See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/230029926

Chemical residues in lime‐plastered archaeological floors

Article  in  Geoarchaeology · April 2007

DOI: 10.1002/gea.20160

CITATIONS READS
65 280

1 author:

Luis Barba
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
222 PUBLICATIONS   1,220 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Akapana, en Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Esferas rituales del poder View project

Lime and the limekilns in the Maya area View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Luis Barba on 06 November 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Chemical Residues in Lime-Plastered
Archaeological Floors
Luis Barba
Laboratorio de Prospección Arqueológica, Instituto de Investigaciones
Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad
Universitaria, D.F. 04510, México

In addition to research carried out on soils and sediments, there is a parallel field of research
applying the same analytical techniques to the study of chemical residues in stuccoes. The
most common material used to build floors in Mesoamerica after the Classic period was lime
plaster. The study of residues in stuccoes becomes, therefore, a very promising study area. In
last 25 years the Archaeological Prospection Laboratory at Mexico’s National Autonomous
University has developed a research strategy to study human activities based on ethnoar-
chaeological studies to interpret the distribution of chemical residues in archaeological floors.
The most successful applications have been in lime-plastered surfaces; this article presents a
brief review of these works. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION
The application of chemical analysis to the study of archaeological floors is recent.
It has been a consequence of the use of soil and sediment analysis in three differ-
ent fields: agronomy, where chemical analysis is used to monitor plant health, fer-
tility, and soil nutrients; geochemistry, where it is used as a mean to study geologi-
cal evolution and locate mineral deposits of economic interest; and forensic science,
where it is used to reconstruct crime scenes.
Each of these fields followed a different path in developing these techniques.
Arrhenius (1929) discovered the relationship between phosphate and archaeologi-
cal remains while doing agronomic studies. From that moment on, geographers and
archaeologists enthusiastically accepted the idea that phosphate was a good indicator
of human settlement. As the history of phosphate analysis in archaeology shows
(Mejía and Barba, 1988), it is no longer a mere adaptation of an agricultural technique
but has become especially designed for field archaeology to demonstrate a close
relationship to human activities. During its development, it has also served as an
exploration tool, although this is not the field where its most promising applications
are envisioned.
Similarly, the chemical analysis of soils, sediments, and rocks has been used in
geochemical prospection for the location, delimitation, and evaluation of ore deposits.

*E-mail: barba@servidor.unam.mx.
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal, Vol. 22, No. 4, 439–452 (2007)
© 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Published online in Wiley Interscience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI:10.1002/gea.20160
BARBA

The economic approach of these applications has given way to the development of
instrumental analytical methods that make fieldwork easier and more cost effec-
tive. Because phosphorus is not the only element present in settlement areas, many
of the elements analyzed by geochemists may be useful in archaeology. In fact, since
the publication by Goffer (1980), different authors have used elements such as cal-
cium, magnesium, copper, potassium, and zinc. Substantial increases in the con-
centration of these elements in occupied areas have been reported. Recently,
Middleton (Middleton, 1998; Middleton and Price, 1996) has proposed the use of
other chemical elements related with human activities. Authors such as Wells et al.
(2000), Terry et al. (2004), and Wells (2004) have applied phosphate and a set of
chemical elements analyzed by Inductively Coupled Plasma–Atomic Emissions
Spectrometry (ICP-AES) to locate middens and activity areas.
Forensic techniques based on chemical analysis became important for studies
reconstructing human activities through the analysis of archaeological floors.
Simultaneously, there is a clear tendency to focus on microscopic archaeological
materials (e.g., Rosen, 1989; Metcalfe and Heath, 1990), which seem to be the clos-
est that the material evidence can get to the chemical analysis of floors. The most
important contribution of chemical analysis is that it provides information con-
cerning the invisible part of the archaeological record, the transformed, altered,
weathered part of the ancient materials no longer visible to archaeologists.
The large scale and use of soil and sediment samples are common in agronomy
and geochemistry, however, in the case of forensic and archaeological studies, smaller
scales and the study of floor samples are more characteristic. The ethnoarchaeo-
logical studies discussed in this article included samples from non-lime-plastered
floors because this floor making technique is no longer in use in rural areas of Mexico.
Yet, it is important to emphasize that these floors cannot be considered soil sam-
ples because they were taken from an occupation surface modified by their inhabi-
tants. For example, in the case of Tlaxcala, the natural soil layer was removed and
the volcanic tuff was exposed to create the occupation surface. In the earthen floors
at Osumacinta and Muxucuxcab, the leveling and compaction of the soil produced
anthropogenic occupation surfaces that should be recognized as floors.

BACKGROUND
When communities establish themselves, the soils’ natural formation processes
are anthropogenically modified. The results of these modifications reach far beyond
the interests and objectives of sciences such as agronomy and geochemistry. It is at
this point that the archaeological interpretations of the alterations demand an inter-
disciplinary approach to their study.
Any human settlement, with all its inherent activities, produces numerous alter-
ations on the land it occupies. Among them we can mention changes in topographic
relief due to leveling and compacting of the ground when walking on it. The areas cov-
ered by roofs are less affected by weathering action. Under these roofs we can expect
less erosion, enrichment of the soil by chemical compounds, surfaces subjected to heat-
ing, the transportation and concentration of materials that do not belong to the nat-

440 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

 CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

ural context, and finally the concentration of fragments of materials of daily use,
among other changes (Barba, 1986). Only those archaeological materials that do not
decompose are subject to study by traditional archaeological methods.
When an activity takes place, some liquid residues may be spilled on the surface
and, depending on the characteristics of the surface (e.g., porosity), the residues
may be absorbed. For that reason, a differential enrichment of the floor can be
observed, depending on the distribution and diversity of the activities made in a par-
ticular room. There is no doubt that decomposed materials leave traces of their con-
stituent elements. Whether or not these elements stay on the site in the amount and
extent to which they were deposited depend upon the conditions and the time they
remain abandoned. Once the substances, the byproducts of human activities, have
been incorporated into the floor, they are preserved in the pores of the material.
For the present study, it is essential to assume that the floor matrix was homo-
geneous at the moment of its construction, meaning that the floor composition was
the same at every point of its surface; thus, the human activities modify such homo-
geneity by the addition of specific chemical residues (Lazos, 1997). Several types of
floors can be recognized in Mesoamerica. From this variety, the lime-plastered floors
are the most suitable for the study of activity areas, because their manufacture and
construction processes assure homogeneity.
Lime-plastered floors represent an important technological development for con-
struction during the Classic period in central Mexico. The importance of these floors
is enhanced by the fact that limestone is not readily available in the Basin of Mexico,
so the lime used at Teotihuacan and later at Tenochtitlan, had to be transported from
outcrops close to Tula and Cuernavaca, among other places (Barba and Cordova,
1999). Prehispanic lime-plastered floors were made by preparing and applying a base
mixture of clayish material and tezontle (volcanic scoriaceous material). Surfaces
were then covered by a mixture with a high concentration of lime at variable thick-
ness, producing a smooth and whitish surface. This surface was very homogeneous
with a very low chemical residue content because to prepare the lime it was fired up
to 800°C, thereby removing all organic materials. During the slaking and preparation
with water, masons produced homogeneous mixtures that were evenly applied to
floor spaces. Once the floor was dry, it was used and accumulated residues from
the inhabitants’ activities.

ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES
Nowadays, there are many different analytical techniques available, but in the
case of our laboratory, most of the tests selected are characterized by the ease of appli-
cation; all of them are simple, semiquantitative tests. They allow the immediate pro-
cessing of numerous samples at a minimum cost and time (Barba et al., 1991). The
first set of tests carried out includes phosphate, carbonate, and Munsell color deter-
mination, along with pH measurement. In addition, calcium and iron have been some-
times analyzed to determine their distribution in residential areas. In all cases, the
experiments have shown that variations in concentrations reflect human activities.
Tests for organic compounds have been incorporated in more recent times. It has been

DOI: 10.1002/GEA GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 441

BARBA

shown that organic compounds remain in pores of floors as well as in pores of

ceramics. Spot tests for fatty acids, carbohydrates, and protein residues have been
successfully used to study floors. Because most human activities are related to
organic solutions, the study of both kinds of chemical compounds (organic and inor-
ganic) substantially enriches the interpretation.
Samples are obtained by drilling at the intersections of a grid and collecting the
resulting dust in a bag. Sample density is an important factor. The most common
grid density is one sample per square meter. In some cases, in the interior of small
roofed rooms, the matrix can be increased to 4 samples per m2, but in large open areas,
it might decrease to one sample per 4 or 16 m2. As a result, it is quite common to have
hundreds and even thousands of samples for the study of a single household or res-
idential unit. This requires the use of inexpensive and easy spot tests for these kinds
of studies. For the interpretation of human activities through chemical analysis of
residues in floors it is very important to look for patterns revealed by large numbers
of analyzed samples.
In all cases, a map of isoconcentration lines is produced showing the distribution
of chemical residues in the floor under study. This distribution may be related to the
archaeological materials found on top of the floors during excavation, whenever avail-
able. In the course of fieldwork, sometimes the immediately processed analytical
results produce the maps that enable investigators to modify their sampling strategy.

Phosphates Spot Test

This is a semiquantitative colorimetric test mainly developed by Eidt (1973, 1977).
During this chemical test, phosphates are extracted from the sample using an acid
solution to react with ammonium molybdate and produce a yellow phospho-molyb-
date. Through the reduction reaction with ascorbic acid, it changes to blue molyb-
den compounds. The amount of phosphates in the sample is related to the intensity
of the blue color produced on the filter paper. Once the color has been fixed with
sodium citrate solution and the filter paper has dried, colors are classified by iden-
tifying intervals using numbers between 0 and 6. For the procedure, 0.005 g of the
powdered sample is placed on the center of a Whatman No. 42, ashless filter circle
(45 mm). Two drops of chemical A (a solution of 5.0 g of ammonium molybdate dis-
solved in 35 mL of 5 N hydrochloric acid and diluted to reach 100 mL with distilled
water) are placed on the sample. After 30 seconds, two drops of chemical B (0.5 g
of ascorbic acid dissolved in 100 mL of distilled water) are added. Two minutes after
the reaction begins, several drops of chemical C (one part of sodium citrate is dis-
solved in two parts of distilled water) are added, covering the entire sample to stop
the reaction.

Carbonate Test
Carbonate content in the sample is estimated from the intensity of the chemical
reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid. For the procedure, 0.01 g of the powdered sam-
ple is placed in a test tube. One mL of 10% hydrochloric acid is added. The more intense

442 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

 CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

the reaction, the more carbonates are present. A 0–6 scale (modified after Dent and
Young, 1981) is used (0 ⫽ reaction not audible or visible, 1 ⫽ effervescence audible
but not visible, 2 ⫽ you can hear and see some bubbles, 3 ⫽ a clear reaction of effer-
vescence, 4–5 ⫽ the effervescence reaction increases the bubble level inside the tube,
and 6 ⫽ there is a strong effervescence and the reaction may overflow the test tube).
(Barba and Córdova, 1988)

pH (Hydrogen Potential)
This is a routine test for soils and uses a combined electrode connected to a pH meter.
For the procedure, 0.01 g of the sample is mixed with 5 mL of distilled water in a test tube.
After shaking well and waiting about 20 minutes, have the reading on display.

Fatty Acids
For the procedure, 0.1 g of the powdered sample is placed into a test tube. Two
mL of chloroform are added. The solution is heated for 1 minute, until the chloro-
form is reduced to half. The liquid is then transferred to a watch glass and two drops
of 28.7% ammonia are added. After 1 minute, two drops of 30% hydrogen peroxide
are added. If fatty acids are present, bubbles of oxygen produce foam in a solution
of ammonium soaps obtained by the sapponification of fatty acids. Foam will start
to form and will not disappear. The difference in quantity and stability of the foam
is compared using a scale from 0 to 3.

Protein Residues
In this test the amino groups are decomposed by an alcaline reaction producting
ammonia gas.
For this procedure, 0.01 g of the powdered sample is placed in a test tube. Add 0.01
g of calcium oxide and some drops of distilled water. After cleaning the rim of the
tube, two strips of pH-indicator paper are placed on the rim. The test tube is then
heated for approximately 1 minute, until the indicator paper turns color by the NH3
vapors. The darker the color, the more protein residues are present. The pH scale val-
ues are used to indicate the amount of protein; values of 7.0–7.5 indicate no presence
of protein residues.

Carbohydrates
Hydroloysis and dehydration of carbohydrates produce furfural. this compound
turns violet a pH paper impregnated with O-dianizidine.
This determination is carried out by mixing 0.01 g of the sample with 0.01 g of
oxalic acid and then placing the mixture in a crucible. Five drops of sulfuric acid (1:3)
are added and the mixture is heated. The resulting furfuraldehyde dissolved in glacial
acetic acid reactions with O-dianizidine (a dangerous substance that has to be used
with caution) impregnated on filter paper after exposing it to the resulting vapors in
the rim of the crucibles. The change in the color of the paper is observed and graded
on a scale of 1–6.

DOI: 10.1002/GEA GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 443

BARBA

ETHNOARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
The chemical analysis of floors provides information regarding indicators that can-
not be observed during excavations. In my experience, rather than using it as a
prospecting tool, chemical analysis may turn out to be a powerful tool for the study
of smaller archaeological spaces. Chemical residues have several distinctive
characteristics: They are (a) invisible, (b) intangible, (c) the residues of the byprod-
ucts of human activities, (d) have minimum vertical and horizontal displacement,
and (e) were not reused.
These indicators’ characteristics have no equivalent among archaeological mate-
rials. The spaces within domestic structures constitute adequate spaces for the appli-
cation of these studies. When information provided by archaeological materials and
their distribution is available, it constitutes an important indicator of activities, but
in many instances the floor itself is the only material from which we can obtain infor-
mation.
An ethnoarchaeological approach is one of the most precise ways to interpret the
distribution of chemical residues in archaeological terms. The best way to relate the
origin of a chemical concentration of any compound or element in a floor where
specific activities have taken place is through the study of the activities carried out
in modern domestic structures, or by means of controlled experimentation. In this
respect, several interesting experiments have been undertaken at our laboratory as
part of research projects on activity areas. Their main goal has been to establish the
chemical enrichment patterns for various activities, whether domestic or productive.
It is important to mention that these experiments were not on lime-plastered floors,
but the recognized patterns have been successfully applicable to them.
We first identified activities during an experiment carried out at Tlaxcala (Barba and
Bello, 1978); the layout of the household and the distribution of phosphates, carbon-
ates, and pH values were studied to establish their relationship to activities. In 1990,
after the laboratory began conducting organic residues tests, the same samples were
reanalyzed and reinterpreted (Barba and Ortiz, 1992). The results demonstrated that
chemical distributions are neither random nor uniform, but are closely related to the
activities carried out by the inhabitants using the household surfaces (Figure 1).
Barba and Denise (1984) studied a recently abandoned settlement at Osumacinta,
Chiapas as an example of a household context between ethnographic and archaeo-
logical conditions. Barba et al. (1995) produced another ethnoarchaeological study in
a contemporaneous context at Muxucuxcab, Yucatan to study enrichment patterns
recently produced by inhabitants who were also questioned about the use of the space.
As a part of her dissertation, Pecci (2005) has carried out controlled experiments
concerning the chemical enrichment of small models of lime-plastered floors. Adding
periodically known quantities of liquid solutions of broth, chocolate, and pulque,
she has been monitoring the enrichment of the surfaces over time. These kinds of
experiments complement the ethnoarchaeological studies and provide additional
support for archaeological interpretations.
Through previous works and ethnographic data, the following activity areas have
been recognized to date:

444 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

DOI: 10.1002/GEA
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4
CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

445
Figure 1. Phosphate distribution map of the floor of a traditional house and images of the rooms’ interior at San Vicente, Tlaxcala (from Barba, 1986: 25).
BARBA

1. Resting areas. These are found in inner rooms. If there is only one room,
these areas are opposite a hearth or fireplace. They usually have a very low
content of chemical residues.
2. Food preparation areas. Normally these include heat sources and, conse-
quently, ash and high pH values. These areas frequently contain carbonized
botanical remains as well.
3. Food consumption areas. These are located around food preparation areas and
contain lower pH values, but very high phosphate and organic residues values.
4. Traffic areas. Generally, these are the parts of the floor that suffer more wear
and tear. They are found in the doorways and main access corridors. Due to
erosion, they usually have low concentrations of chemical residues.
5. Places where animals were confined. This is a space limited in some way,
and often containing the highest phosphate values in the whole unit (Barba
and Lazos, 2000).

CASES OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL APPLICATION

The archaeological interpretations of these techniques are based on the eth-
noarchaeological studies. In most cases, the results confirmed the patterns; how-
ever, in a few instances it, has not been possible to explain the chemical concen-
trations found in archaeological contexts.
The study of a Classic period residential structure at Oztoyahualco, in the Valley
of Teotihuacan (Manzanilla, 1993), is one of the best examples of the importance of
interdisciplinary studies. During the excavation, the various disciplines were inte-
grated to interpret the structure’s function. The results also demonstrate the great
possibilities that exist with regard to the study of stucco floors.
For the chemical study of the floor, samples were taken with a concrete drill, 1" in
diameter and 1" in depth. The samples were analyzed for carbonates, phosphates, pH,
fatty acids, and protein residues. Based on the results, interpretations were offered
regarding the activities that had been carried out on the sampled surfaces. One of the
most interesting spaces was interpreted as one of the kitchens; data supplied by the
archaeological materials coincided with the chemical concentrations (Figure 2). Again,
the enrichment pattern established in ethnoarchaeological studies for areas devoted to
the preparation of food was identified. These food preparation areas were located next
to a storage room, where fragments of a large vessel, as well as abundant pollen of
flowers and Graminae were found. These results, together with the distribution of the
archaeological remains, allowed us to hypothetically reconstruct the activities that took
place in these rooms (Barba et. al., 1987; Ortiz and Barba, 1993).
In recent times, previously collected data has been reinterpreted to identify the
activities in the courtyards of the same apartment compound. We have examined
the location of specific archaeological material found on the floors and the con-
centrations of chemical residues as indicators of ritual activities that were presum-
ably carried out in these courtyards. We found that there are clear differences in the
use of courtyards. Distributions of chemical residues at courtyards C25 and C33
show an enrichment pattern completely different from that in courtyard C41. In the

446 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

DOI: 10.1002/GEA
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4
Figure 2. Phosphates, protein residues, fatty acids, carbonates, pH distribution maps, and hypothetical reconstruction of the activities performed on a
kitchen floor at Oztoyahualco apartment compound, Teotihuacan (from Barba et al., 1987: 28).
CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

447
BARBA

latter, the enrichment was in the center of the space, while in the C25 and C33, the
maximum concentration of chemical indicators was along the perimeter. We inferred
that C41 rituals were performed around an altar placed in the center of the courtyard.
In the other two courtyards, the distribution suggests that more domestic and every-
day activities were carried out while the inhabitants were occupying the steps that
surround the courtyard (Barba et al., in press).
One of the most successful studies of the ritual activities has been carried out at
the House of the Eagles in the Templo Mayor of Mexico-Tenochtitlan. The chemical
analysis of almost 500 samples of very well-preserved floors provided evidence to
reconstruct some of the ceremonial activities. The distribution map of the chemical
residues showed that the floor areas closest to the main altar had high concentra-
tions of chemical residues. Unexpectedly, the floor of the doorways, in front of the
Eagle Warrior and Mictlantecuhtli sculptures, contained elevated concentrations of
protein residues. These concentrations have been interpreted as related to activi-
ties where priests are seen self-sacrificing and spilling drops of blood on the floor
close to the Mictlantecuhtli image (Tudela, 1980:76r).
There are differences between fatty acids found at the main altar and those found
near secondary altars, suggesting different materials involved in specific rituals
(Figure 3). The sample with the largest fatty-acid concentration detected close to the
main altar was differentiated (through gas chromatography) by their high molecu-
lar weight and later was identified as copal residue (Barba et al., 1996).
For her Master’s thesis, Pecci (2000) undertook chemical analysis at the
Teopancazco apartment compound, located toward the southeast of Teotihuacan. In
addition to the analysis of samples of inner rooms, the most interesting area of study
was the main courtyard. It is a large square area (almost 20 ⫻ 20 m) with a central
altar, two visible and two removed or dismantled stairways. Sampling density was
on a 1-m grid. Chemical distribution maps showed interesting patterns. The well-
preserved floor was high in carbonate concentration (as expected), but there were
some worn areas, especially between the altar and the eastern stair that suggests
heavy traffic. Phosphate distribution showed some linear patterns going from the altar
to the stairs. Protein residues and fatty acids had similar distributions showing high
concentrations on the eastern side of the altar and inside the shrine to the east.
These concentrations strongly suggest the connection through the stair of two areas
devoted to ritual activities (Figure 4).

CONCLUSIONS
As mentioned previously, besides the traditional use of chemical analysis in iden-
tifying and delimiting sites, a field of application is developing concerning the intra-
site study of activity areas. This field, which appears to be more promising, is not lim-
ited to the application of phosphate analysis, but involves other elements, compounds,
and materials. One of the main contributions of these studies is the fact that they
inform us about important activities, whether these materials were frequently used
as important parts of the inhabitants’ daily life or because they were used in great
quantities on special occasions. These waste materials are the only ones that mani-

448 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

DOI: 10.1002/GEA
GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4
Figure 3. Fatty-acids distribution map of the floor of the House of the Eagles, Templo Mayor, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, and the hypothetical reconstruction of
CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

449
the North Altar activities. Observed differences in gas chromatography results confirm the higher concentration of fatty acids close to the altar (Lazos, 1997).
450
BARBA

GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4

Figure 4. Chemical residue distribution map of the main courtyard at Teopancazco, Teotihuacan. Note the higher concentration of chemical residues

DOI: 10.1002/GEA
between the altar and the eastern temple (from Pecci, 2000).
 CHEMICAL RESIDUES IN LIME-PLASTERED FLOORS

fest themselves as peculiarities that may be detected and interpreted. Neither ana-
lytical procedures nor the study goals deal with small differences in concentration,
rather, the intention is to deal with and interpret large differences found within lim-
ited sectors of floors where occupation has occurred.
The information from the materials that have resisted deterioration and have been
studied according to the traditional archaeological methods and the information
supplied by the study of the chemical residues impregnated in the floors, complement
and mutually enrich each other, thus enabling the investigator to understand the activ-
ities that produced them. One aspect that deserves special emphasis: If we could also
include studies of such as things as the botanical and fauna remains, we could refine
our interpretations because these techniques complement the other two mentioned and
enrich the final archaeological interpretation. The results of the first interdisciplinary
study of this type at Oztoyahualco have demonstrated their great potential for under-
standing the activities carried out in the residential units at Teotihuacan. Results from
la Casa de las Aguilas, Templo Mayor, have shown that not only domestic activities be
studied using this methodology, but also that the ritual activities clearly have left chem-
ical residues on floors. The use of instrumental analytical techniques can complement
and detail initial results, improving the final interpretations.

I very much appreciate Linda Manzanilla and Paul Schmidt’s comments and reviews. A special mention
goes to Alessandra Pecci and Luz Lazos, who shared results from their experiments in progress, and to
Luis Torres and Jaime Litvak who enthusiastically promoted and supported these studies during their
early stages in 1978.

REFERENCES
Arrhenius, O. (1929). Die Phosphatfrage. Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenernahrung, Dungung, und Bodenkunde,
10, 185–194.
Barba, L. (1986). La química en el estudio de áreas de actividad. In L. Manzanilla (Ed.), Análisis de unidades
habitacionales mesoamericanas y sus áreas de actividad (pp. 21–39). Ciudad Universitaria, México,
DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Barba, L., & Bello, G. (1978). Análisis de fosfatos en el piso de una casa habitada actualmente. Notas
Antropológicas, I(24), 188–193.
Barba, L., & Córdova, J.L. (1988). El análisis de carbonatos en la arqueología. Una invitación a su uso.
Antropológicas, 2, 97–105.
Barba, L., & Córdova, J.L. (1999). Estudios energéticos de la producción de cal en tiempos teotihuacanos
y sus implicaciones. Latin American Antiquity, 10, 168–179.
Barba, L., & Denise, P. (1984). Actividades humanas y análisis químico de los suelos: El caso de Osumacinta
Viejo, Chiapas. Memorias de la XVII Mesa Redonda de la Sociedad Mexicana de Antropología, 2,
263–277.
Barba, L., & Lazos, L. (2000). Chemical analysis of floors for the identification of activity areas: A review.
Antropología y Técnica, 6, 59–70.
Barba, L., Ludlow, B., Manzanilla, L., & Valadez, R. (1987). La vida doméstica en Teotihuacan. Un estudio
interdisciplinario. Ciencia y Desarrollo, 77, 21–33.
Barba, L., Manzanilla, L., & Ortiz, A. (2007). Commoner versus elite ritual at Teotihuacan, Central Mexico:
Methodological Considerations. In N. Gonlin & J.C. Lohse (Eds.), Commoner ritual and ideology in
ancient Mesoamerica. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
Barba, L., & Ortiz, A. (1992). Análisis químico de pisos de ocupación: Un caso etnográfico en Tlaxcala,
México. Latin American Antiquity, 3(1), 63–82.

DOI: 10.1002/GEA GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 451

 BARBA

Barba, L., Ortiz, A., Link, K.F., López Lujan, L., & Lazos, L. (1996). The chemical analysis of residues in floors
and the reconstruction of ritual activities at the Templo Mayor, Mexico. In M.V. Orna (Ed.),
Archaeological chemistry: Organic, inorganic and biochemical analysis (pp. 139–156). Anaheim, CA:
American Chemical Society.
Barba, L., Pierrebough, F., Trejo, C., Ortiz, A., & Link, K. (1995). Activites humaines reflétées dans les sols
d’unités d´habitation contemporaine et préhispanique du Yucatan (Mexique): Etudes chimiques eth-
noarchéologiques et archéologiques. Revue d’Archéométrie, 19, 79–95.
Barba, L., Rodríguez, R., & Córdova, J.L. (1991). Manual de técnicas microquímicas de campo para la
arqueología. Ciudad Universitaria, México, DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Dent, D., & Young, A. (1981). Soil survey and land evaluation. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Eidt, R.C. (1973). A rapid chemical field test for archaeological site surveying. American Antiquity, 38,
206–210.
Eidt, R.C. (1977). Detection and examination of anthrosols by phosphate analysis. Science, 197(4311),
1327–1333.
Goffer, Z. (1980). Archaeological chemistry. A sourcebook on the applications of chemistry to archaeol-
ogy. London: Wiley.
Lazos, L. (1997). Propuesta de una metodología para el estudio de áreas de actividad en pisos estucados.
Tesis de maestría. Ciudad Universitaria, México, DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Manzanilla, L. (Ed.). (1993). Anatomía de un conjunto residencial teotihuacano en Oztoyohualco. Ciudad
Universitaria, México, DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Mejía, E., & Barba, L. (1988). El análisis de fosfatos en la arqueología: Historia y perspectivas. Anales de
Antropología, 25, 127–147.
Metcalfe, D., & Heath, K.M. (1990). Microrefuse and site structure: The hearths and floors of the Heartbreak
Hotel. American Antiquity, 55, 781–796.
Middleton, W.D. (1998). Craft specialization at Ejutla, Oaxaca, Mexico: An archaeometric study of the
organization of household craft production. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin,
Madison.
Middleton, W.D., & Price, T.D. (1996). Chemical analysis of modern and archaeological house floors by
means of inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy. Journal of Archaeological Science,
23, 673–687.
Ortiz, A., & Barba, L. (1993). La química en el estudio de áreas de actividad. In L. Manzanilla (Ed.),
Anatomía de un conjunto residencial teotihuacano en Oztoyohualco. Ciudad Universitaria, México,
DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Pecci, A. (2000). Análisis químico de pisos y áreas de actividad. Estudio de caso en Teopancazco,
Teotihuacan. Tesis de maestría. Ciudad Universitaria, México, DF: Universidad Nacional Autónoma
de México.
Pecci, A. (2005). Per una definizione delle funzioni degli spazi all’interno degli insediamenti in corso di
scavo: un progetto archeometrico. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Universita degli Studi di Siena,
Siena, Italy.
Rosen, A.M. (1989). Ancient town and city sites: A view from the microscope. American Antiquity, 54,
564–578.
Terry, R.E., Fernández, F.G., Parnell, J.J., & Inomata, T. (2004). The story in the floors: Chemical signatures
of ancient and modern Maya activities at Aguateca, Guatemala. Journal of Archaeological Science, 31,
1237–1250.
Tudela, J. (1980). Códice Tudela. Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica.
Wells, E.C. (2004). Investigating activity patterns in prehispanic plazas: Weak acid-extraction ICP/AES analy-
sis of anthrosols at Classic period El Coyote, northwest Honduras. Archaeometry, 46, 67–84.
Wells, E.C., Terry, R.E., Hardin, P.J., Parnell, J.J., Houston, S.D., & Jackson, M.W. (2000). Chemical analy-
ses of ancient anthrosols in residential areas at Piedras Negras, Guatemala. Journal of Archaeological
Science, 27, 449–462.

Received July 5, 2004

Accepted for publication September 12, 2006

452 GEOARCHAEOLOGY: AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL, VOL. 22, NO. 4 DOI: 10.1002/GEA

View publication stats