, while in the absorption cycles just ana2ed peratures as the heat- ‘Another comparison o! ‘operated cycle whose COP is expr cre temperature of heat rejection, are sare two, 30 aid 40°C. Choosing the mean of those fo {er rejection temperature gives Soren GS-10 pete ston cots ns shan ba o a enton nts Te comsracn 0 cose is Te ne a ne 17.9 Configuration of commerci reception plants, taking advantage of the fact aige at the same pressure, combines theie comport in one vessel. Similarly, Ore a aporator and absorber operate at the sme ose, these components ace can be installed in the same vest as Fig, 1710 howe In the high-pressure lkewye water vapor fom te generator ifs to the coment, where itis liquefied, ves pe Tow pressure vessel the water vapor release! ‘evaporator flows down vine he abgorber. To enhance the heat-ransfer att the evaporator a circulating Minn speays the evaporating water ov the cvapora\oy tubes to chill the water from the refrigeration frigeration load is & Toad. Note that the chilled water serving the ref ote addenaa eee Treat exchanger Recirolating pump Figue 1710 One arrangement of components in «commercial absorption unt. separate circuit from the water serving as refdgerant in tke absorption unit, Main- thing separate water circuits helps maintain better purity inthe absorption unit and peumits the water serving the refrigeration load to operate at pressures above atmos: Pheri Another feature showa in Fig. 17-1038 that the cooling water from the cooling Tower passes in series through the absorber and condenser, extracting heat in both ‘components. Tn the photograph of the absorption unitin Fig. 17-11 the high- and low-pressure vessels can be distinguished. It is also possible to combine all the components into one vessel with an internal separator between the high- and low-pressure chambers. 17.10 Ceystallization On the two property charts fr LiBr-water solutions (Figs. 17-5 and 17-8) crystallization lines appear in the lower ight section. The region to the right any below those lines indicates a solidification of the LiBr. The process is similar to that of the solidification of an antifreeze (Chap. 15) in that as the LiBr solidifies, it fiutes the liquid solution so that the state of the solution continues to be represented340 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Figue1741 An absorption anit of 1200 EW cooling eapsity (York Dison, Bore Werer Corporation) by the erystalization curve. Dropping into the exystalztion region thus indicates ty. Gormation ofa slush, which ean block the flow in a pipe and interrupt the oper: tion of the absorption unit, Example 1745 In the system shown in Fig. 179, the ambient wet-bulb tempers fore deereases so that the temperature of cooling water drops, which aso reduces the condensing temperature to 34°C. All other temperatures specified on Fig 17.9 remain unchanged. Is there a danger of erystallization? “Solution The erucial component from the standpoint of erystalization i the heat erehanger, shown in Fig. 17-12. The reduction in condensing temperature drops the high-side pressure s0 that the concentration of sclution leaving the generator St point 3 is 6% Ifthe mass flow rate delivered by the solution pump remains constant at 0.6 ke/s, new mass rates of flow apply at points 3 and S wx, _ 0.60(0.50) x, 069 and ws = 0.60 - 0.435 = 0.165 ke/s ws 435 ks[ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 341 rsre@ vw, «0640s @) © Figs 1742 Heat exchange in Ex ‘The enthalpies surrounding the heat exchanger that are known at this stage +h, = hat 30°C and x of 50% = —168 Kl/ke hy = heat 52°C and x of 50% = —120 kI/ke hy = heat 100°C and x of 69% = —S4 kI/kg. ‘An energy balance about the heat exchanger yields veya) 3 54 96666) 120 ki /kg 0435 a gy From Fig, 17-8 the condition of solution at point 4, which is h = -120 ki/kg, {x= 0.69, is found to be crystallized. Some of the solution has thus solidified, and there is danger of blocking the flow and causing refrigeration to cease. Example 1755 illustrates two facts: (1) the position in the system where crystal tization is most likely to occur is where the solution from the generator leaves the hheat exchanger, and (2) an operating condition conducive to crystallization is at low condensing. pressures. Commercial LiBr-water absorption units have controls that void crystallization, one element of them usually being to maintain a condensing pressute artificially high even when low-temperature cooling water is available for the condenser. 17-11 Capacity control The true meaning of capacity control's “capacity reduction,” since operation without capacity control yields maximum refrigeration capacity. ‘The need for capacity control arises when the refrigeration loed drops off, as reflected in a reduction in chilled-water temperature returning to the absorption unit (assuming 4 constantcate flow of chilled water). With no capacity control the temperature of the chilled water leaving the evaporator would decrease, as would the pressure on the low: pressure side of the absorption unit. The low-side pressure cculd reduce to the point where the refrigerant water would freeze.342 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Most control systems on absorption units attempt to regulate a constant temper ture of chilled water leaving the evaporator. At less than full refrigeration loads, then, the refrigerating capacity of the absorption unit must be decreased, Several methods ate available to achieve this reduction, but the net effect of them all isto reduce the flow rate of refrigerant water at positions 5, 6, and 7 in Fig. 17-9. The three methods for reducing the refrigerant-water flow ae: 5 1. Reducing the flow rate delivered by the pump at position 1 2. Reducing the generator temperature 3. Increasing the condensing temperature ‘Method I If the mass rate of flow delivered by the pump in the system of Fig. 17.9 were reduced from 0.6 to 0.4 kgis, the rate of refrigerant flow through the condenser and evaporator would also be reduced by one-third, resulting ina corresponding reduc- tion in refrigerating capacity. This method is efficient since the rate of heat addition at the generator is reduced by the same proportion as the refrigerating capacity. ‘The statement that the mass flow rate of refrigerant changes in the same propor tion as that of the flow rate delivered by the pump is correct provided that the con- centrations of solution remain unchanged. The concentrations remain unchanged only if the operating temperatures in the components also remain fixed, and such is not the usual situation. In the condenser, for example, ifthe supply temperature and flow rate of condenser cooling water remains constant, the reduction in flow rate of refrigerant being condensed causes the condensing temperature to drop. Similarly in the generator if the supply conditions of steam or hot water remain constant, the generator temperature increases. These particular changes in temperatures result in higher LiBr concentrations leaving the generator at point 3, which results in higher COP,yq, but they also are the conditions that could induce crystallization, On some commercial absorption units the adjustment of flow rate is the primary method of ‘capacity control but is combined with method 2 or method 3 when there is danger of cexystalization Method 2 A reduction in the generator temperature will reéuce the refrigerating capacity and can be achieved by throttling the pressure of the steam entering the generator or reducing the flow rate of hot water, depending upon which is the heat source of the generator. Example 17-6 The absorption cycle shown in Fig. 17-9 and analyzed in Example 174s equipped with capacity control to throttle the steam providing heat to the generator and thus reduces the steam pressure and the generator temperature. If the generator temperature is reduced to 95°C while al other temperatures and the flow rate through the pump noted in Fig. 17-9 remain constant, determine the new refrigerating capacity, the rate of heat addition at the generator, and COP. ‘Solution The reduction in generator temperature reduces x; from 66.4 to 65% and hs, which i the enthalpy of solution at point 3, from -$2 to -59 kJ/kg.ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 343 “The revised mass flow rates are and = Ww, = 0.6 - 0.462 = 0.138 kals From an energy balance about the generator and evaporator, respectively, gen = Wslts + wah — wally = 0.138(2676) + 0.462(-59) - 0.6(-120) 14.0 kW ‘An evaluation of Example 17-6 shows that the reduction of the generator temper: ature does reduce the refrigeration capacityfrom 348.2 to 324.6 KW. The rate of heat ddition at the generator also drops so that the COP,,, remains essentially unchanged (0.784 versus 0.783). ‘Example 17-6 presents only 2 portion ofthe picture of the behavior during pac- ity control As emphasized in Chap. 14 on vapor-compressionsystem analysis, a change atone component is likely to affect the conditions at other components. With the Ghange in generator temperatuse made in Example 17-6, the flow rate of refrigerant ‘water pasting through the condenser and evaporator drops 0 with a constant flow vite and entering temperature of condenser cooling water the condensing temperature wll drop. Similarly with a constant flow rate and entering temperature of water to be Chilled, the evaporator temperature will increase. The chang's in those two tempera: tures wil affect the high- and low-side pressure, respectively, and thus influence the concentrations leaving the absorber and generator. Memhod 3 A further method for reducing the refrigerating capacity of an absorption lunit is to increase the condensing temperature; this can be done conveniently by in- “reasing the temperature of cooling water supplied to the condenser, which in turn can be achieved by bypassing a fraction of the water around the cooling tower. The effect fon the cycle performance of increasing the condensing temperature isthe same as that Of decreasing the generator tempeiature, namely, reducing the LiBr concentration of Solution retuming from the generator to the absorber as shown in the skeleton px diagram in Fig 17-13. If point A is the original operating condition, an increase in Condensing temperature and pressure moves the condition of the solution along # Tine sf constant generator temperature to point B, so that the LiBr concentration drops Fora given rate of flow of folution handled by the pump, the flow rate of refrigerant circulating to the condenser and evaporator decreases.344, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING a Condensing presure a Lil concentration x, % By mast Figure 1713 Reducing the refigerating capacity by increasing the condensing temperature and reducing the concentration of LiBr leaving the generator, 17-12 Double-effect system A LiBr absorption unit with improved efficiency is the dovble-ffect system shown schematically in Fig. 17-14. The major distinguishing feature of the double-ffect system is that it incorporates a second generator, generator Il, which uses the condensing water vapor from generator I to provide its supply of, heat. There are three different levels of pressure in each of the vessels shown in Fig 17-14, and medium-pressure steam (of the order of 1000 kPa) is supplied to genera: tor I instead of the low-pressure steam (approximately 120 kPa) supplied to the gen- ‘erator in a single-stage unit. The LiBr solution from generator I passes through a heat exchanger, where it transfers heat to weak LiBr solution on the way to generator I ‘The solution that passes on to generator Il is heated there by condensing water vapor that was driven off in generator I The solution next passes tarough a restriction which drops the pressure to that of vessel 2. Following reduction of pressure some of the ‘water in the solution flashes to vapor, whichis liquefied at the condenser. ‘The double-ffect absorption unit operates with higher COPs than the single- stage, as shown in Fig. 17-15, 17-13 Steam-driven combination with vapor compression Some large-capacity water chilling installations use an energy source of high-pressure steam in a system that com bines a vapor-compression and an absorption system, The high-pressure steam, 28 shown in Fig, 17-16, first expands through a turbine, which provides the power for driving the compressor of @ vapor-compression system. The exhaust steam from the turbine passes to the generator of the absorption system. The, water to be chilled passes in series through the evaporators of the two refrigerating plants. This combina tion is the counterpart of the type of power plant where some of the energy of igh pressure steam is used to generate power and the condensation of the steam is used for heating or process purposes,Water Tryotting valve 5] is exchanger ———})_—Strone Lite ‘salution Test exchanger Evapontor Weak LiBrsolution Figure 17.4 Doubleeffect absorption unit Absorber cooling 345.346 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING cor, 09] os on os. os Toe a0 oS 6 7—«BO tO Percent of full load Figure 17415 COPyy, of snelestge and doubeetectsbicmption unt. (The Trane Compan) Example 17-7 A combined absorption and vapor-compression system, as shown in Fig, 17-16, is energized with high-pressure steam that undesgoes the Following Conditions through the steam turbine and absorption unit: Enthalpy, Flow rte, Position Presse, KPa HIRE als Entering tbine 1500 3080 12 ‘Leaving turbine and 100 2615 12 ‘emerng absorption nit Condensate leaving 100 419 12 absorption unit “The COP of the vapor compression unit is 3.6, and the COPap, ofthe absorption. wn is 0.7. What is (a) the (otal refrigerating capacity and (#) the COP of the combined system? Sotaion (a) If heat los from the steam turbine is neglected, the power delivered fo the turbine P equals that extracted from the steam at it flows through the turbine P=(1.2 kg/s) (3080 ~ 2675 ke /kg) = 486 KW2000 CO GOK | ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 347 | ! High-pressure | | ! Compressor} u I 1 1 | | [rconaenar ]] | . i i | | | | warts | I tecntea | I i t F Eevontor | | | J Vaporconpresion ont Tbs wt Figuee 1716 Combined absorption sad vaporcompresion system, “The refrigerating capacity of the vapor-compresson system dye is 750 KW ‘The rate of heat addition to the absorption unit is (1.2 kas) (2675 ~ 419 kifcg) = 2707 KW ‘and the refrigerating capacity of the absorption unit dyn i8 Gana = (2707 KW) (COP = 0.7)= 1895kW ‘The total refrigerating capacity deo is therefore ioe = Mae Mapa = 1750+ 1895 = 3645 KW (B) The COP of the combined system, which is a heat-operated refrigerating unit, i the quotient of qq and the total rate of heat supplied 3645 KW COP gym © See ‘omb ~ | 2(3080 - 419) which isa favorable COP for heat operated unit. 17-14 Aqua-ammonia system This chapter has concentrated so far on absorption systems that use LiBr as the absorbent and water as the rerigerant. Other pairs of ‘ibstances can also function as absorbent and refrigerants, e.g, water as the absorbent and ammonia as the tefrigerant. This combination, called aqusammonia, was used in absorption systems years before the LiBr-water combination became popular. The faqueammonia system, shown schematically in Fig. 17-17, consists of all the com- ponents previously described—generator, absorber, condenser, evaporator, and solu tion heat exchanger -plus a rectifier and analyzer. The need for them is ovcasioned by348. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING INH, vapor + water amie. Genentor T cordenser J? . E Heat it apr station c- soe AZ Ean Lo Figue 17-17 Aquaamimonia absorption system. the fact that the refrigerant vapor released at the generator (the ammonia) conins aoe a por as veell, When this water finds its way to the evaporator it elevates the Teinperatare there. To remove as much water vapor as posible, the vapor driven 97 at the generator fist flows countercurrent t the incoming stuten inthe rectier Nev ihe Belstion passes through the analyzer, a water-cooled heat exchanger condensing soe evaterich Liquid, which drains back to the rectifier. A small amount of water ‘ett esapes the analyzer and mst ultimately be passed as qui fom the evaporator to the absorber. ’ spomparison of the aqua-ammonia and LiBr-water systems follows. The (0 systems have comparable COP, The aguacammonia system s capable of achieve areerrring temperatures below O°C, but the LiBr-water stem is limited cot cer eee to no lower than about 3°C. The aqua-ammonis system has the 3 sae tage of requiring extra components but does have the alvantage of operating © Fressures above atmospheric. The LiBr-wvater system operates at presutes ‘below Pree tic, esltng in unavoidable leakage of at into the system, which must be purged periodically. Special inhibitors must be incorporated in the LiBr-water sem, to retard corrosion. 17.45 Role of the absorption unit in refrigeration practice Absorption systems hive Euperienced many ups and downs, The absorption system was the predeceset of the sresteompession system in the nineteenth century, and acueammonia sysiens Joved wide application in domestic refrigerators and large Inds instalisions the sey a proces industis, The LiBr-water system was commercialized in te came Deeded deniers199999290 20> VRS ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION 349 1940s and 1950s as water chiller for large-building air conditioning, They were ener- sized by steam or hot water generated from natural gas and oilfired boilers. In the 1970s the shift from direct burning of oil and natural gas struck a blow at the appli- cation of absorption units but at the same time opened up other opportunities, such as sing heat derived from solar collectors to energize the absorption unit. Also, because of the rapidly rising cost of energy, low-temperature-level heat (in the 90 to 110°C range) formerly rejected to the atmosphere in chemical and process plants is how often used to operate absorption systems providing refrigeration that is advantageous clsewhere in the plant. The combination of absorption systems with vapor compres- Sion, described in Sec. 17-13, is another application of absorption units that remains attractive. PROBLEMS. 17-1 What is the COP of an ideal heat-operated reftgeration cycle that receives the nerszing heat ftom a solar collector at a temperature of 70°C, performs refrige tion at 15°C, and rejects heat to atmosphere ata temperature of 33°C? Ans. 1.47 172 The LiBr-water absorption eyele shown in Fig. 17-2 operates atthe following temperatures: generator, 105°C; condenser, 38°C; evaporator, 5°C; and absorber, 550°C. The flow rate of solution delivered by the pump is 0 kes, () What are the mass flow rates of solution returning from the generator to the absorber and ofthe refrigerant? Ans. Refrigerant flow rate = 0.093 ke/s (d) What are the rates of heat transfer at each of the components, and the COP? Ant. Refigerating capacity = 220 kW 172 In the absorption eyele shown in Fig. 17-9 the solution temperature leaving the heat exchanger and entering the generator is 48°C. All olter temperatures and the flow rate are as shown in Fig. 17-9, What are, the rates of heat transfer atthe generator and the temperature at point 4? Ans. tg = 70°C 17-4 The solution leaving the heat exchanger and returning to the absorber is at @ temperatute of 60°C. The generator temperature is 95°C. What is the minimum con- lensing. temperature permitted in order to prevent crystlization in the system? an. 37°C 17-5 One of the methods of capacity control described in See. 17-1 isto reduce the flow rate of solution delivered by the pump. The firstorder approximation is thatthe refrigerating capacity will be seduced by the same percen.age as the solution flow fate, Thre are secondary effects also, because ifthe mean temperatures of the heating tedium in the generator, the cooling water inthe absorber and condenser, and the Water being chilled in the evaporator all remain constant, the temperatures in these Components wil change when the heat-ranser rate decrease, () Fil out each block in the Table 17-1 with ether “increases” or “decreases” to indicate qualitative influence of the secondary effect. Ans. Capacity decreases by less than reduction in solution flow rate (@) Use the expression for an ideal heat-operated cycle to evaluate the effects of temperature on the COPyy- Ans. See Fig. 17-15 174 In the doubleffet absorption unit shown in Fig. 17-14, LiBr-water solution leaves generator I with a concentration of 67%, passes to the heat exchanger and then350. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘Table 17-1 Influences of reduction in solution flow rate at pump Solution Zoncentration — | eet ‘Component | Temperature ven * capac, | COP Generator ‘Absorber Condenser Evaporator to generator Il, where its temperature is elevated to 130°C. Next the solution passes henugh the throttling valve, where its pressure is reduced to that in the condenser, aantch is $62 kPa, In the process of the pressure reduetior, some water vapor flashes Mirom this solution. For each kilogram of solution flowing through generator Th, (a) how much mass flashes to vapor, and (8) what isthe concentration of LiBr-solution that drops into the condenser vessel? Ans, (9) 68.4% 17.7 The combined absorption and vaporcompression system shown in Fi. 17-16 is tobe provided with @ capacity control scheme that maintsins a constant temperature to the leaving chilled water as the temperature of the retura water to be chilled varies his control scheme is essentially one of reducing the refgerating capacity. The re frigerant compressor is equipped with inlet vanes (see Clap. 11), the speed of the fubbine-compresior ean be varied 20 long as it remains less than the maximum value of 180 ‘fa, and the control possibisties of the absorption uit are as described in Sec. Tait rhe characteristics of the steam turbine are that both its speed and power nish the pressure of the supply steam decreases or the exhaust pressure increases When constant inlet and exhaust pressures the speed of the turbine increases if the Ihad is reduced, Devige a control scheme and describe the behavior of the entire system as the required refrigerating load decreases. 417-8 The operating cost of an absorption system is to be compared with an elect Auven vaporcompression unit, The cost of natural gas on 2 heating value basis is $4.20 per aigsjoule; when used as fuel in a boiler it has a combustion efficiency of 5S percents An absorption unit using steam from this boiler has 2 COPypg of 0.73. 1F 7) Frorcompression unit is selected, the COP would be 3.4, and the electric-motor Ehncloncy is 85 percent. At what cost of electricity are the operating costs equal? ‘Ans. 8.0 cents /kWh, REFERENCES 1. The Absorption Cooling Proces, Re, Bull. 14, Insitute of Gas Technology, Chicago 1957 A TM ARAE Handbook, Fundamentals Volume,” chap. 1, Amerizan Society of Heating, Refine ating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Adan sting a4 Ad, otlandouch der Kaclctechnik” vol. 7, by W. Nebergall, Springs, Destin, 199 a rank A cip:Thermodynamic Propertirs of Aqueous Solstiors of Lithium Bromide, ASHRAF ‘Trans, vol 85, pt 1, pp. 413-434, 1979.m + BSR REPRE - CHAPTER EIGHTEEN HEAT PUMPS 18-1 Types of heat pumps All refrigeration systems are heat pumps, because they ab sorb heat energy at a low temperature level and discharge ito a high temperature level. The designation hea¢ pump, however, has developed arourd the application of a refrigeration system where the heat rejected at the condenser is used instead of simply being dissipated to the atmosphere. There are certain applications and occasions where the heat pump can simultaneously perform useful cooling and useful heat rejection, and this is clearly an advantageous situation. Heat pumps can be and often are applied ina variety of contexts. Four important classifications this chapter explores are (1) package heat pumps vith a reversible cycle, (2) decentralized heat pumps for air-conditioning moderate- and large-sized buildings, @) heat pumps with a double-bundle condenser, and (4) industial heat pumps. Com- ‘mon threads run through all four categories, but each group also responds to a unique ‘opportunity or need. 18-2 Package type, reversible eycle This classification especially includes residential and small commercial units that are capable of heating a space in cold weather and cooling it in warm weather. The several different sources and sinks from which the heat pump can draw its heat or reject it~, water, earth—will be discussed in Sec. 183. For purposes of explanation air will be intially assumed to be the source. ‘The reversible heat pump operates with the flow diagram shown in Fig, 18-1. Dus- ing heating operation the four-way valve (Fig. 18-2) positions itself so that the high- pressure discharge gat from the compressor flows first to the heat exchanger in the 351352. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Fourway rave Hearne & cout SY tine Outdoor compressor [gy vt Figure 18 Reversible cycle arsource heat pump. conditioned aitstream. In its condensing process the refrigerant rejects heat, warming {he air Liquid refrigerant flows on to the expansion-device section, where the check Mave in the upper line prevents flow through its branch and iatead the liquid refriger wet tows through the expansion device in the lower branch. The cold low-pressure qefrgcrant then extracts heat from the outdoor air while it vaporizes. Refrigerant vt por rotumns tothe four-way valve tobe directed to the suction side of the compressor ‘Ta convert from heating to cooling operation the four-way valve shifts to its op poste portion so that discharge gas from the compressor fist flows to the outdoor Poi, where the refrigerant rejects heat during condensation. After passing through the Figute 182 Fourway reversing valve. (Ranco, Inc) Li aadaany 19 19900900000000900 | | HEAT PUMPS 353, expansion device in the upper branch of Fig, 18-1, the low-pressure low-temperature ‘refrigerant evaporates in the heat exchanger that cools air from the conditioned space. ‘Two branches for the expansion device are needed in Fig 18-1, because a conven tional supetheat-controlled expansion valve would-perform properly with flow only in ‘one direction. It might seem that a capillary tube would work satisfactorily, because its performance is the same regardless of direction of flow, but the pressure difference across the capillary tube is much higher during winter heating operation than during summer cooling. Thus a capillary tube sized for one season is improperly sized for the other, The electric expansion valve can operate with refrigerant flow in either direction. 183 Heat sources and sinks for packagetype reversible heat pumps The principal sources and sinks for heat in residential and commercial heat pumps are ai, water, and earth, Air is most widely used because it permits a manufacturer to design a prod: uct whose capacity and efficiency can be guaranteed for given climatic conditions Water-source heat pumps using water from wells have performance advantages over the airsource heat pumps, because the water temperature is fily uniform throughout the year. Airsource heat pumps are subject to a much wider range of source tempers: tures and experience the penalties of low air-source temperatures when heating capac: ity is most needed (see See. 18-4). In the first wave of interest in heat pumps that ‘occurred in the United States in the 1950s, some earthsource heat pumps were built. ‘They generally had a refrigeration coil buried in the earth. Ths design proved unsatis factory due to the expense of installation, the possiblity of leks developing, and the disruption of a large area of earth. The ground source is under consideration once ‘aguin, particularly in Europe, where heatingonly heat pumps are of most interest!* ‘and antifteeze usually circulates through the ground coil. Another approach isto sink ‘2 100-mong tube 150 mim in diameter into the earth and deliver water to the bottom ‘of the large tube through a small inner tube ‘Another heat source under consideration is a solar collector? in the solarassisted heat pump, one arrangement of which is shown schematically in Fig. 18:3. The source For { Outdoor Conditioned Water ‘race For heating Warm rater for he shied wate oreo Figure 18.3 Solarasssted heat pump.354. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING of heat during heating operation, the water in the storage vessel, is capable of serving fs.a heat source even when its temperature drops to perhaps $°C. The benefit of this Tow water temperature is that the solar collector can operate at a much lower tem- perature, thereby increasing its rate of heat absorption. Alto, the range of ambient Conditions during which heat can be extracted from the collector can be expanded by the solar-asisted heat pump. 18-4 Heating performance of an airsource heat pump The heat pump is more eff cient in converting electric energy to heating than a resistance heater is. Section 10-7 defined the performance factor as a measure of the effectiveness of heating efficiency fof a heat pump. The performance factor is the ratio of hest rejected for heating to the electric energy used to drive the compressor. In resistance heating the performance factor is 1.0 since the power derived from heating is the same as the electric power provided to the heater. In the heat pump, with no extemal losses, the performance factor is Power to compressor motor + power derived from heat source Power to compressor motor ‘The performance factor of heat pump is therefore always greater than 1.0. The requirement that there be ao external losses js an important one, because in practical hheat pumps with the motor and compressor located in an ou:door compartment there can be heat loss to the ambient. These heat losses combined with the influence of low Rate of evaporator heat transfer, KW 30 =10 0 10 20 Evaportingtemperatore, °C Figite 18-4 Evaporator hestranfer aes ofa heat pomp with vring outdoor temperature, THe Condensing temperature it constart at 40°C10.98 1900000000000090050R0 er HEAT PUMPS. 355 evaporator temperatures result in performance facton only dighty above 1.0 at ex tremely low outdoor temperatures. The preceding paragraphs discussed the efficiency of the airsource heat pump, tut another important characteristic is the heating capacity. It decreases as the out. door temperature drops, as can be demonstrated by Figs. 18-4 and 18-5, The tech. niques explained in Secs. 14-6 and 14-7 apply. The series of balance points between the compressor and evaporator is shown in Fig. 18-4, The condenser rejects heat to the return air from the conditioned space, whose temperature remains essentially ‘constant, 0 that a constant condensing temperature of 40°C is assumed. AS the out- doorair temperature drops, the rate of evaporator heat transfer also drops, The heat- ing capacity is the sum of the evaporator heat-transfer rate and the power delivered to the compressor. Figure 18-5 shows the evaporator capacity, compressor power, and heating capacity as a function of outdoor temperature, Values of evaporator heat transfer rate in Fig. 18-5 are found by transferring data from Fig. 18-4. The com- pressor power is controlled by the evaporating and condensing temperatures, and the heating capacity is the sum of the evaporator and compressor energy flow rates. The important characteristic to devive from Fig. 18-5 is that the heating capacity drops offas the outdoorair temperature decreases 4 T T T n 20h Eneray flow rate, kW a0 0 Outdoors temperate Figure 18.5 Heating capacity, evaporator heatranser rate and compresor power ofan arsource heat pump aa fonction of outdooraietemperatare,356 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 185 Comparative heating costs The heat pump strives to supply heat ata lower cost than could be obtained by burning fossil fuel, uch as gas oro. The comparative costs df electricity and fuel decide which method will be the most economical in operation. Example 18-1 A naturalgas furnace operates with an efficiency of 75 percent, and the cost of gas is 3.80 per gigajoule. What is the maximum allowable cost of tlectricty if the heat pump whose characteristics are shown in Fig. 18-5 is to have Sin operating cost equal to that of the furnace? The average outdoor temperature is °C. The motor which drives the compressor has an efficiency of 80 percent, land the motor which drives the outdoor-air fan uses 25 kWh per gigajoule of heat- ing capacity at the 5°C outdoor temperature. Solution $3.80/GI = $5.07/63, Cost of heating by gx 075 ‘At an outdoor temperature of 53°C the performance factor ofthe heat pump in Fig, 18 is 15.5/3.3 = 4.70. “The electric energy to the compressor motor for 1 GJ of heat is 1095 — 13 ___ o n66,0c0 18 oGmotor fe. 0.80) 296,900 and 266,000 3.9 kWh 36005 For equl costs the eestrcty ate would be 507/63 SOTO. soos 73.9 uWHIGI ‘An electric rate lower than 6,86 cents per kilowatthour makes heating by heat pump more attractive than heating by gas. 186 Matching heating capacity to the heating load The heating capacity of an air Gurce heat pump depends upon the outdoor temperature, a demonstrated in Fig 18.5 The heating load also depends upon the outdoors temperature, which for 8 Texidence is approximately proportional to the indoor-outdvor temperature difference When the heating capacity and heating load are shown on the same graph, 2s in Fig The their intersection isthe balance point, which in Fig. 18-6 occurs ata temperature Soa". At outdoor temperatures higher than ~4°C the heat pump has greater capac: Wy than needed and cycles on and off as necesary to match the load. At outdoor Raperatures below the balance point the capacity of che heat pump is less than weed and the temperature ofthe building would fall unless some additional heating ity were provided. A typical method of providing the supplementary heating capacity Is by Using resistance heaters. If 4 KW of capacky in the form of resistance Fee lable, the additonal capacity wil shift the new balance point in Fig, 18-6 to-85°C.REARE RAY HEAT PUMPS 357 ‘Aditionat capacly Energy ow ate, kW = a10 ° 10 20 Outdoorair temperature, °C Figure 18-6 Balance points of heating capacity and heating loa If resistance heaters are used to provide supplementary heat, the performance fac: tor can be only 1.0, and one of the basic purposes ofthe heat pump isto use electric ity to provide heat with a performance factor greater than 1.0. Figure 18-5 shows that the electric motor driving the compressor is not heavily loaded at low outdoor tem- peratures, which is the time that most heating capacity is needed. Designers continue to explore techniques of utilizing the available motor capacity by such means as bring- {ng an additional cylinder into service or increasing the motor and compressor speed at these low outdoor temperatures. 18-7 Sizing the heat pump Ideally the capacity of the packageype reversible heat pump should match the cooling load of the structure during hot weather and the heating load during cold weather. There will be locations where the combination of climate and thermal characteristics of the structure permit this fortunate combination, Dut in general this is not the case. In climates warmer than where the summer-winter ‘match is perfect the heat pump is usually sized to match the cooling load, and there is simply excess heating capacity in winter, In colder climates the heat pump is often chosen so that its heating capacity is short of the heating demand, and the deficiency is provided by supplementary electric resistance heaters. The logic of this strategy is that the investment cost per kilowatt of heating capacity is much less in the form of resistance heaters than in the form of heat pump, so that for a few hours of the year4358 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING penalty in operating cost wil be accepted A further raion ot supplementing with a penalty tr that atthe outdoor temperatures at which they ae sed he ot resistane® factor ofthe beat pump is aso low (peihaps about 1.5 to 2.0), 50 there is ce preat ference inthe cost of heating by the two ethods- 188 Decentmlzed heat pump A feature of the decentalzedeat-pump stant 188 Dees echematicaly in Fig, 18-7, that it can pump heat from zone of Ie ht equ cooing 0 other zones that requie eating, The Het pune building Ur re water toaie Units, each serving its ow zone. A watt 19P Ss this concept ps, which automatically switch between heating and cooling 5 ne°0e! thee at the desired space temperature If most of the hea PUMPS ate he So xo isthe temperate of the Toop water ies. and when fg eae sp 32°C ing mode te Taverts water flow tothe heat ejector. This heat ejector dsshares three way valmoaphere through the use ofan aircoold finned color an evaporative ato ee hap 19). most of the heat pumps ae in the Heating mode, fx Hs cooker ee sends the water staiht though and if fg dns tC and eave Tt pens tothe fueled oF electric seater to make up the Heating deficiency of the system. ccs or potor and supplementary heater are necessary components of 3 decothes net pump systems, but the storage tankand solar cliecon 4 OpH secre effective on days when net hat isrejeted from de Dubai The om (pecase of slr Lad igs, was outdor temperatures, Ac), i a eat deficiency at night. The water in he storage tank resin emery Foekted coreectic Figure 18-7 A decentralized heat pumpHEAT PUMPS 359 igure 183 Cutaway of toom console decentralized heat pump. (Amrican A Filter Coy Ie.) ture during the day and provides a source of heat for nighttime operation. The in corporation of the solar collector converts the system into a solar-ssisted heat pump, as frst shown in Fig. 18-3. “The heat-pump units are available in shapes adaptable to ceiling spaces, small ‘equipment rooms, of as room consoles. A cutaway of a room console is shown in Fig. 188. Some console models have provisions for supplying outdoor ventilation air “obtained through openings in the wall 18-9 Double-bundle condenser During cold weather large buildings may require heat at the perimeter zones although the interior zones are unaffectzd by the outdoor con ditions and always require cooling. One type of internal-source heat pump that pumps hheat from the interior zones to the perimeter zones is the heat pump with # double bundle condenser. One arrangement of this system is shown in Fig. 189, where a cooling tower cools water for one of the bundles and the water for the heating coils inthe perimeter zones flows through the other bundle. “The strategy of operation is that the compressor (usually of the centrifugal type in these systems) have its capacity cegulated to maintain ¢, at a constant value, say, 6°C. The controller of the hot-water-supply temperature modulates valve V1 to divert more water to the cooling tower if f rises too high. As ¢, begins to drop, VI first closes off the water flow to the cooling tower. Upon a continued drop in ¢ electric heaters in the hot-water line are brought into service “The cooling col serves an air system (variable volume, for example) which may supply both the interior and perimeter zones. The supply.air temperature £3 could be hheld constant at 13°C by modulating valve V2. The net result of the operation is that heat removed ftom the air being cooled is supplied to heating needs. When excess heat is available, itis rejected through the cooling tower. A deficiency of heat for the heating coils is compensated for through the use of electric heaters. ‘At low outdoor temperatures it may be advantageous to regulate the mix temperaasneeg —_s00pi pom TabTO rrr EAT PUMPS 361 ture tg to a higher value than desired for £5. If there isa shortage of heat at the con- denser that would cause the electric heaters to be activated, it would be preferable to elevate fg to limit the rate of heat rejected in the exhaust air. Example 18-2. At one particular moment the demand o the heating cols in Fig. 18.9 is 250 kW when the flow rate of supply air to the interior zones is 36 kg/s with a supply temperature £3 = 13°C. If the COP of the refrigeration unit is 3.2, ‘what should the mixed-air temperature f4 be, assuming only sensible cooling in the coil, if the system must provide the heating demand without using supple- mentary electric heat? Solution Because the refrigeration unit has a COP of 3.2, the rate of heat transfer at the evaporator must be (250 kW) 3.2) 43.2) = 190.5 KW ‘This energy flow rate must be derived from the air being cooled, 190.5 © (1.0 kl/kg + K) (36 kgls) (fg ~13°C) 13453" 183°C 4 18-10 Industrial heat pumps The foregoing applications of heat pumps have been directed toward heating and cooling of buildings. There are certain attractive indus tsial applications of the heat pump also. One example isa fruit;juice concentrator,* shown schematically in Fig. 18-10. The juice, which must be concentrated at low ua ‘Vacuum pump ——— toremoveairand roncondensbies Juice twa water vaporizer Water condenser mann + BLM} 6) ] J consttate LC) connate 1 Refrigerant oes = Water heat exchanger Figure 18-10 Heat pump for concentrating fait ue362. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING [> teh vapor Condenser Refrigerant Feed | istitation ower Power Reboiler L > Heavy tiguias Figure 18:11 Heat pump serving a distilation tower. temperature in order to preserve the flavor, enters the water vaporizer, which operate at subatmospheric pressure, The heat for the vaporization is provided by the conden sation of refrigerant. The water vapor flows to the water condenser, which is the re ffigerant evaporator. A pump elevates the pressure of the condensate so that the Condensate can be rejected at atmospheric pressure In the refrigerant circuit a water. cooled heat exchanger removes the heat of compression, because the rate of heat ‘transfer in the water vaporizer must equal that of the water condenser ‘Another example of an industrial heat pump is one that pumps heat from the condenser to the reboiler of a distillation column.’ The condenser must be cooled at 8 low temperature, and the reboiler must be provided heat at a high temperature. Both these requirements can be met with the heat pump shown in Fig, 18-11. Com pared with the conventional distillation tower, which rejects the condenser heat to the atmosphere and requires heat derived from’a combustion process at the reboiler, the heat pump requires energy in the form of power to drive the compressor, 18:11 The future of the heat pump The heat pumps described in this chapter use compressors driven by electric motors, with the possible exception of the one in Fig. 18-11, which in a refinery or petrochemical plant could be driven by a steam or ga turbine, Natural gas may be used as the source of motive energy by using the gus to ower an internal combustion engine® driving the compressor of the heat pump. The engine-driven heat pump has some advantages in heating applications because the as— sembly can recover heat from the exhaust gas and from the engine cooling fluid as well as heat from a source such as air or water. Another concept in non-electrc-driven heat Pumps is the absorption heat pump,’ where both the generator heat and the heatTOUT ITU C UCU EO HEAT PUMPS 363 absorbed at the evaporator from some external source can b: supplied to a heating need. While fuel-powered heat pumps will probably grow in importance, the main source of energy to drive heat pumps will be electricity, and thus the future of the heat pump is to a considerable extent linked to the fortunes of electricity serving as a source of heating energy. PROBLEMS 18-1 An airsource heat pump uses a compressor with the performance characteristics shown in Fig, 18-4, The evaporator has an airside area of 80 m? and a U valve of 25 Wim? * K. The airflow rate through the evaporator is 2 kel, and the condensing temperature is 40°C, Using the heatrejection ratios of a hermetic compressor from Fig. 12-12, determine the heating capacity of the heat pump when the outdoor-air temperature is 0°C. Ans. 12.8 kW 182 The heat pump and structure whose characteristics are shown in Fig. 18-6 are in a region where the design outdoor temperature is -15°C. The compressor of the hheat pump uses two cylinders to carry the base load and brings @ third into service when needed. The third cylinder has a capacity equal to either ofthe other cylinders How much supplementary resistance heat must be avaiable at a3 outdoor temperature of -15°C7 Ans 5.8 kW 183 The airsource heat pump referred to in Figs. 18-4 and 18-5 operates 2500 h during the heating season, in which the average outdoor temperature is 5°C. The elficiency of the compressor motor is 80 percent, the motor for the outdoor air fan draws 0.7 kW, and the cost of electricity is 6 cents per kilowatthour. What is the heating cost for the season? Ans. $724 18-4 A decentralized heat pump serves a building whose airdistribution system is divided into one interior and one perimeter zone, The system uses a heat ejector, water heater, and storage tank (with a water capacity of 60 m3) but no solar col leetor. The heat rejector comes into service when the temperature of the retumdoop water reaches 32°C, and the boiler supplies supplementary heat when the return oop water temperature drops to 15°C. Neither component o2erates when the loop water temperature is between 15 and 32°C, The heating and cooling loads of the dif- ferent zones for two periods of a certain day are shown in Tabl: 18-1. The loop water ‘temperature is 15°C at the start of the day (7 Am.), The decentralized heat pumps operate with a COP of 3.0. Determine the magnitude of (a) the total heat rejection at the heat rejector from 7 AM. to 6 Pat and (b) the supplementary heat provided from 6 PM, 107 AM. Ams, (2) 11.6 GI; (6) 3.84 GI ‘Table 18-1 Heating and cooling loads in Prob. 18-4 Interior zone Perimeter 2006 Heating, AW Cooling, KW Heat, W Cooling, KW TAM. 10 6 P.M, 260 0 GPa to7 AM 5 50 30364. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 185 The intemalsource heat pump using the double-bundle heat pump shown, in Fig. 18-9 is to satisfy a heating load of 335 kW when the outdoor temperature is -52C, ” TRE return ais temperature is 21°C, and the temperature of the cool supply air is 13°C. © ‘The minimum percentage of outdoor air specified for ventilation is 15 percent, and the ow rate of cool supply air is 40 ke/s. If the COP of the heat pump at this condi how much power must be provided by the supplementary heaters? Ans, tion is 3.2, 120 KW REFERENCES 1. £. G, Gramyd: Ground Source Hest Pump Systems in 1 Northern Climate, 15th Int. Cone. Refrig, Ventce, 1979, pap-E1-82. 1 wep toseroen: The Ground a8 8 Heat Source for Heat Pumps-Performance and Reactions Useh In, Congr. Refi, Venice, 1979, pap. E1-27. . 3 ain antum on Solar-Avsted Heat Pumps, ASHRAE Tran. vol. 5, pt. 1, pp. 344-392, 1979. Fe Qoncantrats, “ASHRAE Handbook and Procuct Director, Applications Volume,” cree ae american Society of Heating, Refegerating, nc AirConditoning Engineers, Alas, Ga, 1978. 45, WC. Potirson and A, Wells: Energy-Saving Schemes in Distilation, Cem. Eng, vol. 84, ‘na 20, pp. 78-86, Sept. 26,1977 «6, Fst and 3, Paul (eds): ""Antrebe fuer Waermepumen,” Valkan-Verag, Essen, 1976, Cee ar Somrano, R- Camporese, and E, Grlazao: Absorption Heat Pumps as Heating ‘Systems, 15th Int. Cong. Refte, Venice, 1978, pap. E14.—_— ~ (CHAPTER NINETEEN ee COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS 19-1 Heat rejection to atmosphere Most refrigeration systems reject heat to the atmosphere. While there are applications where the rejected heat from the cycle is used for another purpose, asin certain heat pumps discussed in Chap. 18, and other applica: tions where heat is rejected to a nearby body of water, mast refrigeration systems reject heat to ambient ir. One type of equipment for performing this heat exchange is the air-cooled condenser, discussed in Chap. 12, but another concept isto reject heat to ambient aie through direct contact with water, in which a combined heat- and rmasstranafer process takes place. The condensing temperature can usually be kept Tower with one of the evaporative devices than with an air-coled condenser because the condensing temperature in an ideal cooling tower or evaporative condenser ap- proaches the wet-bulb temperature of the air in contrast to approaching the dry-bulb temperature of the alr in an air-cooled condenser. Physical reasons also sometimes favor the choice of an evaporative condenser or a water-cooled condenser and cooling tower. “This chapter picks up principles of combined heat and mass transfer and the con- cept of enthalpy potential from Chap. 3 and uses them to explain the performance characteristics of the counterflow and crossflow cooling tewers. The text also de- scribes the construction of evaporative condensers and coolers and points out reasons for their use. 19.2 Cooling towers A cooling tower cools water by contacting it with air and ‘evaporating some of the water. In most cooling towers serving refrigeration and ai ‘conditioning systems one or more propeller or centrifugal ‘ans move air vertically 365366. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Figure 194A coolingtower instalation, (The Mariey Cooling Tower Compan) up or horizontally through the tower. A large surface area of water is provided by Spraying the water through nozzles or splashing the water down the tower from one tattle to another, These baffles or fill materials have traditionally been wood but may also be made of plastic or ceramic materials. A cooling-tower configuration some times used for large-capacity powerplant applications is the hyperbolic shape, which esembles a chimney 50 to 100 m high in which the flow of air takes place by natural Convection, Pigure 19-1 shows a cooling tower where at is drawn in from the opposite fowo sider and is rejected out the top. Water enters the top through the rectangular bones which distribute the water uniformly over the fill sections directly beneath the distributors. Performance of cooling towers is often expressed in terms of range and approach. ‘As shown in Fig. 19-2, the range is the reduction in temperature of the water through the cooling tower; the approach isthe difference between the wet-bulb temperature of the entering air and temperature of the leaving water. ‘nthe cooling tower a transfer takes place from the water to the unsaturated air ‘There are two driving forces for the transfer: the difference in dry-bulb temperatures and the difference in vapor pressures between the water surface and the air. These to Giving forces combine to form the enthalpy potential, as explained in Secs. 3S, 3-14, and 3415.COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS 367 ree Range Water out : ‘Apptoach — Wet butt of entering sit Figure 192. Range and approach in a cooling 193 Analysis of @ counterflow cooling tower One design of cooling tower is the ‘counterflow type, in which air passes upward through a faling spray of water. Figure 19.3 shows @ differential volume of a counterflow cooling tower with L kg/s of water centering from the top and G kg/s of air entering from the bottom. For simplicity, the Small quantity of water which evaporates is neplected, so that both L and G remain constant throughout the tower. Water enters the section at a temperature £°C and leaves ata slightly lower tem perature # ~ di. Air enters the section with an enthalpy of a, KF per kilogram of dry ir and leaves with an enthalpy of h + dig. The total area Of the wetted surface dA includes the surface area of the drops of water as well as the wetted slats or other fill material. “The rate of heat removed from the water dq is equal to the rate gained by the air: dq=Gdh,=L(4.19 Ki] kg* K)dt kW asa) Las of water pro 44a ‘volume Figure 193. Exchange of energy in afer Ghee ‘ential vohime of # counteriow cooling ofaie tower.368 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING From the principles of enthalpy potential in Sec. 3-15 another expression for da is naa aq" 4, 192) 3299990 ‘onvection coefficient, kW/m? + K thalpy of saturated air at the water temperature, KJ/(ke dry ait) Ay ‘hg =enthalpy of ai, KS/(kg dry at) specific heat of moist ar, ki/kg * K 19-4 Stepwise integration To find the rate of heat transfered by the entre cooling tower Eq, (19-2) must be integrated. Both fi and h, vary with respect tothe variable Stintepration A. Combining Eqs. (19-1) and (19-2), rearranging, and integrating gives suse J hi wife gale four nha ‘pm Spm ss entering and leaving the tower, re- 093) where fig and foyy are the water temperatures spectively A graphic vis Fig, 19-4, Water enters the tower at fin sualization of the temperatures and enthalpies can be developed as in and leaves at fay and the enthalpies of satu- + 130 40 130) 120] no! 100 90 Enthsipy, Wik %0 0 oo! so Ey 2s 30 35 ro Water temperature, °C 5 Figure 19-4 Fnihalpy-emperatue diagram of at and wate.2909090900000 001 Lae ‘COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS. 369) tated air at these temperatures are hg ado, spective. Designate the enthalpy tenerng a ashy pad that ofthe leaving 8 yoy ‘The saturation fine in Fig, 194 represents the water temperature and enthalpy of the saturated air at this water temperature, Only the enthalpy coordinate applies the siropeating ine, however. The slope of the air-operatig line i 4.19 £/G, which an be shown fom Eq, (191) One traditional method" of rrfonsing the integration of iq (193) ia numerical process iadizated by aA “pm where (hy =m is the arithmetiomean enthalpy difference for an increment of olume, The prosedure wil be lustated in Example 19-1 1 19t Ar ite (as) Example 19-1 A counterflow cooling tower operates with a water flow rate of 18.8 kg/s and an airflow rate of 15.6 kg/s, When the wet-bulb temperature of centering air is 25°C and the entering water temperature is 34°C, the leaving water temperature is 29°C, Caleulate 4A cpm f0r this cooling tower. ‘Solution The cooling tower will be imagined to be divided into 10 sections, as shown in Fig, 19-5, the water temperature dropping 0.5 K in each section. ‘As the water’ drops through the bottom section, for example, ¢ decreases Figute 19-5 Divison of tower into increments of volume for Exampls 19310. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING fiom 295 to 290°C. The wet-bulb temperature ofthe entering sit net, ly ihe enthalpy of the ai, If the air were saturated, its enthalpy ay iG Kifkg (from Table A-2), but if ts relative humic wor Of te nt of 50 percent, the enthalpy would be approximately 76-1 dg (from the faychrometric chart of Fig. 3-1). Te latter vale wil ‘be used in the calculations. “The energy balance at the bottom section gives 53 KK L faa heo 7 GEIS K air leaving the bottom secticn Hg, is 76.1 * 25 {halpy in this section is 77.36 Keg. temperature of 29.25°C in the bottom section, and the pthtpy of saturated air at ts temperature = 96.13 kk, The value aris hin this bottom seston i 96.13 -7736 = 1877 te Mem to the second section from the bottom, a similar prvessre fone fad ys THe enthalpy of ar entering the sore ston & foam tne enthalpy of ai laving the firs setion, 78.69 Kk, Calulons {he sare the summation of 1/(tj~ hy) ae shown in Table 19-1 ri luc of he [Cp can now be calculated from Eq, (19-4) a6 ‘The enthalpy of the 78.63 kifkg, and the average ent ‘The water has an average nA fom 18,8 kg/s) (4.19) (05 K) (0.5097) = 20.08 KW/(Kd/kg of enthalpy difference) “The value of Ay 888 fancton ofthe dynamics of the asow BCT and drop dynamics in the cooling tower? but the magnitude STS essentially constant Heo? “een cooling tower provided that the allow rate and wae flow rate remain for a Betigce they contol fh, and the heatransfr area, The valve of hcp ‘Table 19-1 Stepwise integration for solving Example 19-1 1 Mean water Miharu, Averaschy, Ava section °C ik Bite” Oa o 2925 735 gers 1877005328 12 2918 1388 inal 0.05316 2 3025 faa i390 0.05291, 4 3075 2495 1903 ~ 005249 45 3125 e743 1926005192 56 3175 soot i933 0.05120 a 228 5254 137 005038 78 m5 9507 2028 0.04931 2 3325 9780 207690887 $10 bars (1003 tis f.t695 05097 ee wn ccetese unt wwe tiered . svmmaenamnaial, IGG‘COOLING TOWERS AND EVAPORATIVE CONDENSERS. 371 Table 19-2 Computer calculation of Example 19-1 Water Meanwater Mean air 1} temp, temp. enthalpy, Meany, *C c ike Kk” yA Pan 290-291 2905 1635 «9808187000348 291292 BAS 7686 «98561870034 “bas 1 gicaie ass aga ios gassaa’ 13898 t0L.o9 a297 21.67” 25450 thus characterizes the cooling tower and the bass for predting ts pefommance at oer net water temperatures and other net wetbulb tempentues. ‘the calculation shown in Example 19-1 conveniently tends itself to computer solution through the application of an equation relating the enthalpy of saturated ai to the water temperature y= 4.7926 + 2.568 - 0.029834" + 000166570 ass) “The equation represents the data with an error of approximately 0.1 percent between I and 40°C. Excerpts of the computer calculation of Example 19-1 using a tem- perature increment of 0.1 K are shown in Table 19-2, Applying Eq. (19-4) we get A sassian 419018) 0585)-2008 wc ae ihn inn x a Settle se tempt of te mo et tae pty nr oft pe Oo tata tases Res cnton we a ee fe aba trl rbd Se te acter atone sna of eran en ete hhh iv oe ee 195 Acceptance tests A manufacturer ofa cooling tower may guarantee the tower 10 cool 4 specified flow rate of water from, say, 35 to 30°C when the wet-bulb tempera- ture of entering air is 25°C. Quite likely when an acceptance testis run, the wet-bulb temperature of the air will not be 25°C and the water entering the tower will not be 35°C. The acceptance test is tun, however, at the specified mates of water and airflow372 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING and with whatever water and air temperatures exist. The value of hcA/ipm i ea ulated asin Example 19-1, and it should equal the vake of hAlépm Which can be Cateulated from the performance data supplied by the manufactorer at the rated conditions 196 Predicting outlet conditions from a tower When the value of ip /Epm is known and the entering air and water flow rates and conditions are known, it should be possible to predict the outlet water temperature. The procedure for making this pre Giction in a counterflow tower is not straightforward tut requires iterative calcula tions, Since the temperature of the leaving water is initially unknown, a temperature can be assumed and the trial value of ted ep, can be calculated as in Example 19-1 If the resulting h-A pm is too high, the leaving water temperature should be raised for a new calculation. 19-7 State points of air through a cooling tower The stepwise integration as in Example 1941 gives some information about the state of air as it passes through a counterflow cooling tower, The enthalpy of the air at the boundaries of each section tre determined in the calculation and the state points of the air will lie somewhere on the lines of constant enthalpy, as shown in Fig. 19-6, The values of enthalpy are Jig.g = 76.10, 18.63, hi, 4 = 81.06 kJ/kg, etc. In order to specify the conditions of the air completely, some other property in addition :o the enthalpy must be cal- culated. A convenient property to determine is the temperature of the air. In order to caleulate the dry-bulb temperature of the air f, through the tower, the incoming temperature must be known. 'A balance of the rate of sensible-heat transfer in any section of the cooling tower permits calculations of the outlet temperature of the air when the inlet temperature is Known. For an arbitrary section n tom + 1 the sensble-hext balance is Gpllan~ where 2 is the heat-transfer area in the tom + I section, Tato, keke te = ma ‘gore 20-7 Schematic diagram of solar heating system,SOLAR ENERGY 387 Gasket veal Gazing Collector Absorber nousing ite Insulation Ei Figure 20-8 Cross section fa typical Matplatecoleetor tracking collectors are controlled to follow the sun throughout the day. Such systems are rather complicated and generally only used for special high-temperature applica- tions, Fixed collectors are much simpler. Although their position or orientation may be adjusted on a seasonal basis, they remain “fixed” over a day's time. Fixed collectors are less efficient than tracking collectors; nevertheless they are generally preferred as they are less costly to buy and maintain. ‘Collectors may also be classified as flat-plate or conczntrating. Concentrating col- teotors use mirrored surfaces or lenses to focus the colle-ted solar eneray on smaller ‘reas to obtain higher working temperatures. Flat-plate collectors may be used for ‘water heating and most space-heating applications. High-performance flat-plate or con- Centrting collectors are generally required for cooling applications since higher tem- peratures are needed to drive absorption-ype cooling units. ‘The flat-plate collector consists of an absorber plate cover glass, insulation, and housing (Fig. 208). The absorber plate is usually made of copper and coated to in- crease the absorption of solar radiation, The cover glass (or glasses) are used to reduce Convection and reradiation losses from the absorber. The housing holds the absorber {Gnsulated on the back and edges) and cover plates. The working fluid (water, ethylene plycol, air ete) is circulated in a sexpentine fashion through the absorber plate to tarry the solar energy to its point of use. The temperatare of the working fluid in a ‘at plate collector may range from 30 to 90°C, depending on the type of collector and the application, The collection efficiency of flat-plate collectors varies with design, orientation, time of day, and the temperature of the working fluid. How these factors fafluence the performance of a flat-plate collector can beillustrated by considering the Collector in Fig. 208. The amount of solar irradiation reaching the top of the outside lazing wil depend on the location, orientation, and titof the collector a described in Sees. 202 to 20-4. The amount of useful energy collzcted will also depend on the optical properties (transmissivity and reflectivity), the properties of the absorber plate (Gbsorptivity and emissivity), and losses by conduction, convection, and reradiation.388. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘An energy balance for the absorber plate is ee Alister! where qq = energy rate absorbed by absorber plate, W ‘A = absorber area, m? Jig = total soar iradiation at cover plate (Eq. (20-1)], W/m? $= transmittance of cover plats (glazing), dimensionless a= absorptivity of absorber plate at wavelingth of solar irradiation, dimensionless T= surface temperature, K Ryag= thermal resistance from absorber to second cover plate,m? » K4/W = thermal resistance to convection from absorber plate to second cover plate, m? + K/W Reena thermal resistance to conduction rom absorber plate to. ambient through the insulation, m? + K/W Reon Subscripts y= first cover plate scond cover plate = ambient Equation (20-10) is somewhat unwieldy for frequent us;linearizing the radiation term, as in Sec. 2-16, and consolidating the driving force for all the losses 2s gj ~~. leads to an approximation of Eq. (20-10) as 4 Cie Ferea% ~ Uar~ta)) Fr 0.11) 4 where fy, * temperature of inlet fui to absorber, °C ‘he overall heattransfercoeicient combining effects of ra and conduction losses, Wm? + K F, empirically determined correction factor, dimensionless “The value of Fis of the order of 09 for collectors using liquid. The values of U are also experimentally determined and have the typical range shown in Table 20+, ‘Another important characterization of the collector i ts efficiency n, which is defined as the energy rate transferred to the fTuid divided by the solar iradiation on the cover plate, jon, convection, ath Vp, (20:12) ala ae” Kester Example 203 A 1- by 3m flatplate double glazed collector is available for + solarheating application, The transmittance of each of the two cover plates is (0.87, and the aluminum absorber plate has an a=0.9, Determine the collector efficiency when fig = 800 Wim?, t.,= 10°C, and fg;= 55°C:SOLAR ENERGY 389 ‘Table 20-1 Typical values? of U in Eq. 2011) - Type ofgucing UV, Win? + K ‘Ungazed iss Sine or Double us Solution From Table 20-1 U is chosen as 3.5 W/m? + K; fora value of F, = 0.9, Eq. (20-12) yields ore = (2x80 09)-22%5) ose0. For the purpose of selecting collectors, designers often use a graph of collector efficiencies, as shown in Fig. 20.9. The wends shown in Fig. 209are predictable from Eq. (2012). The efficiency is a function ofthe optical and thermal properties of the cover plate and the absorber and also the term (g; fail As the absorber tem- 1 11991909000000000009p0000 1 F S bos : 2 ry, : ¢ Son Q 2d @ a a Y Km Figure 209 Collector efficiencies of typical Mat plate collectors. A = unglazed, nonselective ab- sober; B= single pas, nonselective absorber; C = double pats, nonselective absorber; D = double las, selective absorber. -ewge390 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING increases, the losses increase and the efficiency drops. Similarly, at low Penbient temperatures the efficiency is low because of high loses. As the solar i sent the cover pate Ij increases, the efficiency increases because the loss from the Sotector (fy 1)U is fry constant for given absorber and ambient temperatures Gnd becomes a smaller fraction a ig increases. Figure 20.9 also shows the effets of the cover plates A collector with no cover plate or with a single cover plate is mor efficient at Jo fa) ~ fay where convective pate ire small A doubleglazed collector is better at higher ff.» where the con- doses Tosses would have been significantly larger than the additional transmission Joss through the second cover plate ‘The absorptivity and emissivity of a surface may vary with the wavelength of the incident radiation, Surface coatings for the absorber plate can be selected in such a ina) that the surface is highly absorbing at the short wavelength of solar radiation 3) but has a low emissivity (e= 0.5) atthe longer wavelengths characteristic re atsce raating at 100 to 200°C. Such surfaces ae refered to a8 sefectve Sujaces, The performance of a singleglazed collector can be upgraded by using « aseese coating for the absorber surface without adding a second cover plate as Shown by the curve for collector D in Fig. 20°. perature fi Example 20-4 A 1- by 3:m doublelazed flatplate collector with a nonselective hsorber uses water as @ coolant. If the coolant flows at 0.0333 kg/s and enters aU SO°C and the solar flux is 800 W/m2, determine (a) the rate of energy collected hd (6 the exit temperatue ofthe water when the abient temperature is 10°C Solution (a) 50-10 2a = 0.05 00 O) w kals (4.19 KS = K) CF, fa) 12 . 0° 50* cosas) SS 20.7 Thennal storage Therma storage isa necessary pat of a solar encsty stem aoe eerrand for slat energy frequently doesnot coincide with its collection. The sn ane ion teaching 2 aurface isnot only variable with the seazon and the time of sat nuctuntes with cod cover, Additionally, demand is also frequent ine to ne eraal storage must therefore provide a buffer between the eallestor nd the heating or cooling equipment. Ferree be stored as sensible heat, which involves only a change ite viium, or as latent hee, whic involves a change in phase of perature of the storage me Tle-heat storage is more common, but there is active research the storage medium. Sensi in improved latent storage materials.>1999990900%00: aE Om ae: SCLAR ENERGY 391 ‘Table 20-2 Specific heats of several common materials Mateil ekifegsK pes Klm® K oe ee Water 419 390 Steel 046 2s0t Pebbles, 20-40 mm 034 Last Retin an "Assumes 70 percent packing density ‘Any thermally and chemically stable solid material with a relatively high specific heat and high density may be used for sensible-heat storage. The high specific heat and high density are necessary to minimize the volume of the storage facility. The heat stored can be expressed as 0, = PVE, =n) (20:13) where Q, = heat stored, KI b= density, kg/m? c= specific heat, ki /kg - K 1, = storage temperatte, °C 1, = minimum useful temperature, °C ‘Table 20-2, giving values of ¢ and pe for some common materials, shows that water has 3 times the thermal storage capacity of the same volume of pebbles, for example. Lateatheat storage utilizes a change in the phase of the storage material. Two solid-iquid phase change processes can be used: the familiar melting and freezing pro- ‘cess and a chemical reaction of the hydration and dehydration of salts. At tempera- tures below the hydration point the anhydrate becomes hydrated and erystalline with the evolution of heat, When the temperature is raised, the crystals dissolve in the water of hydration, absorbing heat. The advantage of latentheat storage is that the heat of fusion is many times larger than the specific heat, which reduces the storage volume. ‘A storage system using paraffin or wax requires only one-fourth the volume of a ther- mally equivalent water storage system. The disadvantage is that the performance of the latent storage materials now available degrades with time and they must be re placed in a few years; they are also considerably more expensive than sensible-heat Storage systems using water or pebbles, Table 2033 lists the meltng points, heats of fusion, and densities of two common latent-heat storage materials, ‘One additional requirement for the use of latentcheat storage materials is the need ‘Table 203 Heat of fusion of latent heat storage materials Melting Heat of fusion point, Heat of fusion, per unit volume, Materia “c sik kal? Wl? CGauter salt 32 240 1100 | 260,000 ‘Amorphous puaffinwax 74 230 650F 130,000 + Aswumes 30 percent of volume required for flow passages392. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING to find one with an appropriate melting point. The temperature at which the phase Change takes place must fit the intended application and the capability of the available SChar collector, Experimental data are available on a wide range of phase-change mate ial considered for thermal storage. Unfortunately, few materials have yet been brought to a stage of practical application. ‘The optimum storage capacity depends on the application. Ifthe storage capacity fs too small, some energy which might have been collecied and used is, in effect, ‘wasted, Collector area is then underused. If, on the other hand, the storage is over- Sized, costs increase and heat loss from the storage may become excessive. ‘Water heating applications have a faiely regular daily demand, and storage of 1 to 114 times the daily demand is typical. Space-heatng requirements are more irepular sand likely to occur durjng periods when ess solar energy i available for collection. For Spaverheatng applications a slighty larger storage capacity canbe justified—perhaps 2 Pa requirement, A guideline often used for a waterstorage system i 0.05 to 0.10 m? Gt storage capacity per square meter of collector area, When a system is designed for toth hesting and cooling, the storage capacity is generally based on heating require: nents, although itis often advisable to provide some chilleé-water storage to minimize cycling ofthe cooling unit. Example 20-5 Select the size of the thermastorage system for a building which her a heating requitement of 150 k3/d, assuming that « 2 storage is needed and that the solar energy system is sized to meet 70 percen: ofthe heating load. Allow £'30°C temperature swing of the storage medium, Determine the volume when tusing (@ water and (2) latentheat storage with Glauber salt. The specific heat of Glauber salt is 2.5 KS/kg * K. Solution (a) Votume = teat stored _ 150,00002) 0.1) pe At 1000(4.19) (30) = 167m? (®) When using Glauber salt heat stored 150,000(2) (0.7) _ Volume = “Theat of fusion +e Af) 1100[240+ 2.5) G0)] 61m? 4204 Integration of solar and building systems Of the te applications fr solar 2 in bulging, water heating as developed most api. Spaceheating applications ine se Trequent, but solacenergy cooling systems are still at 2 stale ae eee ited primarily to research and design development projects The whee the sent high-temperature calletion and for frther improvement in the ree cy of heatoperated cooling uit x presently the limiting factor in the devel ‘opment of cooling applications. rhe 20:10 ahstrates the components and cons reqised fora closedop9 hot.water system. Opendoop systems, which eliminate the heat exchanger in the ae eae miemensnine: ww WoL aaa A AOD 1 ae aed 2jem doop9019 O10 a8 saunas Taran ay rE Hopete5, 0805 : > ee Raa AA BORRD av394, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING storage tank, are also used. Ifthe heat exchanger is present, however & working fluid Sthoe than water may be used on the collector side of the system to eliminate the freeving problem during cold weather. Even though water heating is the simplest of the solar applications, Fig. 20-10 indicates that such systems require thoughtful design. ripe basic arrangements of components for liquid and air solar space-heating sys, tems, shown in Fig. 20-11, allow for four modes of operation: 1. Heating the building directly from the collectors (applicable only to the air system) 2. Heating the storage unit from the collectors 3, Heating the building from the storage unit “4, Heating with the auxiliary heater 2 eee TT 1m the solar collector does not always match the demand, Theater are required. Whea heat has been depleted from ry heater to meet the heating require Because the heat available fr both the storage and auxiliary the storage unit, heat is supplied by the auxilia ae or pudding, The auxiay heater must be size to carry the full heating oad 4 in eae extended bad weather oecus. 4 Meeps] is only a schematic and does ot iusate the fll complenity of % Teeny abe" ‘ Towom } 4 Distion 2 mn i Storage | poxiiay 4 nt weater d conectoe f mo om coms ® z “Tee-nay damper eater, : Towom {ert : ‘elitr Danrbaton 3 ‘iwc : From rooms o Figure 20-11 Solar spceeatng systems (Hild sytem and () ai system.19.9.9 wore KHIR A HAE SCLAR ENERGY 395 solar heating system, At a minimum the auxiliary and control elements illustrated in Fig. 20-10 would be required. - Cooling systems are the most complex of the building applications of solar energy. ‘They usually also incorporate water heating and space heating in the same system. ‘The solar cooling system, such as shown in Fig. 20-12, requires a more sophisticated piping and contol system than space-heating and water-eating applications. The com- ponents ofthe system common to both heating and cooling ae: _ Solar collectors Heat storage tank ‘Availiary heater Duct coll and airsupply ducts 5. Circulating pumps “The additional component required in the cooling mode is a refrigerating unit, an ab- sorption chiller being the only device commercially available at present. The system often uses a cool storage tank. Tn the cooling mode energy from the solar collector provides all or some of the heat required to drive the absorption chiller. The absorption unt produces chilled water, which is circulated through the coils in the alr-supply duct to cool the space. ‘A water cooling tower is used to reject heat from both the absorber and condenser of the absorption unit. During the heating season solarsheated fluid is circulated directly through coils in the airsupply duct to provide heat in this configuration, 20.9 Passive solar design In contrast to active solar collectors and systems, the passive solar concept! uses only elements of the building to admit solar energy for heating find perhaps to store energy for later use. A strictly passive system uses no external ‘energy to. pump ot circulate secondary fluids, although arrangerents that are pre- dominantly passive may use a fan to circulate building ai. “The major objectives in passive solar design are to admit solar energy to the build- ing during the heating season and store it, if possible, for use later ie the day. A further objective isto reduce the energy flow into the building during the zooling season. The ‘imple divections that are usually adequate for achieving favorable passive design are (i) to locate glass on the south side of the building and provide cverhang if feasible, (2) to avoid to the extent possible west- and east-facing glass, anc (3) to provide for thermal storage capacity to receive the direct rays of the sun. ‘South-facing glass is a key aperture for solar energy. Even with no overhang to shield the glass, south-facing glass naturally has some favorable characteristics, The intensity of direct radiation passing into the building fy is Ip Ipy(eos Or (20:14) ‘Table 20-4 shows values of Jy for several times of the day and months of the year Because of the celatively stall angle of incidence @ in the winter relative to summer and the influence of 0 on r and the cosine of @, the magnitudes of transmission in De- ccember ate 5 times that of June, Ina natural way, then, the south-facing glass provides the high transmission when needed.ALL BDD ABALONE ~ nia. 10 se 94696, er “oH saan enor | 396SOLAR ENERGY 397 ‘Table 20-4 Transmission into a building through south-facing double-pane glass at 40° north latitude 5 Month Time of day 2,405 py Win + Ip Win? Dee 10AM. 352 826 076 siz Dee 12000 265 399 on 60. June 10M. 784 7 037 65 Sune 12 noon Bs 867 049 1 ‘Admission of solar energy into the south windows during summer can be reduced further by using overhangs. The practice of constructing overhangs for south win- dows! was encouraged in the late 1940s, passed out of vogue during the decades of Ioweost energy in the 1950s and 1960s, and became important again in the late 1970s, The idea is to place the window and construct the overhang so that a south window is shaded by the overhang from April through August and completely exposed to the sun in December, as shown in Fig. 20-13. Example 2046 Choose the dimensions x and y in Fig. 20-13 so that the south win: dow at a latitude of 40° north is completely shaded at noon from April 21 to ‘sugust 21 and is completely unshaded on December 21, The height of the win- dow is 1.2m. ‘Solution At noon, 40° north latitude, the solar altitudes 3 on April 21 (also AU- Figure 20-13 Use of overhang to contol Solar ietaditin ona south window.398 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘gust 21) and December 21 are, from Eq. (20-3), 615° Apr. telags De. an 26.5° = 0.499 yrs _ytl2 tan 61.5° Solving gives x=0895m and y= 0.447m “After the solar energy has been received in the building the next task is to use it effectively. In certain cases the energy may be needed instantareousy, but in others there may be a greater rate of solar energy flowing into rooms with south windows than can be used at the moment, Capability of thermal storage andor the ability to anster the heat to other sections of the building is useful. Thermal storage occurs aherendly because the sun’s rays first warm the floor and perhaps the walls and fur rishings. The energy stored in these masses flows slowly by convection to the at in the space, More effective but more elaborate thermal storage is possible, still within the framework of passive design, by the using such devices as she Trombe-type wall Shown in Fig. 20-14. An opaque wall is placed inside the window so that the sun's fays fall dcecly om it, Some of the heat that enters the wall conducts to the space, bot much of it is fist absorbed in the wall and slowly passes to room air as the a flows by natural convection upward across the outer surface ofthe wall "Another practice that combines the passive concept with an active thermal system is the application of a decentralized heat pump (See. 18-8). During heating operation the exetss heat flowing into southern exposures is transferted to other sections of the building where heating is needed, absorbing Figure 2044 Trombetype wall 1 fcahance themal storage in « passive solar systemsooo SOLAR ENERGY 399 20:10 Economics of solar installations The acceptance of soar energy for heating and 2irling has been somewhat slow, but ifthe costs of energy from fos fuel continue ‘Goincrease ata rapid rate, the economic prospects of solar enery are likely to improve, ‘Grom the standpuint of cost effectiveness, pasive solar systems are usually consid ered the most attractive, followed by water heating space heating, and finally space cooling. PROBLEMS gost Using Eq, (203), compute the hour of sunrise on the shortest day ofthe year st 40° north latitude. Ans. 7:26 AM. 30-2 Compute the solar azimuth angle at 32° north latitude at 9am. on February 21. Ans See Table 413 sors {@) What isthe ange of incidence of the sun's rays witha south-facing soot that 208 Gh at 45° withthe horizontal at 8 AM. on June 21 at «latityde of 40° north? {Gp iat isthe compas direction of the sun at this time? An.) 64° Sot As an approach to selecting the tlt angle 2 of a solar collestor 2 designer 208 athe sum of [py £08 8 at 10 AM. and 12 noon on Jaruary 21a the criterion crore eo optimize the angle, At 40" north latitude, with values ofA = 1230 Wim? or Osa in Eq, (20-9), what i this optimum tit angle? Ans 61.5° Shes Plot the efficiency ofthe collector described in Example 20-3 versus temperature 20s ra entering the absorber over the range of 30 to 140°C fluid temperatures, The oe Semperature is 10°C. If the collector is being radiated at 750 W/m? deter a erat collection at entering id temperatures of (@) $0°C and (2) 100°C. Jos A 1.25 by 2.5m flatplate collector receives sola imadiation at rate of 990 Wnts It has a single cover plate with = 09, and the absorber as an absowytioty ao. Experimentally determined values ae F, = 02 and > 6-6 Wim? + K. The ceo ad i water, I the ambient temperature is 32°C ard the fluid temperature seetee entering the absorber, what are (a) the collector efficiency, (4) the fluid out: = - 1 ye ® © Figure 20-15 Westwindow orientations Prob. 20-7400 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING let temperature for @ flow rate of 25 kg/h, and (c) the inlet temperature to the ab- sorber at which the output drops to zero? _ 4 30-7 Two architects have different notions of how to orient windows on the west 2a of a building in order to be most effective from a solar standpoint—summer and svicr. The windows are double-glazed. The two designs are shown in Fig. 20-15 Cimneite at 40" north latitude the values of Zp from Eq. (20-14) for June 21 at 2 cred and January 21 at 2 PM. and then evaluate the pros and cons of thetwo orientations. REFERENCES 1. “ASHRAE Handbook and Product Ditectory, Applications Volume," chap. $8, American Sens of Heating, Refrigerating and AicConditioning Engineers, Adanta, Ga. 1978 sect ete, Denncrot and G. C. Vilt:"SolaThermal Enersy Systems; Analysis and“ Design,” MeGrawHil, New York, 1982. x 5, piers) Storage Application, ASHRAE Symp, ASHRAE Trans, vol. 85, pt 1, pp. 480-524, 1979. ee Solar Systems, ASHRAE Symp, ASHRAE Trans, vo. 85,Pt. 1, pp. 443-477, 1979 fea Gsemtation in Home Design, Uni l Small Homes Cour. Ce. C 3.2, Urbana, 148; reisued 1977, 6. Peftambe oi al: "Some Characteristics of the CNRS Solar House Collectors Laboratory, Font Romeu/Odeil, France, 1976. 2 nett and W. A. Beckman: "Solar Engineeting of Thermal Processes,” Wiley, New York, 1980, ancien and J. F Kreider “Principles of Solar Enginecrng,” Hemisphere, Washington, 1978 Beret Sed: “Thermal Environmental Engineering,” Prentice Hall, Englewood Ci, N. 1970, ‘ENRS Solar: (CHAPTER : TWENTY-ONE ACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL r ? } : i 2 11 the study of sound and acoustics The subj of asses is broad enous {0 s 2 Te ay pny branches of the field Engineers and sintts may 4 challenge Se ys doug of concert hal and theater, designing quieter ; aa juin sort oie, ov sch apecized el asunder : eee ton a alesis, One ofthe ost portant and exe sound and ed tes and nb conte slats fo esha sens 2 buildings. Here concern must be focused on ensuring ‘such things as adequate speech t privacy, acceptable sleeping habitats, and little or no annoyance from equipment \ * ps understanding of aout is iportant for dvs of sr condoning 4 oe nt atten aa pray, feneator of sound in 2 bung, NOSE ‘ Fae ona compro fay and pumps nfm ow when si oF i Fe ets aad pe or expecally, on art rosin presuie The { water mores vob et ay lined wih sound and nol ances not only este t aondtonng ote ta beens pps or dct anit noise cn -—LRvidnre aes eine fom one room fo another e i G “This chapter seeks to provide a foundation from which to proceed in deciding how to control sound in a building through proper design or the installation of sound absorbing devices and materials. Following an introduction to the physics of sound waves, this chapter explains the distinction between sound power level and sound Dressure level. A generator of sound emits a certain magnitude of sound power, but {his magnitude normally cannot be measured directly. Irstead, instruments are aval ‘ble to measure the sound pressure level, The sound power level of the generator and the sound pressure level measured some distance from the source are related through 401402 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING the acoustic characteristics of the enclosure. With this understanding of power level and pressure level, the text attempts to provide an appreciation of how sound absorp. tion affects room characteristics and how sound is transmitted and attenuated (re duced) through ducts to provide the background for further study of sound and noise control in buildings 21-2 One-dimensional sound waves A sound wave consists of rapid oscillation of air pressure. A sound generator has a vibrating surface that alterately compresses and Expands the air in contact with it, These alternate compressions and rarefactions move through the air at sonic velocity and reach the receiver (pechaps 2 human eat) still fetaining their alternate compressions and rarefactions. A spesker placed at the end of wiube as in Fig, 21-1, vibrating with a sinusoidal displacement at a frequency f Hz causes a pressure wave to propagate down the tube, which can be represented by oan [or au where p= instantaneous sound pressure amplitude above and below atmospheric, Pa p= maximum amplitude of pressure fluctuation, Pa = frequency, He x= distance, m ‘C= sonic velocity = 344 m/s at standard air conditions ‘At a given time f the distance from a postion x toa point on the next wave where the pressure isthe same as at x requires that 02 far (+2 )] = sm ber] 12) where 0 is the wavelength in meters, For the two sine functions in Eq, (21-2) to be aul, the arguments must differ by 21 or a multiple of 2,50 ar (+2) +2 ar ( 2) 13) > Pe and ‘The order of magnitude of wavelengths in the audible range is therefore between} em at 10 kHz and several meters at low frequencies. p= pp si [2am +) Figure 211 Sound-presure variation in atubeACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL 403 21 Standing waves If a sound reflector is installed inthe tube of Fig. 21-1 as shown in Fig, 21-2 s0 that its distance from the speaker is equal to one wavelength of the tone emitted by the speaker, a standing wave will develop. At position x the pressure Is the algebraic um of the primary pressure wave just coming from the speaker and the deflected wave, The distance the reflected wave has traveled is A+ (Xx); $0 the com bination of the two pressure contributions is p= pose [2er(-+ 2) + npn fore Since the presence of the two X's in the second term only adds 4 to the argument of the sine term and does not change its value, nm (eZ) nm e-Z] By using the properties of the sine ofthe sum and difference of angles, Ea. (21-4) can be revised to pote senate a Renector —, a Figure 21-2 Standing waves.404, REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING ‘The dstibution of pressure expressed by Eq (21) is shown in Fig. 212, When Dvand Nz, the mnagatade ofthe cosine tea is 10 and the presse vies Between soon ond apy. When = NA and 3N/4, the cuie tem zr, inating thatthe presure is eo at al ines, Standing wanes car develop in rooms, patty thoe with highly reflective surface when some pute tones ae present. Sometimes hee standing waves can be used even with the ar by sting the variations in sound intensy in mong ftom one poution to another Sanding waves wil ocut not only when the length of the tube equals the wavelength but also when the length is an integer multiple of the wavelength, wa eee wee le 21-4 Energy in a sound wave The next several sections lay the groundwork for {quantifying the measurement of sound. A wave, as in Fig. 21-3, possesses energy due fo two sources, Energy was required to distort the pressures from the equilibrium + atmospheric pressure and equals the integral of p dV over the wave. Kinetic energy js also present because of the motion of the air and ean be represented by the integral (of (u2/2) (p dV). The sum of these energies for a wave of area A m? results from the integration [Ronse fe onar 3 4° 2cef ‘The energy in a wave is proportional to the square ofthe pressure amplitude Energy in way ‘The result ofthis integration’ is Energy in wave J 16) 21-5 Intensity, power, and pressure Equation (21-6) provides the key for relating sound power and sound pressure through the intensity. This relationship between Sound power and pressure is important because a sound source is characterized by the Pressure Figure 215 Energy ina wave.eee nec eee ns mel [ACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL 405 power it generates, but this power cannot be measured directly. The sound source Puses sound pressure waves in the surrounding alr whose magnitudes can be mea- ‘aed, Furthermore, the extent to which the human ear perceives the sound is directly related to the sound pressure level. "The intensity J is defined as the rate at which sound energy passes a point per unit area, In a sound field, the intensity is the number of joules passing through each {Square meter per second. The intensity thus has units of wats per square meter. One itans of calculating the intensity is to multiply the energy expressed in Eq. (21-6) by the rate at which waves flow pasta point and then divide by the area. Since this rate of wave passage is the frequency 7 2 2 Aral Fo win? en ra ‘Since for @ sine wave the rootsnean square of the Presi Pymy equals Pol V2, an alternate expression for Eq. (21-7) 8 1s) If a source of sound exists within @ room, this source emits a certain acoustic power in watts, At any distance from the source the statement cannot be made that 2 cenain value of power prevails; instead, a certain intensity exists. If, as in Fig. 21-4, Source of power of & W radiates uniformly inal directions, the intensity at distance Strom the source, considering only direct sound radiation from the source and no Teftections, wll be the power divided by the area of the sphere at a radius r E ro ais) Equations (2-7) and (218) late the sound intensity to th amplitde ofthe pressure panuson, whe Eq, (219) telates the intensity to the sound power, atleast for aaceraestation froma nondirectional source. The importance of relating these quan- ea re moing asaments are capable of 231g Pgs Which proportional to intensity. Contersion from an intensity measurement t0 power aso erro daowedge of the avoustc characteristics of the room, discussed later i this chapter Unit area Figure 21-4 Unifonm radiation from sound406 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING 21-6 Sound power level While it would be possible to express the power emitted by a ‘Source directly in watts, the standard form of presentation isthe sound power level (21-10) where PW E= power emitted by source, W Eq = reference level, W ‘The expression log (E/E) has units of bels, and the multiplying factor of 10 con- verts the units into decibels (4B), in which the magnitudes are somewhat more con- venient, The reference level Ey can be chosen arbitrarily and is usually 1 pW. Example 21-1 Calculate the sound power level of a) & whisper that emits a power of I nW and (b) a rocket engine that emits 10 MW, Solution @ © 107 PWL= 10og “ary 19038 21-7 Intensity level and sound pressure level The sound intensity level IL is defined I IL= 10 log— ary to where IL = intensity level, aB Tg = reference intensity level, = 1 pW/m? arbitrarily ‘The intensity level is not used in routine acoustic work, but it will be useful at several points inthis chapter in developing relationships between sound power level and sound pressure level "The sound pressure level is defined as Pa SPL= 10 tog iP @niz, a whete SPL = sound pressure level, @B Peg 2018 “The reference pressure of 20 Pa was chosen because itis approximately the threshold bf hearing. A person, then, with good hearing can detect sounds down to 0 dB. ‘ e ‘ . ‘ACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL, 407 ‘The SPL and IL are approximately equal. When the expesion forthe intensity from Eq, 218) is substituted into the definition forthe intersity level, we have Peale To Using p = 1.18 ke/m3 and c = 344 m/s gives Pa, ° IL = 10 log "5, = SPL *® 5;0000202: iL 0 log 218 Sound spectrum While the knowledge of the overall SPL may be adequate in ome instances, itis often useful and even necessary to know the frequency distribu- tion of the sound, For example, it may be necessary to know whether most of the Sound intensity occurs in the low-, medium-, or high-frequency range. In analyzing machine noises, the information that the principal contributor to the total SPL occurs ft a cettain frequency may be helpful in pinpointing the offending member of the machine, If undesirable sound is being transmitted through an air duct and is to be teduced by placing an absorber in the duet, the absorber should be selected with its most effective absorption in the frequency range of the noise. Since the human ear is hot equally sensitive to all frequencies, 2 high SPL in a fiequency range where the car is insensitive may not be objectionable. “The audible range is from about 20 to 20,000 Hz, and the standard division into ‘octave bands covering most of this range is shown in Table 21-1. An octave band is the range through which the frequency doubles. A standard accessory for sound-level meters is and octave-band analyzer, which filters out all bt the desired octave band fo that the pressure level of the band in question can be determined separately 219 Combination of sound sources Since more than on? source of sound often contributes to the total, some method must be developed for determining the total SPL when the individual SPLs are known, In Fig. 21-5, which shows two sources and 4 receiver, if SPL, is the sound pressure level at the receiver when only source 1 is ‘active and SPL when source 2 alone is active, when they are both active, SPL # SPL, + SPL, ‘Table 21-1 Octave bands ‘Octave bands, He Midfrequency, He 45-90 6 90-180 125 180-358 250 355-710 500 70-1400 1000 1400-2800 2000 4000 8000408 REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING Source Pw 0, vty Figue 21 Combination of two random sound Pu, sly rourees ‘The SPL values in decibels do not add to give the combined SPL. The intensity / W/m? at the receiver, however, is the sum of the intensities contributed by each source. The foregoing statement is true only for random noise, and rot, for example, if sources 1 and 2 are pure tones of the same frequency. In the latter ease the waves may combine to partially reinforce or partially cancel each other. Ifthe sources were of slightly df. ferent frequencies, periodic beats would develop. Using the relation that [= /, +1 and assigning the subscript 1 to the source con: tributing the largest IL atthe receiver gives SPL=1L= 101g yy" 101g pe "io 07 1104 hill, and sPL= 10 ogg) lh) 1, | SPL = 10 log + 101og (14-2 (2113) i h In Eg. (21-13) 1, tog hy" Hy *SPLy e144) ‘The antilog of Eq. (21-11) is = 10 10%!1%) Which applied to, and Fy yields 1, = 10°09) and = 10 Ma0la!10) ens) Substituting Eq. (21-15) into Eq. (21-13) gives SPL=SPL, + 10 log(1 + 10r(L4 ~Ma)/10) (21-16) ‘The combined SPL. is therefore the SPL due to the source contributing the higher SPL. of the two plus a quantity dependent upon the differenc: SPL, - SPL. The quantity to be added to SPLy is plotted in Fig. 21-6 from values calculated from Eq. (21-16). ‘The graph shows that when two sources of equal intensity are combined, the total is 3 B higher than either one separately. Ifa second source has an SPL of 10 dB lower than the first, the total SPL is only 0.5 dB higher than the first. Example 21-2 Three sound sources provide equal SPL readings at a receiver when active individually. How much higher is the combined SPL when all three sources are active than when only one individual source is active? 39993339399 39999906 pa aaaa03a05 ceeeeeeeACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL 409 Addition to SPL, ¢B or SPL, —SPLy Figue 21-6 Total SPL when combining two sound sures. Solution The sources are combined schematically in Fig, 21-7 showing that the combination of two sources gives a total of SPL, + 3 dB. Combining the result Of that pait with the third source adds another 1.7 dBto SPL, * 3, giving a total of SPLy +47 dB ‘A point illustrated by Example 21-2 is that if there ae several sound sources all contributing approximately the same SPL, removal of jus: one of them does not re- Guee the overall SPL appreciably. In Example 21-2 if one source were removed, the reduction in total SPL would be only 1.7 4B, 21-10 Absorptivity In the situations discussed so far in this chapter it has been sumed that only ditect radiation of sound from a source reaches the receiver. This ‘tuition is rare since it would occur only out of doors or in a room where all the sur- Trove absorb all the sound that strikes them. The usual eas: is where the enclosure has Surfaces that are neither perfectly absorptive nor perfectly reflective, The measure of sey sry sty srl, +3 Figae 217 Schematic combination of sri, +47 soice ir Example 21-2.410. REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING “u Figure 214 Absorption at su the absorptive property of a surface such as in Fig. 21-8 is called the absorption co efficient and defined as where Lge ~ sound intensity striking surface, Wim? Tog, = intensity absorbed, Wim? “The ong of magnitude of a might be from 0.01 to 0.5 for concrete and from 0.2 10 08 for an acoustical materia “The absorption coefficient of a material usually varies with the ftequency. Table 21.2 shows the absorption coefficients of several commercial acoustic materials com. ‘only installed as celling tile or cemented to walls, Two treads are discernible from “Table 21.2: (1) ti usually more difficult to absorb low-frequency sound, and (2) the sane cc materal has a higher absorption coefficient spaced away from a wall or aethng than cemented directly to it. The explanation forthe latter property i thet sean jpoorbing materials function by converting the ac motion into heat due to friction, At the wall or ceiling this sir motion i small, while away from the wall tis eaeth higher, The maximum air motion wil, infact, occur ala distance of N/4 from a hard reflective surface. ‘Table 21-2 Absorption coefficients of several acoustic materials Johne Manville Armstrong Comet ‘Chasic Frequency Tia,” Cemented Suspended __Cemented Suspended nas 010 049 o10 038 250 02s, 032 ous 0m 500 ost °. 064 on 1000 058 066 078 on 2000 047 057 on 068 4000 038 oat 032 052 _ 4000s eereap oy pom nts i nse ce en ee ee ee - ee ACOUSTICS AND NOISE CONTROL 411 When 2 room consists of a number of different surfaces, the mean absorption coefficient @ is defined as, - Say tS, t 45,0, peSiS tet 45,6, an Sy tS) to 48, G ) wher S, yee, ate ares in que meter baring absorption coef, Conrepectehy 21-11 Room characteristics A source of sound can be characterized by the power it emits. To say that a source has a certain pressure level has no meaning. At a postion removed from the source the sound pressure level can be measured, but any statement about the sound power at this postion is ambiguous. The sousd power emitted by the source and the pressure level measured at a point away from the source are related, The relation depends upon the distance between the two but is also a function of the characteristics of the enclosure. The relationship between the PWL of the soutce, the SPL measured at some distance from the source, and the characteristics of the room will now be discussed. The rooms considered will be so-called large enclosures, defined as those having dimensions much larger than the wavelengths o¥ interest. ‘The graph in Fig. 21-9 willbe the form chosen to present the relationships, and it shows the difference between the SPL and the PWL as a function of the distance be- tween the source and receiver. The parameter of the family of curves is the room constant R, which is defined as Sa @1s) ‘where R= room constant, m? ‘5 total surface area of room, m2. Cr ) Distance rom acoustic source to receiver m Figure 21.9 Difference between SPL and PWI. for sooms of various chuscteratics with nondiec: tional sure,