TELEPHONY

Origin
Greek words: Tele – from afar
Phone – sound, voice, voice sound

March 10, 1876 - Alexander Graham Bell assisted by Thomas

Watson was able to transmit words over the telephone; Bell was
then issued with patent number 174,465 for his invention

US Hres 269: (June 11, 2002)- the contributions of Meucci were

recognized but the House of Representatives' resolution did
not annul or modify any of Bell's patents for the telephone.
Another resolution, Senate Res 223 was introduced in the
United States Senate and died, unenacted.
The TRUTH
“Meucci could not afford the $250 needed
for a definitive patent for his "talking
telegraph" so in 1871 filed a one-year
renewable notice of an impending patent.
Three years later he could not even afford
the $10 to renew it.

He sent a model and technical details to

the Western Union telegraph company but
failed to win a meeting with executives.
When he asked for his materials to be
returned, in 1874, he was told they had
been lost. Two years later Bell, who shared
a laboratory with Meucci, filed a patent for
a telephone, became a celebrity and made
a lucrative deal with Western Union.”
 Brief History:
1877 – there were 6 telephones in the world
1878 – 1st telephone set with combined transmitter
and receiver in a single handheld called Butterstamp
telephone
1881 – 3,000 telephones; Bell &
Watson sold the rights to AT&T
1883 – over133,000 telephones in
the US alone
1951 – Western Electric Company
introduced the Rotary Dial Telephone called Bell
System 500 -type
AT & T – American Telephone & Telegraph Company
also called Bell Telephone System & Ma Bell
Rotary telephone – 500-type
DTMF telephone – 2500 – type
Parts of Local Loop
Main Distribution Frame - termination of the inside plant and the
outside plant

Manhole – an underground enclosure to facilitate the splicing of two

or more cable

Cross-connect cabinet / Serving Area Interface (SAI) – distributes the

cables to different areas of subscriber and across poles and fixtures

Poles and fixtures – carry splices cable aerially

Termination box – contains the telephone subscriber’s line and is
connected to the distribution plant central office

Connector – connects the telephone to the line

Telephone set – a subscriber’s device

Feeder cable – the largest cable used in local loop, usually 3600 pair of
copper wire placed underground or in conduit

Distribution cable – smaller version of a feeder cable containing less wire

pairs

Subscriber or Standard Network Interface (SNI) – a device that serves as

the demarcation point between local telephone company responsibility
and subscriber responsibility for telephone service

Drop Wire – the final length of cable pair that terminates at SNI
The telephone set is connected to a central switching office
or local exchange through four wires:
Tip Green Transmit the signal
Ring Red Receive the signal
Sleeve / Slave Yellow Spare or for special
purpose application
Ground Black or White Grounding connection

The telephone set is powered by a -42 to -52Vdc (typically

-48 Vdc) supplied by the central office on the ring side of
the telephone. The common resistance is 600 ohms.
 Common Parts of Telephone Set
Mouthpiece – the telephone transmitter that converts acoustical
energy to a varying electrical energy by means of a carbon microphone
that can be transmitted through the transmission system to the
receiver of the called telephone

Earpiece – the receiver part of the telephone that converts the varying
electrical current representing the transmitted speech to variations in
air pressure at the called telephone set

Dial – used to generate the pulses or tones required for establishing a

desired connection

Telephone Ringer – converts electrical signal from the central office to

an audible signal alerting the subscriber that he is being called

Switchhook ( cradle )- it has level spring that permits dc to flow in the

loop as a medium for carrying current
Transmission Regulation Circuit –consists of a number of capacitors, varistors
and resistors that is used to maintain same speech level or suitable strength
for normal hearing regardless of strength of received signal.

a. Sidetone – sound on the talker’s voice heard on his own receiver used to
determine how loudly he should speak

b. Telephone Hybrid – as a four-wire device, two-wire is used for transmission

and the other two-wire are connected at the receiver

The two-wire that connect the subscriber to the central office conduct the
following:

• direct current for off-hook signaling

• varying direct current for speech
• alternating current for ringing, dial tone and busy signal
• pulse data quantized signals or analog voice signals
• supervision signals
• undesired electrical interference
BORSCHT – the combined interfacing circuit that sorts out
voltages and protect circuits against voltage overload
• Battery feeds from the office to the line to operate station
transmitters and DTMF dials.
• Overvoltage protection is provided to protect the line
circuit from damaging external voltages.
• Ringing connects from a central ringing supply to operate
the telephone bell.
• Supervision refers to monitoring the on-hook/off-hook
status of the line.
• Coding converts the analog signal PCM bit stream in digital
line circuits.
• Hybrids are required in digital line circuits to convert
between the four-wire switching and the two-wire cable
pair.
• Testing access is provided so an external test system can
obtain access to the cable pair for trouble isolation.
 KINDS OF DIALING
Pulse Dialing – a sequence of on-hook and off-
hook condition that causes loop making and
breaking from the telephone set dialer toward
the central office
100 ms/pulse
Make pulse – 39 ms
Break pulse – 61 ms
Interdigit delay – 300 ms (minimum)
Touch Tone Dialing – uses a combination of two
frequencies (low and high) or Dual Tone
Multifrequency (DTMF) for sending a telephone
number
100 ms/digit
Digit tone – 50 ms
Delay tone – 50 ms
 1209 Hz 1336 Hz 1477 Hz

697 Hz 1 2 3

770 Hz 4 5 6

852 Hz 7 8 9

941 Hz * 0 #
 Conditions of Switchhook
• On-hook condition
– the telephone set is not in used
– the cradle connection with the mouthpiece is
open
– the ringer is connected to the central office
– no dc current flow through the line
– only ac current is allowed to flow to ring the
telephone ringer and announce the incoming call
• Off-Hook condition
– The handset is taken out of the cradle.
– The line is converted from the ringer to talking circuit.
– The line requires at least 23 mA of current but not to
exceed 60 mA because the output will be
uncomfortably loud.
– When the dialing is completed, a ringing signal is sent
to the called subscriber while a ring back is sent from
the local exchange of the called subscriber to the
calling subscriber.
– A DC current from the local exchange is made to passé
through the speech circuit during conversation.
– The anti-sidetone circuit ensures isolation between
the transmitter and the receiver.
 Other Parameters of Local Loop
• Expected Measured Loss
• Loading Coil
• Bridge Tap
• Loop Resistance
EXPECTED MEASURED LOSS (EML)

EML = Cable Loss + Central Office Loss + Junction Loss

EML = 8.55 dB
Central Office Loss = 0.8 dB
Junction Loss = 0.1 dB
PROBLEM:
Determine the type of cable to be provided to a
subscriber located 4-km away from the central
office.
TYPE OF CABLE LOSS
# 26 2.5 dB / km
# 24 2.0 dB / km
#22 1.8 dB / km

Choices: a. 4km # 26 c. 2km #26 & 2km #22

b. 4km #24 d. 2km #22 & 2km #24
 Loading Coils / H88 Loading

It is used to reduce attenuation at voice frequency only by

canceling the capacitance that inherently builds up between
wires with distance. This is accomplished by adding 88 mH
every 6000 ft or 1.8 km in series with the wire, but at above
the voice frequency range, it greatly increases attenuation. It
is used for circuits longer than 18,000 ft. It allows local loops
to extend 3 to 4 times their previous length. It can be placed
on telephone poles, manholes, or in CCC.
 Coil separation Coil separation
specification between coil specification between coil
in feet in feet
A 700 F 2787
B 3000 H 6000
C 929 X 680
D 4500 Y 2130
E 5575

B, D and H type loading coils are the most common

because their separations are representative of the
distances between manholes. Inductances can be 44 mH,
88 mH and 135 mH but 88 mH is common.

Specification reading:
26H88 – 26-gauge wire, 88 mH added every 6000 feet
To determine the number of loading coil needed:
N = 1 + D - 5000
S
Where: N = number of loading coil in whole number
D = distance between local exchange and the
subscriber (m)
S = coil spacing

Problem: A subscriber located at 10 km from the central

office need to be connected by a 26H88 cable pair.
Determine how many loading coils are needed.
 Bridge taps

It is the unused sections of cable that are connected in shunt to a

working cable pair, such as a local loop, that is used for party lines
to connect more than one subscriber to the same local loop. It
increases the flexibility of a cable by making it easier to reassign a
cable to a different subscriber without requiring a person working
in the field to cross connect sections of cable. It introduce bridging
loss which allow signals to split up and propagate down more than
one wire.
 Loop Resistance
The dc resistance depends on the type of the wire and wire size (often 18 to 26 gauge )

Low wire gauge – large diameter, less resistance, lower attenuation

𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟗𝟓
𝑹𝒅𝒄 =
𝒅𝟐
Where: Rdc = dc loop resistance ( ohms per mile)
d = wire diameter (inch)

𝟒𝟑. 𝟗𝟎
𝑹𝒅𝒄 =
𝒅𝟐
Where: Rdc = dc loop resistance ( ohms per km )
d = wire diameter ( mm )
 PROBLEM
Determine the wire gauge to be used for a 10
km loop with the central office resistance for
switching equipment of 2.5 kiloohm.
Gauge Diam. (mm) Diam. (in)
19 0.911 0.036
20 0.644 0.025
21 0.511 0.020
22 0.405 0.016
 NUMBERING CONCEPTS IN TELEPHONY
A Telephone number performs two important functions:
1. It routes the call.
2. It activates the necessary apparatus for proper call charging.

CCITT Rec. E.161 - International Telephone Number

It recommends that not more than 12 digits should make up
an international number excluding the international prefix that
switches the call to the transit exchange for the international calls.

Example:

00 1 415 711-1111
International country area code telephone
Access code code number
Numbering Area
It is the area in which any two subscribers use the same dialing
procedure to reach another subscriber in the telephone network

1. Subscriber number- number to be dialed or called to reach the subscriber

in the same local network or numbering area
First 3 digits – identify the local exchange
Last 4 digits – identify the subscriber

2. Trunk prefix or toll access code – digits to be dialed by a calling subscriber

making a call to a subscriber in his own country but outside his own
numbering area

3. Trunk Code or Area code – digits not including the trunk prefix
characterizing the called numbering area within the country

4. Country code – digits characterizing the called country

5. Local code – digits containing access to an adjacent numbering area to an

individual exchange in that area
 KINDS OF NUMBERING SCHEME

1. Uniform Numbering Scheme

the length of the subscriber number is
uniform inside a given numbering area

2. Non-uniform Numbering Scheme

the subscriber number vary within the give
numbering area
 TELEPHONE SIGNALING
Signaling provides the mean for operating and
supervising a telephone communication system.

A. Two Major Categories

1. Station Signaling
exchange of signaling message between subscriber
and exchange

2. Interoffice Signaling
exchange of signaling message between exchanges
B. Categories of Signaling Messages
1. Alerting signals
indicate a request for service ( off hook or ringing the
destination telephone )

2. Supervising signals
provide call status information ( busy or ring-back signals )

3. Controlling signals
provide information in the form of announcement ( number
changed to another number, no longer in service, etc. )

4. Addressing signals
provide routing information ( calling the called number )
 TONE OR SIGNAL FREQUENCY DURATION / RANGE
Dial tone 350 Hz + 450 Hz Continuous
DTMF 697 Hz, 770 Hz, 852 Hz, 941 Hz, Two of eight tones
1209 Hz, 1336 Hz, 1477 Hz, 1633 Hz On, 50 ms minimum
Off, 45 ms minimum
3 sec maximum
MF 700 Hz, 900 Hz, 1100 Hz, Two of six tones
1300 Hz, 1500 Hz, 1700 Hz On, 90 ms minimum
120 ms maximum
Dial pulses Open/closed switch On, 39 ms
Off, 61 ms
Station busy 480 Hz + 620 Hz On, 0.5 s
Off, 0.5 s
Equipment busy / 480 Hz + 620 Hz On, 0.2 s
congestion tone / no- Off, 0.3 s
circuits available tone
Ringing 20 Hz, 90 Vrms (nominal) On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Ring-back 440 Hz + 480 Hz On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Receiver on hook Open loop Indefinite
Receiver off hook / Dc current 20 mA minimum
howler tone 80 mA maximum
Receiver-left-off hook 1440 Hz, 2060 Hz, 2450 Hz, 2600 Hz On, 0.1 s
alert Off, 0.1 s
 Call Progress Tone Direction of Propagation
TONE OR SIGNAL DIRECTION
Dial tone Telephone office to calling station
DTMF Calling station to telephone office
MF Telephone office to telephone office
Dial pulses Calling station to telephone office
Station busy Telephone office to calling subscriber
Equipment busy / congestion tone Telephone office to calling subscriber

Ringing Telephone office to called subscriber

Ring-back Telephone office to calling subscriber
Receiver on hook Calling subscriber to telephone office
Receiver off hook Calling subscriber to telephone office
Receiver-left-off hook alert Telephone office to calling subscriber
 Telephone Signaling Methods
A. Sending the supervisory and address signals
over the same circuit as the voice signals

a. Subscriber Loop Signaling Method

Subscriber Loop or telephone loop is the
closed circuit that is performed by the subscriber
telephone and the cable pair, and any other
associated conductor necessary to make the
connection to the central office switching
equipment.
b. Ear & Mouth ( E & M ) Signaling
It is used to interconnect switches over long
distance trunks. E is for receive and M is for
transmit.

c. In-Band Signaling or Single Frequency Signaling

It is the signaling method where the tone is
transmitted within the speech band usually 1600,
2400 and 2600 Hz. It is arranged in a manner such
that supervisory signals be on the line only before
and at the termination of a call.
d. Out of Band Signaling
It makes use of one or more ac tones that lies
within the pass band of the transmission facility but
outside the voice band. Channel filters of out of
band signaling are designed with an upper cut-off
frequency well below the high frequency end of the
voice channel usually at 3700 Hz for Bell System
standard and 3825 Hz for CCITT Recommendations
for International Circuits.
B. Sending supervisory signals over a separate
circuit

a. Common Channel Interoffice Signaling

It sends supervisory signals on a separate circuit
where they are directed and do the control and
switching of lines independently from the voice
signals. The basic control is by digital computers
and CCIS is separate data network for exchanging
control signals among these computers. This
method is used on the interconnecting trunks that
carry signals between central offices.
b. Alternate Channel Signaling

Two channels are selected, one will be used to carry

the signaling signal and the other will operate as a
normal traffic carrying voice channel. An error
detector monitors the error rate in the signaling
channel. If the error is tolerable, the system goes
back to normal operation. If more than 3errors
occur for a period of 10 seconds, the line switch
units will automatically switches the signaling
channel information to the signal channel. This
process takes place in a manner that a customer
will know that a switch has occurred.
TRANSMISSION FACTOR IN SPEECH TELEPHONY

1. Loudness
It is the basis of measurement of customer
satisfaction in telephone design. Loudness depends
on the acoustic pressure provided by the talker and
the loudness loss of the acoustic –to-acoustic path
from input to a telephone microphone at one end
of the connection to the output of the telephone
receiver at the other end of a connection. If too
loudness loss is provided, customer satisfaction
decreases because the received speech is too loud.
2. Reference Equivalent (RE)
It determines how loud is loud and how soft is soft.
It also determines how much loss is to be allowed.
It is the standard rating system standardized by
CCITT. The RE of the telephone set or a subscriber
loop is arrived by comparing its performance with a
standard.

3. Corrected Reference Equivalent (CRE)

It replaced the ORE because it does not correspond
to any physical well-defined quantity that can be
determined directly by subjective tests or by
calculation from objective measurements.
4. Overall Loudness Rating ( OLR )
It is the recognized international standard for
measuring customer satisfaction of a speech
telephone connection as recommended in the
CCITT 9th Plenary Assembly in 1998
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
Traffic – refers to the aggregate of all user requests being
serviced by a network

Call – any actual engagement or seizure of a circuit,

switch or other traffic channel

Busy Hour – the continuous period during which the

highest network usage occurs

Lost Call - abandoned call when at any stage during the

process of establishing a call all outlets are found
engaged
- calls that are rejected or blocked
 FACTORS AFFECTING TRAFFIC INTENSITY
1. Calling rate ( C )
The average arrival of calls during a particular busy hour ,
(call/min, call/hr)

2. Holding time (H)

The average call duration during a particular busy hour ,( sec,
min, hour)

3. Summation of all Holding time (S)

The total of all holding times a group of circuits offered by a
traffic (sec, min,hour)

4. Observation period (T)

A one-hour busy period

5. Traffic Intensity (A)

A dimensionless quantity of traffic
 UNITS OF TRAFFIC INTENSITY
Erlang (E)– standard unit of traffic intensity, quantity represented by
having call with an aggregate duration of 1 hour

Call cent second (CCS) – hundred call second, quantity represented by

having 1 or more call having an aggregate duration of 100 seconds for
1 hour

Call second (CS) –quantity represented by having 1 or more call having

an aggregate duration of 1 sec for 1 hour

Call minute (CM) – quantity represented by having 1 or more call

having an aggregate duration of 1 minute for 1 hour

Equated Busy Call Hour (EBCH) –quantity represented by having 1 or

more call having an aggregate duration of 2 minutes for 1 hour
Conversion:

1 E = 36 ccs = 3600 cs = 60 cm = 30 EBCH

A = C x H

A = S / T
 PROBLEM
1. Given the calling rate of 500 calls/hr and
holding time of 75 sec/call, find the traffic
intensity in Erlang and EBCH.
2. Given are the trunk circuits and the
summation of holding times for each trunk,
determine the traffic intensity in CCS.
TRUNK NO. TOTAL HOLDING TIME (min)
1 78
2 120
3 89
4 116
 TRAFFIC PARAMETERS
1. Busy Hour Call Attempt (BHCA) – the
maximum number of calls during a particular
one-hour observation period
 PROBLEM
Given are the calls made from 8:00 AM within 20 minutes
interval. Determine the BHCA and the time it occurred.
TIME NO. OF CALLS
8:00 – 8:20 35
8:20 – 8:40 18
8:40 – 9:00 26
9:00 – 9:20 20
9:20 – 9:40 12
9:40 – 10:00 37
10:00 – 10:20 26
10:20 – 10:40 23
10:40 – 11:00 05
2. Percent occupancy – measures the % of an
hour during which one item of equipment is
being occupied
 PROBLEM
• If it is given a traffic intensity of 6 Erlangs and
a 4 number of circuit units, what is the %
occupancy?
3. Percent Overflow – measures the rate at
which subscriber call attempts failed
% OF = call failure x 100
call attempts

call attempts = failed or lost calls + successful calls

 PROBLEM
• If given the number of calls accepted and calls
rejected, 50 and 15 calls respectively,
determine the % overflow.
4. Total traffic – sum of the outgoing traffic and
incoming traffic
Tt = To t Ti
 PROBLEM
On average, during the busy hour, the ECE
company makes 300 calls of average duration 7
minutes and receives 80 calls of average
duration 5 minutes. Find the total traffic in
Erlang.
5. Traffic lost – difference between offered
traffic and carried traffic

TL = Tof – Tc
 PROBLEM
During the busy hour 1200 calls were offered to
a circuit and 10 were lost. The average duration
per call was 5 minutes. Find the traffic lost in
EBCH.
6. Grade of Service – the probability of calls to
be blocked or rejected ; it is the ratio of the
traffic lost to the offered traffic

GOS = TL
Tof
Period of Congestion:

tc = GOS x 3600 sec

tc = GOS x 60 min
 PROBLEM
• Choose the best GOS:

A. 0.1
B. 0.01
C. 0.001
 THE COIN-OPERATED TELEPHONE ( COIN BOX SET )

It is based on a microprocessor, which can be

program to recognize different type of coins. It is
also equipped with information on start and
making charges and it can determine faults and
time left for usage. Signaling between exchange
and coin box set is done using pulses of 12 or 16
kHz.
 Components of a Coin-operated Telephone
Communication Circuitry – identical with that of noncoin
telephone sets

Totalizer – identifies coin denomination and counts or

relays the value of the money received

Coin chute – a physical channel that directs the coin from

the coin slot through the totalizer and into the coin box

Coins collect and control apparatus – controls whether

coins are directed to the coin box of the refund chute

Coin box – the receptacle that receives and stores

collected coins
Coin-operated Telephone Features
Coin Box Accounting - determine the amount in the box without
counting it to know if the box is ready for collection

Alarming – have reporting system that sound a local alarm, dial a

number or both when tampering or vandalism occurs

Remote Diagnostics – ability to dial a coin telephone from either a

manual or an automatic center and determine whether it is
functioning properly is an important feature for controlling
maintenance costs

Call Timing - Most local exchange carriers (LEC) measure the usage on
public access lines and charge the customer-owned coin operated
telephone (COCOT) owner accordingly

Call Restriction – it blocks certain codes because of difficulty of rating

and collecting for such calls
Volume Control – adjusted under button control which is valuable in
noisy public locations

Dialing Instruction Display – the display and help keys helps the caller
use the device

Advance Features:

Voice Store and Forward – enables the caller to leave a voice

messages that the coin phone will attempt to deliver a certain interval.
Example, a traveler could leave a message to be delivered to a busy
telephone and resume his or her trip.

Database Access – can retain database of telephone numbers that

user can speed-dial. Example the database might include taxi, hospital,
hotel, and other such number. The COCOT owner may collect a fee
from the called party for this service.

Facsimile Capabilities
 BUILDING TELEPHONE FACILITIES

Service Entrance – wires or cables entering the

building, terminated to the main cross
connecting point within the building from the
nearest telephone facility
General Recommendations for Aerial Service Entrance
1. Size of entrance conduit shall not be less than
50mm diameter

2. Recommended initial conduit should be

capable of handling the ultimate telephone
requirements of the building.

3. Generally, the maximum span from

telephone pole to building should be 30m.
4. Minimum recommended separation:

a. Minimum clearances between telephone cable

and power entrance must be 1m radial distance.

b. Minimum clearance from ground level when

crossing the street must be 5.5m.

c. Minimum clearance over areas accessible to

pedestrian only, must be 3.5m.
 General Recommendations for Underground
Entrance Conduit
1. Use corrosion-resistant material or PVC duct.

2. Should not include more than two 90 degree

bends.

3. Minimum depth is 600mm,under areas used for

vehicular traffic inside private property.

4. Conduits placed on private property must not be

terminated in joint-use manholes with electrical
cables.
5. Conduits should be separated from power
conduits by not less than:
– 300 mm in well-tamped earth
– 50 mm of concrete

6. The size of underground entrance conduit

within the building shall be the same size as the
service conduit outside the building and in no
case smaller than 75mm in diameter .