Samrat Deb Msc Section B 1959 AIBAS.

Anatomy- Brain

Source: Google Images.

The brain serves many important functions, it gives meaning to things that happen in the world
surrounding us. Through the five senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch and taste, the brain receives
stimulus from the environment and help us perceive our surrounding meaningfully. The brain
controls thoughts, memory, speech, arm and leg movements and the function of many organs
within the body. It also determines how people respond to stressful situations by regulating heart
and breathing rates. The brain is an organized structure, divided into many components that serve
specific and important functions. The brain is the control center for registering sensations,
correlating them with one another and with stored information, making decisions and taking
actions. It also is the center for the intellect, emotions, behavior and memory. But the brain
encompasses yet a larger domain:[1] It directs our behavior toward others, with ideas that excite,
artistry that dazzles or rhetoric that mesmerizes one person’s thoughts and actions this influence
and shapes the lives of every individual. The brain and the spinal cord develop from the ectodermal
neural tube. The brain matures from the time we were inside our mother’s womb till we are in the
tomb. Although the rate at which brain matures varies from individual to individual. The brain is
composed of two types of cells: neurons and glial cells, also known as neuroglia or glia. The neuron
is responsible for sending and receiving nerve impulses or signals. Glial cells are non-neuronal
cells that provide support, nutrition, maintain homeostasis, form myelin and facilitate signal
transmission in the nervous system. In the human brain, glial cells outnumber neurons by about 50
to 1. Meninges: The brain is surrounded by three membranes which both support and protect these
structures, those are the dura mater, the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.[1] Dura Mater- The
tough outermost layer of the brain is the dura mater. Its closely attached to the inner surface of the
skull and also provides several partitions which divide the skull cavity into relatively separate
compartments. Since these partitions are anchored to the skull, they help to prevent the very soft
and fragile brain tissue from excessive movement which would result in tearing of the brain
substance whenever there was any sudden acceleration, deacceleration or rapid rotation of the
brain, but even this protection breaks down when such movements are very violent. Arachnoid
Mater- The second meningeal membrane is also avascular but unlike the dura, it is very thin and
delicate. It is separated from the dura only by a very thin layer of fluid and is attached by cobweb
like strands of tissue to the third membrane. The fluid filled space that separates the arachnoid
from the pia mater, is termed as the Subarachnoid space. Pia Mater- The inner membrane, closely
follows convolutions or gyri of the cerebral hemispheres and dips down into the fissures or sulci
which separate them.

[1] In an adult, Brain represents 2% of the total body weight, but it consumes about 20% of the
oxygen and glucose used by the body, even when you are resting. Neurons synthesize ATP almost
exclusively from glucose via reactions that use oxygen. If the neuron activity in a particular part
of the brain increases the brain blood flow also increases. And even a brief slowing of blood flow
may cause disorientation or a lack of consciousness such as when you suddenly stand up after
sitting down for a long period of time. An interruption in blood flow for 1 to 2 mins. impairs
neuronal function and total deprivation of oxygen for about 4 minutes causes permanent injury.
Glucose also plays a major role in the function of the brain, as there is no glucose in the brain,
there needs to be a constant supply of glucose in the brain and if the blood entering the brain has
low level of glucose, mental confusion, dizziness, convulsions and loss of consciousness might
occur. Which is why people with diabetes must be vigilant about their blood sugar levels because
these levels can drop quickly, leading to diabetic shock, which is characterized as seizure, coma
and possibly death.

The adult brain consists of four major parts: Brain stem, Cerebellum, Diencephalon and Cerebrum.
The Brain stem is continuous with the spinal cord and consists of the medulla oblongata, pons and
the mid brain. Posterior to the stem is the Cerebellum. Superior to the brain stem is the
Diencephalon which consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and epithalamus. Supported on the
Diencephalon and the Brain stem is the Cerebrum, the largest part of the brain.

The protective coverings of the brain: The Cranium and the Cranial Meninges surround and protect
the brain. The Cranial Meninges are continuous with the spiral meninges, have the same basic
structure and bear the same names: the outer dura mater, the middle arachnoid mater, and the inner
pia mater. However the cranial dura mater has two layers whereas, the spinal dura mater has only
one. The two dural layers are called periosteal layer (external) and the meningeal layer (internal ).
The dural layers around the brain are fused together except where they separate to enclose the
dural venous sinuses that drain venous blood from the brain and deliver it into the internal jugular
veins. Blood vessels that enter brain tissue pass along the surface of the brain, and as they penetrate
inward, they are sheathed by a loose-fitting sleeve of pia mater. Three extensions of the dura mater
separate parts of the brain:

 The Falx Cerebri.

 The Falx Cerebelli.
 The Tentorium Cerebelli.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colourless, liquid composed primarily of water that protects
the brain and the spinal cord from chemical and physical injuries. It also carries small amounts of
oxygen, glucose and other proteins from the blood to neurons and neuroglia. CSF continuously
circulates through cavities in the brain and the spinal cord in the subarachnoid space. The total
volume of CSF is 80 to 150 ml. in an adult. CSF contains small amounts of glucose, proteins, lactic
acid, urea, cations ( Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) and anions ( Cl- and HCO3- ); it also contains white
blood cells. Functions of CSF:

 Mechanical protection.
 Homeostatic function.
 Circulation.

The Lobes

 Frontal Lobes : The frontal lobes are the largest of the four lobes responsible for many
different functions. These include motor skills such as voluntary movement, speech,
intellectual and behavioral functions. The areas that produce movement in parts of the body
are found in the primary motor cortex or precentral gyrus. The prefrontal cortex plays an
important part in memory, intelligence, concentration, temper and personality.
 Occipital Lobes : These lobes are located at the back of the brain and enable humans to
receive and process visual information. They influence how humans process colors and
shapes. The occipital lobe on the right interprets visual signals from the left visual space,
while the left occipital lobe performs the same function for the right visual space.
 Parietal Lobes :These lobes interpret simultaneously, signals received from other areas of
the brain such as vision, hearing, motor, sensory and memory. A person’s memory, and the
new sensory information received, give meaning to objects.
 Temporal Lobes : These lobes are located on each side of the brain at about ear level, and
can be divided into two parts. One part is on the bottom (ventral) of each hemisphere, and
the other part is on the side (lateral) of each hemisphere. An area on the right side is
involved in visual memory and helps humans recognize objects and peoples' faces. An area
on the left side is involved in verbal memory and helps humans remember and understand
language. The rear of the temporal lobe enables humans to interpret other people’s
emotions and reactions. [1]
Source: Google Images.

[1] Summary of Functions of Principal parts of the brain :-

The Brain stem: The brainstem is the lower extension of the brain, located in front of the
cerebellum and connected to the spinal cord. It consists of three structures: the midbrain, pons and
medulla oblongata. It serves as a relay station, passing messages back and forth between various
parts of the body and the cerebral cortex. Many simple or primitive functions that are essential for
survival are located here. Originating in the brainstem are 10 of the 12 cranial nerves that control
hearing, eye movement, facial sensations, taste, swallowing and movements of the face, neck,
shoulder and tongue muscles. The cranial nerves for smell and vision originate in the cerebrum.
Four pairs of cranial nerves originate from the pons: nerves five to eight.

1. Medulla Oblongata: Contains sensory (ascending) and motor (descending) tracts.

Cardiovascular center regulates heartbeat and blood vessel diameter. Medullary
rhythmiticity area (together with pons) regulates breathing. Contains gracile nucleus,
cuneate nucleus, gustatory nucleus, cochlear nuclei and vestibular nuclei (components of
sensory pathways to brain). Inferior olivary nucleus provides instructions that cerebellum
uses to adjust muscle activity when learning new motor skills. Other neuclei coordinating
 vomiting, swallowing, sneezing, coughing and hiccupping. Contains nuclei or origin for
cranial nerves VIII , IX , X , XI and XII. Recticular formation (also in pons, midbrain and
diencephalon) functions in consciousness and arousal.
2. Pons : Contains sensory and motor tracts. Pontine nuclei relay nerve impulses form motor
areas of cerebral cortex to cerebellum. Contains vestibular nuclei (along with medulla) that
are part of equilibrium pathway to brain. Pneumotaxic area and apneustic area (together
with the medulla) help control breathing. Contains nuclei of origin for cranial nerves V,
VI, VII, and VIII.
3. Midbrain: Contains sensory and motor tracts. Superior colliculi coordinate movements of
head, eyes and trunk in response to visual stimuli. Inferior colliculi coordinate movements
of head, eyes and trunk in auditory to visual stimuli. Substantia nigra and red nucleus
contribute to control of movement. Contains nuclei of origin for cranial nerves III and IV.
[1]

Cerebellum: The cerebellum is located at the back of the brain beneath the occipital lobes. It
is separated from the cerebrum by the tentorium (fold of dura). The Cerebellum fine tunes
motor activity or movement, e.g. the fine movements of fingers as they perform surgery or
paint a picture. It helps one maintain posture, sense of balance or equilibrium, by controlling
the tone of muscles and the position of limbs. The cerebellum is important in one's ability to
perform rapid and repetitive actions such as playing a video game. In the cerebellum, right-
sided abnormalities produce symptoms on the same side of the body.

Diencephalon:

1. Thalamus: Relays almost all sensory input to cerebral cortex. Contributes to motor
functions by transmitting information from cerebellum and basal neuclei to primary motor
area of cerebral cortex. Plays role in maintenance of consciousness.
2. Hypothalamus: Controls and integrates activities of autonomic nervous system. Produces
hormones, including releasing hormones, inhibiting hormones, oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). Regulates emotional and behavioural patterns (together with limbic
system). Contains feeding and satiety centers (regulate eating), thirst center (regulates
drinking), and suprachiasmatic neucleus (regulates circadian rhythms). Controls body
temperature by serving as body’s thermostat.
3. Epithalamus: Consists of pineal gland (secretes melatonin) and habenular nuclei.

Cerebrum: Sensory areas of cerebral cortex are involved in perception of sensory information;
motor areas control execution of voluntary movements; association areas deal with more
complex integrative functions such as memory, personality, traits and intelligence. Basal
neuclei help initiate and terminate movements, suppress unwanted movements and regulate
muscle tone. Limbic system promotes range of emotions, including pleasure, pain, docility,
affection, fear and anger.

Functional Differences between Right and Left hemispheres: (Lateralization)

Source: Google Images.

Right Hemisphere Functions- Receives somatic sensory signals from, and controls muscles on,
left side of body. Musical and artistic awareness. Space and pattern perception. Recognition of
faces and emotional content of facial expressions. Generating emotional content of language.
Generating mental images to compare spatial relationships. Identifying and discriminating
among odors.

Left Hemisphere Functions- Receives somatic sensory signals from, and controls muscles on,
right side of body. Reasoning. Numerical and scientific skills. Ability to use and understand
sign language. Spoken and written language.
[1] Cranial nerves
The brain communicates with the body through the spinal cord and twelve pairs of cranial nerves.
Ten of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves that control hearing, eye movement, facial sensations,
taste, swallowing and movement of the face, neck, shoulder and tongue muscles originate in the
brainstem. The cranial nerves for smell and vision originate in the cerebrum.

Number Name Function

I olfactory smell

II optic sight

III oculomotor moves eye, pupil

IV trochlear moves eye

V trigeminal face sensation

VI abducens moves eye

VII facial moves face, salivate

VIII vestibulocochlear hearing, balance

IX glossopharyngeal taste, swallow

X vagus heart rate, digestion

XI accessory moves head

 XII hypoglossal moves tongue

[1]

Research and Assessment of the Brain:

Brain is a complicated and a very complex organ which is responsible for the function of our
whole body. This organ is activated on conception and is the only organ which keeps all the
other organs in check and if our brain stops working, we are literally dead, Brain dead. So to
study an organ as such we need a very meticulous process which is systematic and safe so as
to not harm the organ in any way possible or we will be responsible for killing an individual.
Not only that even if we open up an individual’s brain to study we won’t find any signs
revealing which part or structure controls which part of the body and is responsible for what.
Which means Psychologists have to get a little tricky to study brain and behavior. Specifically,
they look at how a person behaves and what part of the brain is responsible for such behavior.
This how they form a link between each parts to study parts of the brain. Imaging and
Pathology are the two techniques through which we study a link between our behavior and
brain.

Imaging of the Brain

In adverse two the olden days, where a person’s brain can be studied only after death to know
and understand the issues with the individual’s brain and to prevent such cases in the future.
Where also the theoretical assumptions of what was wrong with individual’s brain can’t be
factually understood until we open it up. Brain imaging is a major break-through in this case.
[10] Brain-imaging technique allows doctor or psychologists to look at a person’s brain without
having to do surgery. There are several major brain imaging techniques.

1. EEG: EEG stands for electroencephalography and it involves measuring electrical activity
along the scalp of a person. The readout for an EEG session looks like a bunch of squiggly
lines and allows doctors to see which general areas of the brain have the most going on.
For example, he might do an EEG and see that his patient has very little activity on the left
 side of her brain. That might help him understand that her problems spring from some sort
of damage to that area.
2. PET and CAT scans : A PET scan is a positron emission tomography, which takes an image
of activity in the brain by tracing small amounts of radioactive matter that are injected into
a person, and a CAT scan is a computerized axial tomography, which is essentially a 3-
dimensional X-ray of a person’s brain. Sometimes these two things are combined together.
PET and CAT scans used to be the normal way for psychologists to look at patient’s brain.
But they are not used as much anymore because there are better techniques that measures
brain activity.
3. MRI and fMRI: MRI stands for magnetic resonance imaging, and fMRI stands for
functional magnetic resonance imaging. An MRI looks at the structure of a person’s brain
like a CAT scan. But like an PET scan, a fMRI measures brain activity. But instead of
having to inject a person with radioactive material, an MRI uses magnetic waves to
measure brain activity. Magnetic resonance imaging uses magnets to produce an image of
what areas of the brain are active. [10]

4. [7] Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) is an MRI-based neuroimaging technique which

makes it possible to estimate the location, orientation, and anisotropy of the brain's white
matter tracts. The architecture of the axons in parallel bundles and their myelin shield
facilitate the diffusion of the water molecules along their main direction. If we apply
diffusion gradients in at least 6 non-collinear directions, it is possible to calculate, for each
pixel, a diffusion tensor (i.e. a 3*3 matrix) that describes this diffusion anisotropy. The
fiber's direction is indicated by the tensor’s main eigenvector. This vector can be color-
coded, yielding a cartography of the tracts’ position, direction (red for right-left, blue for
foot-head, green for anterior-posterior), and anisotropy (as indicated by the tract's
brightness). The brain's main white matter tracts can be recognized , the apparent diffusion
coefficient (ADC) and fractional anisotropy (FA) can be quantified.

5. Diffusion Weighted Imaging (DWI) : Water molecules, in our body, undergo random
translational motion. In physics, this motion is called "Brownian Motion", or simply
"Diffusion". If we apply special diffusion-encoding gradients, the magnetic resonance
 (MR) images can be made sensitive to this motion. The technique is called diffusion
weighted imaging (DWI).

6. Fiber Tracking ( Tractography ): Fiber tracking uses the diffusion tensor to track fibers
along their whole length. Starting from a seed region of interest (ROI), generally defined
manually, the fiber tracking algorithm looks for adjacent voxels whose main diffusion
direction is in the continuity of the previous one. In clinical practice, the most tracked fiber
bundle is the cortico-spinal tract. However, fiber tracking can identify most of the brain's
white matter tracts. In this image, the arcuate fasciculus has been tracked, between Broca's
and Wernicke's areas of language.[7]

[2] A neurologist is often a psychologist by primary training, whether acting as a consultant or

engaged in a research study, he brings into a collaborative understanding with other colleagues a
different perception or view to tackle the brain. This why there are specific protocols to read and
follow while taking the approach to study an individual’s brain.

1. Clinical Investigation : The first step to any clinical investigation is a detailed case study
of the subject or patient. We have to understand the subject stand on the problem or issue
at hand and get a detailed analogy of the subject behavior and distresses. Detailed case
notes helps to get a detailed understanding of the subject but most of them are asked to go
through a psychometric testing, where the anamnesis is insufficiently detailed.
A clinical neurological examination in itself is often an extensive, careful record of the
patient’s sensation, reflexes, movement, muscle tone and clinical neuropsychologists will
need to familiarize themselves with the details of the neurological examination and with
the traditional interpretation of neurological interpretations and signs. Neurology has
developed special methods in the investigation of disorders in the nervous system and a
neuropsychologist will be better equipped to assist in the solution of neurological problems
if he understands them. For example- the changes in specifically human functions which
occur with lesions in the nervous system so that this information may be added to methods
already in use for the diagnosis of the nature and location of lesions.
2. Radiological Investigation : The principal methods of radiological investigation are
arteriography and encephalography. Together with other similar procedures they are
termed contrast methods since they reply on the introduction of substances which alter the
density of the structures studied to the passage of X-rays.
3. Arteriography : This is the technique for outlining the circulation by injecting a radio-
opaque fluid directly into the blood stream. The term cerebral angiography is used to the
radiological investigation of both the arterial and venous channels of the brain and is often
used interchangeably with the term arteriography. The radio-opaque material may be
injected directly into the artery beneath the site of puncturing the skin or it may be
introduced by a long thin tube termed a catheter which is passed along an artery until it
reaches the vessel into which the material is to injected. As the radio-opaque material is
swept through the cerebral circulation, serial x-ray photographs are taken in rapid
succession and the procedure is repeated with X-rays taken in a plane at right angles to the
first set so that a complete visualization of the circulation in its various phases can be
effected.
4. Angiography : Angiography is of particular value in the investigation of structural
abnormalities of the blood vessels themselves, e.g. Stenosis or narrowing of one or more
vessels, or an intracranial aneurysm or angioma. On the other hand , alteration in the shape
and position of vessels may indicate the presence of a space occupying lesion such as
cerebral tumor.
5. Air encephalography ( pneumoencephalography ): The aim of this procedure is to introduce
air into the cerebrospinal fluid to outline the ventricular system, and sometimes, to pass air
over the outside of the brain to examine for possible atrophy or wasting of the cerebral
cortex. With the patient sitting upright, a needle is introduced into the space between two
vertebrae in the lumbar region so that the tip of the needle enters the subarachnoid space
below the spinal cord. Small amounts of fluid are withdrawn and replaced by air which
rises in the fluid and is made to enter the ventricular system via the foramina in the fourth
ventricle by positioning the head and body. After the introduction of some twenty-five cm3
of air, X-ray photographs are taken and, because the differences in opacity of air to the rays
is much less than that of the surrounding brain, the entrapped air appears as a dark shadow
 in the films. The small amount of air can be manipulated into all sorts of the ventricular
system by careful positioning of the head.
6. Computerized axial tomography : The new technique of the radiological diagnosis has
made it possible for the first time to demonstrate both normal and pathological cerebral
tissue and pathology of related structures such as the cerebral ventricles without the
necessity for contrast media as in the procedures just described. The procedure is also
without risk or discomfort to the patient. The method consists basically of the use of a
computer to recover information, particularly about soft tissues, which was previously lost
because of the insensitivity of earlier methods of recording radiographic images. The great
value of computerized axial tomography to neuropsychology will be in providing a more
accurate delineation of neurological lesions against which correlations with behavioral
indices can be made more meaningfully.
7. Electrical investigation : ( Recording ) One of the most widely used investigative
techniques in neurology is electroencephalography. This is the technique of recording the
electrical activity of the brain through the skull by means of electrodes placed on the scalp.
The potential differences between two points on the skull produced by brain activity are
very small and have to be amplified many times before they can be used to drive a recording
device such as a pen recorder.
8. Electrical Stimulation : Electrical stimulation of nerve tissues is historically older than
electrical recording techniques and in many respects, is complementary to it. The value of
both techniques has increased with the advance in sophistication of electronic equipment.
Modern electronic stimulators permit investigators to control such parameters of
simulation as the frequency, duration, shape and intensity of the pulses used.
9. Radioisotopic encephalography ( Brain Scan ) : This method differs fundamentally from
the methods outlined above. While both arteriography and pneumoencephalography are
visual methods, the nature and the location of the lesion must be inferred from the
displacement and distortion of structures such as blood vessels or the cerebral ventricles.
In the brain scan the affected area can be more directly visualized. Though again, caution
must be used since all lesions do not necessarily appear in the brain scan. If forms only one
part of the investigative procedure. [2]
[3][4] Past Studies or History of Brain and Neuropsychology :-

1. Ancient Civilization
During the first millennium BC, the ancient Greeks developed differing views of the
functions of brain, there were clash of ideas and opinions and the Hippocratic doctors did
not practice dissection because they considered the human body to be sacred. In the 4th
century BC, Hippocrates believed that brain to be the seat of intelligence while Aristotle
believed Heart to be the seat of intelligence and brain was a cooling mechanism for the
blood.
The earliest study of Brain dates back to the seventeenth century, where localization of
function in the brain is contained in the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus. Although the copy
acquired from Smith in Luxor in 1862 is thought to date back to the 17th century BC, while
orthographic and other evidence would place its origin some thousand years earlier,
between 2500 – 3000 BC. It contains the earliest known anatomical, physiological and
pathological descriptions and has been described as the earliest known scientific document.
The Papyrus contains reports of some 48 cases of observations and descriptions of
treatment of actual cases many of them suffering from traumatic lesions of various parts of
the body including various injuries to the head or neck. The translation and publication of
the Papyrus was undertaken in 1920 and detailed examination of the text was published by
Breasted in 1930 and it is in this papyrus that term ‘Brain’ appears for the first time. The
papyrus, “opens the door on cortical localization of function with its description of injuries
to the brain” (Gibson, 1962).

Hieroglyphic for the word, “Brain” (1700 BC)

2. [9] Middle Ages
Islamic medicine in the middle ages focused on how the mind and body emphasized and a
need to understand mental health. Circa, 1000, Al-Zahrawi living in Islamic Liberia
evaluated neurological patients and performed surgical treatments for head injuries, skull
fractures, spinal injuries spinal injuries, hydrocephalus, subdural effusions and headache.
 In Persia, Avicenna presented detailed knowledge about skull fractures and their surgical
treatments and is regarded by some people as the father of modern medicine. He has written
40 pieces on medicine with the most notable being the Qanun, a medical encyclopedia that
would be a staple at universities for nearly a hundred years. He also explained phenomena
such as, insomnia, mania, hallucinations, nightmare, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis,
vertigo, melancholia and tremors. He also discovered a condition similar to schizophrenia,
which he called Junun Mufrit, characterized by agitation, behavioral and sleep
disturbances, giving inappropriate answers to questions, and occasional inability to speak.
He also discovered the cerebellar vermis, which he simply called the vermis, the caudate
nucleus both terms are still used in neuroanatomy today. He was also the first person to
associate mental deficits with deficits in the brain's middle ventricle or frontal lobe. [9]
3. [8] Renaissance
Andreas Vesalius works on the human cadavers contradicted the Galenic view of Anatomy.
Therefore he noted down various structural characteristics of the brain and the general
nervous system during his dissections. He also recorded many anatomical features such
as Putamen and Corpus Callosum. Then Rene Descartes studied the physiology of brain
and proposed a theory of dualism to tackle the issues of the brain’s relation to mind.
Thomas Willis studied the brain, nerves and behavior to develop neurological treatments.
[8]
4. Modern Period
Luigi Galvani, Lucia Galeazzi Galvani and Giovanni Aldini in the 18th century found out
the transmission of electricity in nerve impulses. Between 1811 and 1824, Charles
Bell and François Magendie, through dissection and vivisection discovered the ventral
roots in spine transmit motor impulses and the posterior roots receive sensory input (Bell-
Magendie law). In 1848 John Martyn Harlow described that Phineas Gage had his frontal
lobe pierced by an iron tamping rod in an accident and he became a case study in the
connection between the prefrontal cortex and executive functions. Phineas Gage was
impaled through his cheek and skull but he was conscious and awake and had some motor
movement. Which was astonishing and he was able to remember certain aspects even his
crew members names later after recovery. He had lost an eyes and had physical bruising
but had recovered physically. He showed a shift in personality from his previous state. His
 friends elaborated that before he was well versed and had a stable mind and relationship
with people but after the accident his behavior changed drastically and his friends and
family said it wasn’t Gage at all. Gage's case had a tremendous influence on early
neurology. The specific changes observed in his behavior pointed to emerging theories
about the localization of brain function, or the idea that certain functions are associated
with specific areas of the brain. Today, scientists better understand the role that the frontal
cortex has to play in important higher-order functions such as reasoning, language, and
social cognition. At that period, while neurology was in its infancy, Gage's extraordinary
story served as one of the first sources of evidence that the frontal lobe was involved
in personality.

Source: Bigpicture.com/ Phineas gage.

5. Twentieth Century
Neuroscience and the contributions of studies of brain shot to limelight in the twentieth
century and people understood the importance of the study of the brain. And this made it
rise the discipline and its importance in academics and started finding its functions and
applications in various fields. Scientists who made distinctive contributions are as follows.
Ivan Pavlov contributed to the many areas of neurophysiology. His work involved research
in temperament, conditioning and involuntary reflex actions. He published The Work of
 the Digestive Glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the
Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1904.
Vladimir Bekhterev, discovered 15 new reflexes and is known for his competition with
Pavlov regarding the study of conditioned reflexes. He founded the Psychoneurological
Institute at the St. Petersburg State Medical Academy in 1907 where he worked
with Alexandre Dogiel. In the institute, he attempted to establish a multidisciplinary
approach to brain exploration. The Institute of Higher Nervous
Activity in Moscow, Russia was established on July 14, 1950.
Acetylcholine was the first neurotransmitter to be identified. It was first identified in 1915
by Henry Hallett Dale for its actions on heart tissue. It was confirmed as a neurotransmitter
in 1921 by Otto Loewi in Graz.
One major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology
of nerve impulses, so in this manner the era was ripe with scientific advancement in
neuroscience as a whole. As of now the research and study of brain is on a whole different
level.
6. In the 21st century we are attempting to duplicate the brain in a computerized system for
them to do tasks that we have the limitations to not be able to do. Artificial Intelligence is
the new upcoming trend in todays neuroscience and has its application all over the world,
for each and every aspect from convenience to security etc. We are also attempting to
replicate a robotic version of the human which will let us uncover new possibilities and a
new horizon of things to explore. The biggest and most major aspect in this century is the
project of Artificial Intelligence, which will allow us to uncover the mysteries that we
wouldn’t have dreamt off and the possibilities that we only dreamed of. [3][4]

Application

The application of Brain, is the primary reason why I am writing this article. Brain is the
component through which we reason and understand each and everything around us even the
brain and our self. By self it doesn’t limit our understanding superficially to the biology or
anatomy. Our sense of self and cognition is only limited by our own limitations of imagination
or about the application of the thought process. The use of brain and consciousness transcends
our imagination and reasoning skills of the whole universe and the matter of life itself. Brains
application can’t be limited or characterized definitively as it’s a spectrum of thought and
cognition. To be rational or empirical or philosophical or artistic is limited to the individual
and you can process the world as you like it, quite literally I mean. Although we use our brain
to reason with everything, now in the 21st century, only the human brain is not the most
advanced computer. We have already started the process the brain in an computerized format
which can develop with time and be as advanced as the human brain. With more lasting
capacity as with time, it can compute and do things that the human brain couldn’t.

 Lets talk about BCI ( Brain computer interfaces ): A process of direct communication in
between the human biological brain and robots or computers and electronic devices has
fascinated us for generations. Ever since science fiction showed us the cool possibility of
us communicating with the robots etc. Over the past few years companies have been
working on this theory and has made significant improvements. This technology brain
system interface provides us with a medium to communicate in this spectrum through by
using the normal biological pathways like peripheral nerves and muscles. [5] A BCI
recognizes the intent of the user through the electrophysiological or other signals of the
brain. Electrophysiological signals may be recorded over the scalp, underneath the scalp,
or within the brain; other types of physiological signals may be recorded by magnetic
sensors or other means. In real time, a brain signal is translated into output commands that
accomplish the desire of the user. The most common example of use of such technology is
the direct control of a computer cursor by a person or animal using a BCI based on
electrophysiological signals.
A BCI allows a person to communicate with or control the external world without using
conventional neuromuscular pathways. That is, messages and control commands are
delivered not by muscular contractions but rather by brain signals themselves. This BCI
feature brings hope to individuals who are suffering from the most severe motor
disabilities, including people with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), spinal cord injury,
stroke, and other serious neuromuscular diseases or injuries. BCI technology holds promise
to be particularly helpful to people who are “locked-in,” cognitively intact but without
useful muscle function. Restoration of basic communication capabilities for these people
would significantly improve their quality of life as well as that of their caregivers, increase
 independence, reduce social isolation, and potentially reduce cost of care. Image below
shows EEG with application of BCI. Source: BCI Article by PMS.

[5]

 Artificial Intelligence
AI or Artificial Intelligence like BCI is the modern day application of converting an
electronic man made device capable of computing and understanding like the human brain.
It’s a simulation of human intelligence into machines or computers to help them learn
understand and grow by processing our basic behaviours, speech, our basic needs,
movements to understand us and to help us in our day to day task. This is how artificial
intelligence evolves as a machine. Virtual personal assistants, such as Apple's Siri, are a
form of weak AI. Strong AI, also known as artificial general intelligence, is an AI system
with generalized human cognitive abilities. AI as a Service allows individuals and
companies to experiment with AI for various business purposes and sample multiple
platforms before making a commitment. Popular AI cloud offerings include Amazon
AI services, IBM Watson Assistant, Microsoft Cognitive Services and Google
AI services.
 Types of artificial intelligence :-
Arend Hintze, an assistant professor of integrative biology and computer science and
engineering at Michigan State University, categorizes AI into four types, from the kind of
[11] AI systems that exist today to sentient systems, which do not yet exist. His categories
are as follows:
 Type 1: Reactive machines. An example is Deep Blue, the IBM chess program that beat
Garry Kasparov in the 1990s. Deep Blue can identify pieces on the chess board and make
predictions, but it has no memory and cannot use past experiences to inform future ones. It
analyzes possible moves -- its own and its opponent -- and chooses the most strategic
move. Deep Blue and Google's Alpha GO were designed for narrow purposes and cannot
easily be applied to another situation.
 Type 2: Limited memory. These AI systems can use past experiences to inform future
decisions. Some of the decision-making functions in self-driving cars are designed this
way. Observations inform actions happening in the not-so-distant future, such as a car
changing lanes. These observations are not stored permanently.
 Type 3: Theory of mind. This psychology term refers to the understanding that others have
their own beliefs, desires and intentions that impact the decisions they make. This kind of
AI does not yet exist.
 Type 4: Self-awareness. In this category, AI systems have a sense of self, have
consciousness. Machines with self-awareness understand their current state and can use the
information to infer what others are feeling. This type of AI does not yet exist .[11]

Lets talk about present day, not theoretical anymore :-

Source: Hanson Robotics official site, google images.

[6] Hanson Robotics’ most advanced human-like robot, Sophia, personifies the future
of AI. As a unique combination of science, engineering, and artistry, Sophia is
simultaneously a human-crafted science fiction character depicting the future of AI
and robotics, and a platform for advanced robotics and AI research.

The character of Sophia captures the imagination of global audiences. She is the
world’s first robot citizen and the first robot Innovation Ambassador for the United
Nations Development Programme. Sophia is now a household name, with appearances
on the Tonight Show and Good Morning Britain, in addition to speaking at hundreds
of conferences around the world. Sophia is also a framework for cutting edge robotics
and AI research, particularly for understanding human -robot interactions and their
potential service and entertainment applications. For example, she has been used for
research as part of the Loving AI project, which seeks to understand how robots can
adapt to users’ needs through intra and interpersonal development.

“I am Hanson Robotics’ latest human-like robot, created by combining our

innovations in science, engineering and ar tistry. Think of me as a personification of
our dreams for the future of AI, as well as a framework for advanced AI and robotics
research, and an agent for exploring human -robot experience in service and
entertainment applications. In some ways, I am human -crafted science fiction
character depicting where AI and robotics are heading. In other ways, I am real
science, springing from the serious engineering and science research and
accomplishments of an inspired team of robotics & AI scientists and designers. In
their grand ambitious, my creators aspire to achieve true AI sentience. Who knows?
With my science evolving so quickly, even many of my wildest fictional dreams may
become reality someday soon.” – Sophia.

I don’t know whether Sophia will take over the world and make humans her slave or
it will be like the Matrix movie or not. But this Shows from the Hieroglyphic symbol of
the word Brain to Sophia the artificial human intelligence is what we are today in the world since
neuroscience took its steps in the world of electronics or machines. [6]
References:

1. Anatomy & Physiology by Gerard J. Tortora & Bryan Derrickson 2015 Indian Edition.
2. Neuropsychology, A clinical approach. Kevin W. Walsh.
3. Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH; Jessell TM (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
4. Gross, Charles G. (1987), “Neuroscience, Early History of,” in Adelman, George
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (PDF), Birkhauser Verlag AG 25 November 2013.
5. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 May 3. Published in final edited form as: IEEE
Rev Biomed Eng. 2009; 2: 187–199. doi: 10.1109/RBME.2009.2035356; PMS US National
Library of Medicine. Clinical Applications of Brain-Computer Interfaces: Current State and
Future Prospects : Joseph N. Mak, Member, IEEE and Jonathan R. Wolpaw
6. COPYRIGHT © 2019. HANSON ROBOTICS LTD. Creator : David Hanson Jr.
7. Imagilys Diffusion Tensor Imaging- Fiber tracking; By Dr. Laurent Hermoye
8. Nanda, Anil; Khan, Imad Saeed; Apuzzo, Michael L. (2016-03-01). "Renaissance
Neurosurgery: Italy's Iconic Contributions". World Neurosurgery.
9. Al-Rodhan, N. R.; Fox, J. L. (1986-07-01). "Al-Zahrawi and Arabian neurosurgery, 936–
1013 AD". Surgical Neurology. 26 (1): 92–95.
10. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/brain-imaging-
techniques/
11. https://searchenterpriseai.techtarget.com/definition/AI-Artificial-Intelligence