REVIEWER: Physiological & Biological - infraorbital - under the eye

Psychology; Midterms - temporal - temple; sides of head

- occipital - nape; back of head
CH. 1: MIND-BRAIN RELATIONSHIP - parietal - upper portion of head
- mental - chin
Biological psychology - the study of - zygomatic - cheek
physiological, evolutionary, and developmental - auricular - ear/s
mechanisms of behavior and experience. CERVICAL (neck)
- Goal is to relate biology to issues of THORACIC ANATOMY (chest)
psychology - sternal - breast
- Includes much about behavior but more - axillary - armpit
detail about anatomy & chemistry UPPER LIMB ANATOMY
PLANES of REFERENCE - acromial - shoulder
- Coronal (frontal) plane - divides body - deltoid - bet. shoulder & upper arm
into anterior & posterior portions (front - brachial - upper arm; biceps/triceps
& back) - antecubital - front of elbow
- Sagittal plane - divides body into left & - olecranal - elbow
right portions - antebrachial - forearm
- Mid-sagittal - symmetrical - carpal - wrist
positioning, i.e. lungs - digital - fingers
- Parasagittal - more on one side; LOWER LIMB ANATOMY
asymmetrical positioning, i.e. - gluteal - butt
heart - coxal - hip
- Transverse (cross-sectional) plane - - femoral - upper leg; thigh
divides body into superior & inferior - patellar - kneecap
portions (upper & lower) - popliteal - posterior portion of knee
DIRECTIONAL REFERENCES - crural - lower leg
- medial - in or near center of body - sural - calf
- lateral - relating to left/right side of - fibular - lateral portion of lower leg
body - tarsal - ankle
- proximal - closer to body - calcaneal - heel
- distal - farther from the body - plantar - sole
- cephalic - upper portion - digital - toes
- caudal - lower portion PELVIC (below abdomen; pelvis)
ANATOMICAL REGIONS DORSAL ANATOMY (back)
- scapular - shoulder blades; scapula
CEPHALIC ANATOMY (head)
- frontal - forehead - vertebral - spinal column
- lumbar - lower back
- orbital - eye/s
- sacral - bet. hips; lowermost area of
- nasal - nose
- buccal - jaw spine
PUBIC (genital area)
- oral - mouth
 inguinal - groin
NEURON ANATOMY
● Nucleus - acts as “command center” for
the cell
● Soma/cell body - supports the nucleus,
made of glial cells
● Dendrite - sends signals toward cell
body, receives impulses from nearby
neurons
● Axon hillock - part of the cell body that
connects to the axon
● Axon - sends signal away from cell
body, longer in length than dendrites
○ Myelin sheath - made of myelin
(fatty substance made from
Schwann cells*) w/c insulate
electrical impulses and
supports the axon
○ Node of Ranvier - gaps between
myelin sheaths
○ Axon terminal - where the axon
ends and branches out
○ Synapse - gap between axon
terminals and receiving nearby
neurons; AKA synaptic gap,
synaptic cleft
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS of BEHAVIOR
● Physiological - relates behavior to
activity of the brain & other organs;
deals w/ machinery of the body
● Ontogenetic - describes how a
structure or behavior develops
● Evolutionary - reconstructs the
evolutionary history of a structure or
behavior, i.e. goosebumps, or erections
of the hairs, w/c make frightened
animals look larger and more
intimidating
● Functional - describes why a structure
or behavior evolved as it did**
CONSEQUENCES of BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
We act because…
● of nervous system wiring
● of genetic make-up
● of a distant ancestor who did the same
(fight or flight activation to threat)
● it has served us in the past to survive
and reproduce (emotional response)
THE BRAIN & CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE
● Dualism - belief that mind and body are
different substances that exist
independently
● Monism - belief that the universe
consists of only one substance
○ Materialism - “everything that
exists is material or physical”
○ Mentalism - “only the mind
exists, the physical world could
not exist unless some mind
were aware of it”
● Identity position - view that mental
processes and certain kinds of brain
processes are the same thing; “every
mental experience is a brain activity”
DIVISIONS of BIOPSYCHOLOGY
● Physiological psychology - studies the
neural mechanisms of behavior through
the direct manipulation of the brain
● Psychopharmacology - focuses on the
manipulation of activity & behavior
with drugs and its effects on the brain
and behavior
● Neuropsychology - study of the
psychological effects of brain damage
in human patients
● Psychophysiology - studies the relation
between physiological activities and
psychological processes; non-invasive
procedures
 ● Cognitive neuroscience - studies the PARTS of the NERVOUS SYSTEM
neural bases of cognition or higher The nervous system is divided into two parts:
intellectual processes; uses functional the central and peripheral nervous systems.
brain imaging  Central nervous system – consists of the
● Comparative psychology - deals brain and spinal cord.
generally w/ biology of behavior rather o Brain – interprets & stores
than specifically w/ the neural information, sends orders to
mechanisms of behavior; compares the muscles, glands, and organs;
behavior of different species; some command center of the
study in labs, others use ethological nervous system
research* o Spinal cord – pathway
● Converging operations - combined connecting the brain to the
approach peripheral nervous system
DIVERSITY of BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL  Peripheral nervous system – transmits
RESEARCH information to and from the central
a. human vs non-human subjects nervous system; any network of nerves
b. experimental vs non-experimental outside of the central nervous system,
c. applied vs pure research also divided into two
ADVANTAGES of HUMAN SUBJECTS o Somatic nervous system –
a. can follow instructions carries sensory information,
b. can report subjective experiences controls movement of skeletal
c. often less expensive muscles
d. have a human brain  Sensory/afferent
ADVANTAGES of NON-HUMAN SUBJECTS nerves – from body to
a. have simpler nervous systems CNS
b. possible to use comparative, cross-  Motor/efferent nerves
species approach – from CNS to body
c. fewer ethical constraints o Autonomic nervous system –
“The ethics of both human & animal research is regulates all involuntary bodily
carefully scrutinized by independent committees.” processes** and automatically
-------------------------------------------------------------- regulates glands and internal
CH. 2: NEUROSCIENCE: The Biological organs
Perspective  Parasympathetic
division – maintains
OVERVIEW of NERVOUS SYSTEM body functions, “rest
Nervous system – extensive network of and digest”
specialized cells that carry information to and  Sympathetic division –
from all parts of the body. prepares to react and
Neuroscience – deals with structure & expend energy, “fight
functions of neurons, nerves, and nervous or flight”
tissue; relationship to behavior and learning.
STRUCTURE of the NEURON synaptic knob containing
Neurons – basic cell that makes up the nervous chemicals
system, receives & sends messages within that - neurotransmitters – found
system. inside the synaptic vesicles
PARTS of a NEURON (see CH. 1, “Neuron which, when released, has
Anatomy”) effect on the next cell
OTHER TYPES of BRAIN CELLS  Synapse – space between the synaptic
● Glial cells – grey fatty cells that provide knobs on one cell (pre-synaptic) and the
support and deliver nutrients to dendrites on another cell (post-
neurons, produce myelin (see Schwann synaptic)
cells) and clean up waste products and  Receptor sites – holes on the surface of
dead neurons. dendrites shaped to fit certain
Nerves – bundles of axons within the body that neurotransmitters
travel together through the body  Neurons must be turned on and off.
 Neurilemma – Schwann’s membrane; - Excitatory neurotransmitter –
tunnel through which damaged nerve causes receiving cell to fire
fibers can repair themselves - Inhibitory neurotransmitter –
NEURAL IMPULSES causes receiving cell to stop
● Ions – charged particles firing
- inside neuron – negatively-  Chemical substances can affect neural
charged communication.
- outside neuron – positively- - Agonist – mimic or enhance the
charged effects of a neurotransmitter on
 Resting potential – state of neuron the receptor site of the next cell
when not firing a neural impulse; - Antagonist – block or reduce a
 Action potential – release of neural cell’s response to the action of
impulse, reversal of electrical charge other neurotransmitters
within the axon
- allows positive sodium ions to NEUROTRANSMITTERS & their FUNCTIONS
enter the cell NEUROTRANSMITTER FUNCTION/S
 “All-or-none” – refers to the fact that a Acetylcholine Memory, sleep,
neuron either fires completely or does stimulates movement
not fire at all Serotonin Mood, sleep, appetite
Gamma-aminobutyric Sleep, inhibits
SENDING INFO to OTHER CELLS
acid (GABA) movement
 Axon terminals – branches at the end of Glutamate Memory formation
the axon Norepinephrine Arousal, mood
 Synaptic knob – rounded areas on the Dopamine Control of movement,
end of axon terminals sensations of pleasure
- synaptic vesicles – sack-like Endorphins Pain relief
structures found inside the
  Reuptake – process in which
neurotransmitters are taken back into
the synaptic vesicle
 Enzyme – complex protein
manufactured by cells
THREE TYPES of NEURONS
 Sensory (afferent) neuron – carries
information from senses/body to the
CNS
 Motor (efferent) neuron – carries
messages/commands from the CNS to
the muscles of the body
 Interneuron – found in the center of
spinal cord, bridges both afferent and
efferent neurons; also makes up most
of neurons in the brain
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (see CH. 2,
“Parts of the Nervous System”)
PEEKING INSIDE the BRAIN
 Clinical studies
- Deep lesioning – insertion of a
thin, insulated wire into the
brain, destroys brain cells at
the tip
- Electrical stimulation (ESB) –
milder electrical current, causes
neurons to react as if they
received a message
- Human brain damage
 Electroencephalograph (EEG) – machine
that records brain wave patterns
produced by the electrical activity on
the surface of the brain
 Computed tomography (CT scan) –
brain-imaging method using computer-
controlled X-rays of the brain
 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) –
brain-imaging method using radio
waves and magnetic fields to produce
detailed images of the brain
- functional MRI (fMRI) – shows
changes in the brain activity
using images from different
time periods
 Positron emission tomography (PET) –
brain-imaging method in which a
radioactive sugar is injected into the
subject and a computer compiles a
color-coded image of the activity;
lighter areas indicate more activity
THE BRAIN STEM
 Medulla – first large swelling at the top
of the spinal cord; responsible for life-
sustaining functions such as breathing,
heart rate, and swallowing
 Pons – larger swelling above medulla,
connects the top of the brain to the
bottom; plays part in sleep, dreaming,
L-R body coordination, and arousal.
 Reticular formation – area of neurons
running through the middle of the
medulla and pons; responsible for
selective attention
 Cerebellum – part of lower brain
located behind the pons; controls and
coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine
motor movement
STRUCTURES UNDER the CORTEX
 Limbic system – group of several brain
structures located under the cerebral
cortex involved in learning, emotion,
memory, and motivation
- Thalamus – located in the
center of the brain; relays
sensory information from the
lower part of the brain to the
proper areas of the cortex
 - Olfactory bulbs – two
projections just under the front
of the brain; receive
information from the receptors
in the nose
- Hypothalamus – small structure
in the brain below the thalamus
& above pituitary gland;
responsible for motivational
behavior such as sleep, hunger,
thirst, and sex.
- controls pituitary
(master) gland
- Hippocampus – curved
structure located within each
temporal lobe; responsible for
formation of long-term
memories and storage of
memory for location of objects
- Amygdala – brain structure
located near the hippocampus;
responsible for fear responses
and memory of fear
 Cerebral cortex – outermost covering of
the brain consisting of densely-packed
neurons; responsible for higher
thought processes and interpretation
of sensory input
- Corticalization – wrinkling of
the cortex; allows much larger
area of cortical cells to exist
inside the skull
 Cerebral hemispheres – two sections of
the cortex divided into left and right
hemispheres
- Corpus callosum – thick band of
neurons that connects the left
and right hemispheres
FOUR LOBES of the BRAIN
 Occipital lobe/s – located at the rear
and bottom of each cerebral
hemisphere; contains visual centers of
the brain
- Primary visual cortex –
processes visual info from the
eyes
- Visual association cortex –
identifies and makes sense of
visual info
 Parietal lobe/s – located at the top and
back of each cerebral hemisphere;
contains centers for touch, taste, and
temperature sensations
- Somatosensory cortex – area of
neurons responsible for
processing information from
the skin
 Temporal lobe/s – located just behind
the temples; contains neurons
responsible for hearing and meaningful
speech
- Primary auditory cortex –
processes auditory info from
the ears
- Auditory association cortex –
identifies and makes sense of
auditory info
 Frontal lobe/s – located in the front and
top of the brain; responsible for higher
mental processes and decision-making,
as well as production of fluent speech
- Motor cortex – located at the
back of frontal lobe responsible
for sending motor commands
to the muscles of SNS
ASSOCIATION AREAS of the CORTEX
 Association areas – areas within each
lobe of the cortex responsible for the
coordination and interpretation of
information
 Broca’s aphasia – damage to Broca’s
area in left frontal lobe; causes the
affected person to be unable to speak
fluently, mispronounce words, and to
speak haltingly
 Wernicke’s aphasia – damage to
Wernicke’s area in left temporal lobe;
causes the affected person to be unable
to understand or produce meaningful
language
 Spatial neglect – damage to association
areas in right hemisphere; causes
inability to recognize objects or body
parts in the left visual field
Split-brain research – study of patients with
severed corpus callosum
 Left side of the brain
- controls language, writing,
logical thought, analysis, and
mathematical abilities
- processes information
sequentially
- can speak
 Right side of the brain
- controls emotional expression,
spatial perception, recognition
of faces, patterns, melodies,
and emotions
- processes information globally
- cannot speak
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
Endocrine glands secrete chemicals called
hormones directly into the bloodstream.
 Pituitary gland – located in the brain;
secretes human growth hormone,
influences all other hormone-secreting
glands; “master gland”
 Pineal gland – located near the base of
cerebrum; secretes melatonin*
 Thyroid gland – located in the neck;
regulates metabolism
 Pancreas – located behind the stomach;
controls sugar levels in the blood
 Gonads – sex glands; regulate sexual
development and behaviour as well as
reproduction; ovaries for females,
testes for males
 Adrenal glands – located on top of each
kidney; secretes different hormones to
deal with stress, salt intake, provide
secondary source of sex hormones in
adolescence
----------------------------------------------------------------
CH. 3: NEURAL IMPULSES
A neural impulse is a moving area of electrical
and chemical change on the nerve cell
membrane, passing from one cell to another.
 Stimulus – any internal or external
change or event that causes a response
in an organism
EXTERNAL STIMULI INTERNAL STIMULI
Predator Hunger
Prey Full bladder
Food & water Full rectum
Mates, rivals Blood sugar level
Sunlight Infection
Temperature
IMPORTANCE OF STIMULI
 Homeostasis – maintenance of stable
internal environment in an organism
 Regulation – coordination and control
of all life activities; required to maintain
homeostasis
HOW DO NERVE CELLS WORK? 3. This change stimulates adjacent
1.) The membrane of a neuron before the membrane to become permeable to
stimulus is polarized sodium
2.) The stimulus opens the ion channels 4. More sodium flows into the cell in this
3.) Membrane is depolarized after the adjacent area of the membrane
stimulus (think domino effect) Impulse Travel along a Nerve Pathway:
Saltatory conduction (leaping) – influx of ions in Stimulus (external event) > Receptor (receiver
one node causes next node to become of stimulus) > Sensory neuron > Interneuron >
permeable* to sodium** Motor neuron > Effector (reflex by
SPEED of a NERVE IMPULSE corresponding skeletal muscle)
AXON STATUS SPEED (mm/sec) Ratio of Sodium to Potassium Ions: 3:2
Unmyelinated 3 mm/sec
Myelinated 200,000 mm/sec
Neurotransmitters transmit the impulses across
the synapse.

Fig. 1.1: A graph showing the action potential and its

various phases as it passes a point on a cell membrane.

 Threshold stimulus – stimulation level

needed to elicit a nerve impulse; holds
at -55mV (milli-volts)
 Hyperpolarization – potential falls
below -70mV; no impulses can pass
along that part of the membrane
NERVE IMPULSE
1. Sodium ions (Na+) flow into the cell
2. Inside of the cell becomes positively-
charged