Journal of Sports Sciences

ISSN: 0264-0414 (Print) 1466-447X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rjsp20

Mental fatigue impairs soccer-specific decision-

making skill

Mitchell R. Smith, Linus Zeuwts, Matthieu Lenoir, Nathalie Hens, Laura M. S.

De Jong & Aaron J. Coutts

To cite this article: Mitchell R. Smith, Linus Zeuwts, Matthieu Lenoir, Nathalie Hens, Laura M. S.
De Jong & Aaron J. Coutts (2016): Mental fatigue impairs soccer-specific decision-making skill,
Journal of Sports Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1156241

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1156241

Published online: 07 Mar 2016.

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 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2016.1156241

ARTICLE

Mental fatigue impairs soccer-specific decision-making skill

Mitchell R. Smitha,b, Linus Zeuwts b
, Matthieu Lenoirb, Nathalie Hensb, Laura M. S. De Jongc and Aaron J. Couttsa
a
Sport and Exercise Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney (UTS) Sydney Cricket Ground, Moore Park, New South
Wales, Australia; bDepartment of Movement and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium;
c
Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study aimed to investigate the impact of mental fatigue on soccer-specific decision-making. Twelve Accepted 15 February 2016
well-trained male soccer players performed a soccer-specific decision-making task on two occasions,
KEYWORDS
separated by at least 72 h. The decision-making task was preceded in a randomised order by 30 min of Football; cognitive fatigue;
the Stroop task (mental fatigue) or 30 min of reading from magazines (control). Subjective ratings of team sport; visual search
mental fatigue were measured before and after treatment, and mental effort (referring to treatment)
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and motivation (referring to the decision-making task) were measured after treatment. Performance on
the soccer-specific decision-making task was assessed using response accuracy and time. Visual search
behaviour was also assessed throughout the decision-making task. Subjective ratings of mental fatigue
and effort were almost certainly higher following the Stroop task compared to the magazines.
Motivation for the upcoming decision-making task was possibly higher following the Stroop task.
Decision-making accuracy was very likely lower and response time likely higher in the mental fatigue
condition. Mental fatigue had unclear effects on most visual search behaviour variables. The results
suggest that mental fatigue impairs accuracy and speed of soccer-specific decision-making. These
impairments are not likely related to changes in visual search behaviour.

Introduction (Boksem et al., 2006), and identify and respond to meaningful

cues in the visual search field of use for action preparation
Soccer match play demands frequent bouts of high-intensity
(Boksem et al., 2006; Lorist et al., 2000). Therefore, mental fatigue
activity, intermittently distributed among prolonged periods
may also impair soccer-specific decision-making, which relies on
of low-intensity activity (Mohr, Krustrup, & Bangsbo, 2005).
these cognitive abilities (Afonso, Garganta, & Mesquita, 2012).
This physically fatiguing activity profile contributes to reduc-
Previous research has shown that experienced soccer
tions in performance observed towards the end of a match
players make faster, more accurate decisions than their less-
(Rampinini, Coutts, Castagna, Sassi, & Impellizzeri, 2007;
experienced counterparts (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn, &
Rampinini et al., 2008) and in subsequent matches (Mohr
Philippaerts, 2007). These discrepancies are partly determined
et al., 2005; Nédélec et al., 2012). Soccer is also cognitively
by differences in visual search behaviour between players of
demanding as it requires sustained attention to make quick,
different experience levels (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn,
accurate decisions based on the retrieval and processing of
et al., 2007; Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts, 2007).
information from a dynamic environment (Nédélec et al., 2012;
Therefore, it is important to assess the impact of mental
Walsh, 2014). These demands suggest that soccer may also be
fatigue on decision-making skill and visual search behaviour
mentally fatiguing, with reductions in performance resulting
as these factors appear to be important contributors to suc-
from a combination of physical and mental fatigue. Indeed,
cessful soccer performance.
recent research has shown that mental fatigue impairs soccer-
To date however, no research has examined the effects of
specific physical and technical performance (Smith et al., 2016;
mental fatigue on soccer-specific decision-making. Previously,
Smith, Marcora, & Coutts, 2015).
Laborde and Raab (2013) revealed that both positive and
Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by sustained
negative mood states impaired team handball players’ deci-
periods of demanding cognitive activity and characterised by
sion-making skill compared to a neutral mood control group.
feelings of tiredness and lack of energy (Boksem & Tops, 2008;
Additionally, Hockey, John Maule, Clough, and Bdzola (2000)
Marcora, Staiano, & Manning, 2009). The negative impact of men-
revealed a fatigue-related increase in riskiness of decisions in
tal fatigue on cognitive (Boksem, Meijman, & Lorist, 2005, 2006)
hypothetical, everyday situations. Together, these investiga-
and motor (Duncan, Fowler, George, Joyce, & Hankey, 2015; Lal &
tions indicate that mood can affect executive functioning,
Craig, 2001) performances is well established, and may be attribu-
justifying further research into the impact of psychological
table to an impaired capability to maintain attentional focus
manipulations on sport-specific decision-making.
(Boksem et al., 2005), monitor and adjust performance (Lorist,
The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects
Boksem, & Ridderinkhof, 2005), react quickly and accurately
of induced mental fatigue on soccer-specific decision-making

CONTACT Mitchell Robert Smith Mitchell.Smith@uts.edu.au

© 2016 Taylor & Francis
 2 M. R. SMITH ET AL.
skill. It was hypothesised that mental fatigue would impair
players’ decision-making speed and accuracy, and alter visual
search patterns.
Methods
Participants
Twelve male soccer players (age: 19.3 ± 1.5 y; position: stri-
ker = 1, central midfield = 8, central defence = 3) participated
in this randomised, counter-balanced crossover investigation.
All players were currently competing in Belgian national (divi-
sions 3–4) or provincial (divisions 2–4) competitions and had
been playing soccer for at least 10 years (13.1 ± 2.6 y).
Participants signed an informed consent form outlining poten-
tial risks and describing the studies procedures which were
approved by the Ghent University Hospital Ethics Committee
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(Project #: 2002052) and conformed to the Declaration of
Helsinki. Participants were provided with information outlining
the study’s procedures but were not informed of its aims.
Experimental overview
Participants completed one familiarisation, plus two testing
sessions (control and mental fatigue). The familiarisation ses-
sion involved an explanation of all testing procedures and
equipment. Participants were also provided instructions to
sleep for eight hours, refrain from consumption of alcohol
and avoid vigorous exercise in the 24 h before each of the
testing sessions; avoid caffeine and demanding mental activity
the day of testing; and consume a reasonable meal approxi-
mately 1.5 h before the upcoming testing sessions which were
separated by at least 72 h.
Upon arrival for testing, participants completed a pre-test
checklist, assessing compliance with instructions, as well as a
visual analogue scale (VAS) for the assessment of mental
fatigue. A standardised explanation of the decision-making
task was then displayed on a projector screen to reinforce
familiarity for the upcoming test. Participants then walked to
an adjacent room where the control or mental fatigue treat-
ment was administered. Immediately following treatment, par-
ticipants returned to the testing room where they completed
VAS for subjective assessment of mental fatigue, mental effort
and motivation. Participants were then fitted with a modified
baseball cap housing the eye-tracking system.
Following calibration, participants completed four practice
trials of the soccer-specific decision-making task, followed by
33 testing trials, with an inter-trial interval of approximately
45 s. The calibration of the eye-tracking system was checked
following the four practice trials and after every 11 test trials.
Participants again provided subjective ratings of mental fati-
gue and mental effort following the decision-making task,
which lasted approximately 35–40 min.
Treatment
Mental fatigue was induced using a 30-min paper version of a
modified Stroop colour–word task. Four words (red, blue, green,
yellow) were repeatedly printed in a random order, and
participants were required to verbally respond to each word.
The correct response corresponded to the ink colour of the word
(red, blue, green, yellow), rather than the words meaning.
However, if the ink colour of the word was red, the correct
response corresponded to the meaning of the word, rather
than its printed colour. Verbal responses were monitored by a
member of the research team who sat opposite the participants
throughout treatment. To increase motivation for the task, a
competitive environment was created, whereby participants
were challenged to successfully complete more words than
other participants within the 30-min treatment period.
The control treatment involved 30 min of reading from a
selection of magazines. The magazines varied in theme, includ-
ing sport, cars and travel, and were identified by pilot testing as
emotionally neutral. Participants completed both treatments in
the same room, under the supervision of the same researcher.
Subjective ratings
Subjective ratings of mental fatigue, mental effort and motiva-
tion were recorded using the same 100-mm VAS as used in
previous research investigating the impact of mental fatigue
on soccer-specific performance (Smith et al., 2016). The scales
were anchored at one end with “none at all” and at the other
end with “maximal”. Mental fatigue was measured pre- and
post-treatment as a manipulation check, and also after the
decision-making task. Mental effort was assessed following
treatment and the decision-making task, while motivation
was only measured post-treatment.
Decision-making task
This study utilised the soccer-specific decision-making task pre-
viously developed and validated by Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams,
Mazyn, et al. (2007). This task required participants to observe
film-based simulations of offensive soccer play, projected onto a
4.3 × 2.5-m screen positioned 4.4 m in front of the participant.
Participants were required to imagine themselves as an offensive
midfielder, playing in a central position, who were easily identifi-
able on screen, as they wore a yellow vest over their playing
jersey. Sequences of play varied in number, and position of
players on screen (2 vs. 1, 3 vs. 1, 3 vs. 2, 4 vs. 3 and 5 vs. 3), as
well as in duration, ranging from 3.0 s to 9.7 s. Each sequence
ended with a pass to the yellow player and film was occluded as
the yellow player received the ball.
As the ball was passed to the yellow player on screen,
participants were required to make quick and accurate decisions
by taking the appropriate action with the ball positioned in front
of them. In each sequence, participants had the option of pas-
sing to any player on screen, shooting towards goal or dribbling
the ball “around a defender”. Participants were then required to
verbalise their response to ensure that they had carried out the
intended action. Task performance was assessed using response
accuracy, response time and visual search data.
Response accuracy and time
Response accuracy was based on a scoring system from zero
to three points for each sequence. Therefore, accuracy was
 JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 3

calculated as the percentage of points awarded out of a
possible 99 points. Scores for each response were allocated
by a panel of coaches according to the following criteria:
● 3 points = The most goal-oriented action.
● 2 points = An action “indirectly” leading to a goal-scor-
ing opportunity.
● 1 point = Maintenance of ball possession, not leading to
a goal scoring opportunity.
● 0 points = Poor decision leading to loss of possession.
During each clip, participants stood on pressure-sensitive
switches which were used to measure response time, defined
as the time (in ms) from the start of the pass towards the
yellow player until the participant raised a foot off the pres-
sure switch to play the ball.
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transformed when non-normally distributed. A contemporary
magnitude-based approach was used to assess chances of
differences between experimental conditions being trivial or
true (greater than the smallest worthwhile change; 0.2 × the
between-subjects SD) (Hopkins, Marshall, Batterham, & Hanin,
2009). Chances of true difference were qualitatively assessed
as <0.5%, almost certainly not; <5%, very unlikely; <25%,
unlikely; 25‒75%, possibly; >75%, likely; >95%, very likely
and >99.5%, almost certainly. If the chances of a variable
having higher and lower differences were both >5%, the effect
was considered unclear. Effect sizes (ES) were calculated to
assess the magnitude of difference between groups and are
reported ± 90% confidence limits. ES of <0.2, 0.2–0.6, 0.6–1.2,
1.2–2.0 and >2.0 were considered trivial, small, moderate,
large and very large, respectively. If the 90% confidence inter-
val of the ES was greater than ± 0.2 in both directions, the
effect was considered unclear.

Visual search
Visual search data were recorded using an IviewX Head
mounted Eye-tracking Device (SMI, Teltow, GER). Participants
Results
wore a modified baseball cap, housing an infra-red eye cam- Subjective ratings
era, which recorded left eye movements at 50 Hz using pupil
Subjective ratings of mental fatigue almost certainly increased
position and corneal reflex. A second camera recorded images
more following the Stroop task, than the control treatment
of the scene at 25 Hz. Both cameras were connected via USB
(ES = 1.23 ± 0.26; Figure 1). Follow-up analysis revealed no
cable to a notebook which was placed in a small backpack
clear difference in subjective ratings of mental fatigue pre-
worn by the participants. Data from both cameras were com-
treatment, but an almost certainly higher rating following the
bined using BeGaze 3.0 software (SMI, Teltow, GER), which has
Stroop task (ES = 1.50 ± 0.38). Furthermore, changes from pre-
a spatial accuracy of 1°. Visual search data was analysed frame
to post-treatment were likely trivial following the control
by frame using video analysis software (Kinovea open source
treatment (ES = 0.08 ± 0.24) and almost certainly increased
project, www.kinovea.org). Technical and calibration issues
following the Stroop task (ES = 1.85 ± 0.43). Subjective ratings
resulted in poor tracking of gaze behaviour during some test-
of mental fatigue very likely increased more following the
ing sessions. Therefore, visual search data are presented for
decision-making task in the control condition
eight participants.
(ES = −1.03 ± 0.53); however, no clear differences between
Search rate was assessed using the mean number of visual
conditions existed following the decision-making task
fixations per second (n · s−1), and mean fixation duration. A
(ES = 0.19 ± 0.51). Subjective ratings of mental fatigue possibly
fixation was defined as a period where the eye remained on
increased following the decision-making task in the control
one area of interest for equal to or greater than 120 ms. The
condition (ES = 0.29 ± 0.60), but very likely decreased in the
percentage of total viewing time (per trial) spent in fixation
mental fatigue condition (ES = −1.10 ± 0.76).
(fixation %) was also calculated, and further broken down into
measurement of fixation % for different locations. Fixations
were allocated to one of nine areas: yellow player (YP); player
with ball (PB); ball (B); unmarked attacker (A); closely marked
attacker (A/D); defender (D); goalkeeper (K); free space (FS)
and an unspecified category for fixations that could not be
categorised under the aforementioned locations (U).
Fixation order refers to the sequence of searching utilised
by the participants. As in previous investigations (Vaeyens,
Lenoir, Williams, Mazyn, et al., 2007; Williams, Davids,
Burwitz, & Williams, 1994), fixation order was measured as
the number of times per second (n · s−1) that participants
alternated their gaze between the player with the ball,
another area of the display and then back to the player with
the ball.

Statistical analysis Figure 1. Subjective ratings of mental fatigue.

Data presented as mean ± SD. ↑ increase, ↓ decrease, * possible, *** very likely,
Data are presented as mean ± SD unless otherwise stated. **** almost certain change; ### very likely, #### almost certain difference
Prior to analysis, data were tested for normality and log- between conditions.
 4 M. R. SMITH ET AL.
Post-treatment ratings of mental effort were almost cer-
tainly higher following the Stoop task (79.5 ± 13.3 AU) than
the control treatment (28.8 ± 15.0 AU; ES = 3.13 ± 0.75), and
possibly trivial or possibly higher following the decision-mak-
ing task in the mental fatigue condition (53.7 ± 27.5 AU) than
the control condition (47.7 ± 25.8 AU; ES = 0.22 ± 0.47).
Differences in motivation to perform the decision-making
task were possibly trivial or possibly higher in the mental
fatigue condition (79.0 ± 18.6 AU) than the control condition
(74.5 ± 12.6 AU; ES = 0.33 ± 0.52).
Response accuracy and time
Overall response accuracy was very likely lower in the mental
fatigue condition (80.9 ± 6.4%) compared to the control condi-
tion (85.7 ± 4.9%; ES = −0.89 ± 0.73). Response accuracy was
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likely lower for 3 vs. 1 formations (ES = −0.49 ± 0.87), possibly
lower for 3 vs. 2 formations (ES = −0.37 ± 0.71) and very likely
lower for 5 vs. 3 formations (ES = −1.00 ± 0.96; Figure 2A) in the
mental fatigue condition. No clear differences in response accu-
racy existed between conditions for 2 vs. 1 or 4 vs. 3 formations.
Figure 2. Effects of mental fatigue on decision-making accuracy (A), response time (B), fixations/s (C), fixation duration (D), fixation % (E) and fixation order (F).
Data presented as mean ± SD. # possible, ## likely, ### very likely difference between conditions.
Overall response time was likely slower in the mental fati-
gue condition (768 ± 134 ms) compared to the control condi-
tion (685 ± 156 ms; ES = 0.49 ± 0.47). Response time was very
likely slower for 2 vs. 1 formations (ES = 1.37 ± 1.03), possibly
slower for 3 vs. 1 formations (ES = 0.25 ± 0.43) and likely lower
for 3 vs. 2 (ES = 0.40 ± 0.57), 4 vs. 3 (ES = 0.57 ± 0.54) and 5 vs.
3 formations (ES = 0.34 ± 0.40; Figure 2B).
Visual search
Overall, no clear differences existed between conditions for
mean number of fixations per second (control: 2.07 ± 0.25
n · s−1; mental fatigue: 2.09 ± 0.30 n · s−1; ES = 0.41 ± 0.79),
or mean fixation duration (control: 447 ± 58 ms; mental fati-
gue: 450 ± 81 ms; ES = 0.05 ± 0.54). However, for 2 vs. 1
formations, mean number of fixations per second were likely
lower (ES = −0.38 ± 0.41; Figure 2C), and mean fixation dura-
tion was likely higher (ES = 0.38 ± 0.34; Figure 2D) in the
mental fatigue condition. No clear differences in fixations per
second or fixation duration existed between conditions for any
other formations.

Overall fixation % was likely lower in the mental fatigue
condition (90.1 ± 2.8%) compared to the control condition
(91.3 ± 1.3%; ES = −0.81 ± 1.00). For 3 vs. 2 formations, fixation
% was very likely lower in the mental fatigue condition
(ES = −0.94 ± 0.73); however, no clear differences existed for
other formations (Figure 2E). Differences in fixation order
between conditions were possibly trivial or possibly lower in
the mental fatigue condition (0.17 ± 0.11 n · s−1) compared to
the control condition (0.17 ± 0.08 n · s−1; ES = −0.19 ± 0.33).
No clear differences in fixation order existed between condi-
tions for any specific formations (Figure 2F).
No clear differences between conditions existed for over-
all percentage of time fixating on YP, A/D, K or U
(Figure 3A). Differences in overall percentage of time fixat-
ing on PB and FS were possibly trivial or possibly lower in
the mental fatigue condition (PB: ES = −0.16 ± 0.30; FS:
ES = −0.16 ± 0.19). Overall percentage of time fixating on
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D was likely higher in the mental fatigue condition
(ES = 0.67 ± 0.71), while differences for B were possibly
trivial or possibly higher in the mental fatigue condition
(ES = 0.29 ± 0.24).
Figure 3. Effects of mental fatigue on fixation location in all (A), 2 vs. 1 (B), 3 vs. 1 (C), 3 vs. 2 (D), 4 vs. 3 (E) and 5 vs. 3 (F) formations.
Data presented as mean ± SD. # possible, ## likely, ### very likely difference between conditions.
JOURNAL OF SPORTS SCIENCES 5
Follow-up analysis revealed that percentage of time fixat-
ing on D was possibly lower in the mental fatigue condition
for 2 vs. 1 formations (ES = −0.38 ± 0.53; Figure 3B), but likely
higher for 3 vs. 1 (ES = 0.83 ± 0.64; Figure 3C) and 3 vs. 2
(ES = 0.73 ± 0.88; Figure 3D) formations, and possibly higher
for 5 vs. 3 formations (ES = 0.26 ± 0.43; Figure 3F).
Furthermore, for 3 vs. 1 formations, percentage of time fixat-
ing on A was possibly lower (ES = −0.38 ± 0.59), and percen-
tage of time fixating on FS was likely lower (ES = −0.41 ± 0.48)
in the mental fatigue condition (Figure 3C).
Discussion
The aim of the current investigation was to determine the
impact of mental fatigue on soccer-specific decision-making,
and gaze behaviour. In agreement with our primary hypoth-
esis, mental fatigue impaired both speed and accuracy of
soccer-specific decision-making. However, only minor differ-
ences in gaze behaviour were observed between conditions.
Similar to previous investigations (Rozand, Lebon,
Papaxanthis, & Lepers, 2015; Smith et al., 2016), subjective
 6 M. R. SMITH ET AL.
ratings of mental fatigue almost certainly increased following
the Stroop task, yet remained stable following the control. This
is likely due to the almost certainly higher mental effort
required by the Stroop task.
Again in line with previous research (Brownsberger,
Edwards, Crowther, & Cottrell, 2013; Marcora et al., 2009;
Pageaux, Marcora, Rozand, & Lepers, 2015; Smith et al.,
2016), participants in the current investigation reported simi-
lar levels of motivation for the soccer-specific decision-mak-
ing task, following both treatments. These findings appear
to contradict the well-established inverse relationship
between mental fatigue and motivation (Boksem & Tops,
2008), and reward-based theories of cognitive control
(Botvinick & Braver, 2015; Hagger, Wood, Stiff, &
Chatzisarantis, 2010). However, Inzlicht, Schmeichel, and
Macrae (2014) provide a plausible explanation for the similar
levels of motivation, suggesting that acts of self-control
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(such as the Stroop task) produce lower motivation for
“have-to” tasks, and higher motivation for “want-to” tasks.
This may have resulted in reduced motivation to perform
the Stroop task, but a possibly higher motivation to perform
the soccer-specific decision-making task. Nevertheless, moti-
vational differences cannot explain any performance differ-
ences in the current investigation as participants were highly
motivated to perform the soccer-specific decision-making
task in both conditions.
The primary finding of the current investigation was that
mental fatigue impaired accuracy and speed of soccer-specific
decision-making. This impaired decision-making skill in men-
tally fatigued athletes is not surprising, as previous investiga-
tions have revealed the negative impact of mental fatigue on
reaction time and accuracy in cognitive tasks (Boksem et al.,
2005; Lorist et al., 2005), and the negative impact of mood
manipulation on decision-making skill in team handball
players (Laborde & Raab, 2013).
One potential explanation for the mental-fatigue-induced
impairment in decision-making skill is that players may have
been unable to effectively utilise environmental cues to pre-
pare for their upcoming decisions. Indeed, previous investiga-
tions using computer-based cognitive tasks have revealed that
mental fatigue negatively impacts preparation and planning
processes (Boksem et al., 2006; Lorist et al., 2000). In a soccer-
specific context, this may manifest as a reduced capability to
interpret and/or anticipate the movement of players and the
ball. Future research utilising electroencephalography may
provide further insight on this hypothesis, as specific changes
in brain activity are associated with preparatory and anticipa-
tory processes (Boksem et al., 2006).
Decision-making ability of team sport athletes is affected
by preferences for intuition and deliberation. Raab and
Laborde (2011) found that team handball players who pre-
ferred intuitive decision-making made faster and better deci-
sions than those who preferred deliberative decision-making.
Indeed, when athletes are under time pressure to choose from
multiple plausible options, taking the first option often results
in the fastest and most accurate decision (Laborde & Raab,
2013; Raab & Laborde, 2011). Although decision-making pre-
ferences were not measured in the current investigation, it is
possible that mentally fatigued players were more deliberative
in their decision-making, leading to slower and less accurate
responses.
In contrast to our hypothesis, mental fatigue had minimal
impact on visual search behaviour during the soccer-specific
decision-making task. Between-condition differences in search
rate were observed only in 2 vs. 1 formations and percentage
of time fixating was different only in 3 vs. 2 formations.
Furthermore, while overall fixation order was possibly lower
in the mental fatigue condition, the size of the effect was
unclear, and no true between-condition differences existed
for specific formations. However, when mentally fatigued,
players appeared to spend a higher percentage of time fixat-
ing on defensive players and a lower percentage fixating on
offensive players (Figure 3A).
Previous research (Vaeyens, Lenoir, Williams, & Philippaerts,
2007) identified similar results, with successful decision-
makers fixating more on the player with the ball and attacking
players, and less time fixating on the ball and defensive
players. In contrast to these previous results, in the current
investigation there were very few between-condition differ-
ences for search rate, fixation percentage and fixation order.
This may be due to the limited sample size of the current
investigation. Nevertheless, it is difficult to determine whether
these small changes in visual search behaviour were respon-
sible for the observed decline in decision-making performance
in mentally fatigued players.
In soccer, successful decision-making also relies on a
player’s capability to identify, select and then programme
the correct action in response to opposition or teammate
postural cues, recognise meaningful patterns in play and
determine situational probabilities (Roca, Ford, McRobert, &
Williams, 2013; Williams, Ford, Eccles, & Ward, 2011). In the
current investigation, it is possible that despite minimal differ-
ences in visual search behaviour, players’ information proces-
sing was less effective, resulting in impaired decision-making
skill. Indeed, mental fatigue has been shown to impair execu-
tive functioning and information-processing during cognitive
tasks (Meijman, 1997; Van der Linden, Frese, & Meijman, 2003),
which may partly be due to the effects of mental fatigue on
attention.
Mental fatigue has been associated with changes in atten-
tional focus from goal-directed to stimulus-driven attention
(Ackerman, 2011; Boksem et al., 2005), which could lead to
inattentional blindness, whereby observers fail to notice
important cues such as unmarked teammates (Memmert &
Furley, 2007). Therefore, fatigue-related impairments to deci-
sion-making in the current investigation may partly be
explained by ineffective information-processing and changes
in attentional focus, rather than altered visual search patterns.
Indeed, mentally fatigued participants in a previous examina-
tion did not report difficulties with visual perception, but did
report more attentional difficulties (Van der Linden & Eling,
2006). As previously suggested (Smith et al., 2016), these
potential changes in attentional focus may be more significant
in ecological settings such as full-sized or small-sided games,
where the number of irrelevant stimuli is greater than that of a
controlled setting.
Although the players in the current investigation were well-
trained, it is unknown whether similar results would be

observed in elite players. Indeed, considering their familiarity
with highly demanding cognitive activity during competition
(Walsh, 2014), it is possible that elite players would be less
susceptible to the mental fatigue induced by the Stroop task.
However, it is also possible that the higher importance of elite
competition places greater cognitive demands on elite players
as they regulate emotions prior to a match. Therefore, elite
players may experience mental fatigue during competition,
and therefore may be affected by the negative impact of
mental fatigue on soccer-specific decision-making skill
observed in this investigation.
While the current investigation clearly reveals the negative
impact of mental fatigue on accuracy and speed of soccer-
specific decision-making, some limitations should be acknowl-
edged. Due to technical difficulties, visual search behaviour
was only assessed in eight participants. It is possible that
additional data may have provided a clearer assessment of
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visual search patterns and potential mechanisms underlying
performance changes. However, this limitation does not
negate the substantial impairments to soccer-specific deci-
sion-making induced by mental fatigue. Furthermore, future
research should take a more practical approach to assessing
the impact of mental fatigue on soccer performance. Indeed,
although anecdotal reports exist, it is unknown whether
match play or common pre-match activities induce mental
fatigue. If so, players and staff should reassess pre-match
routines and implement strategies that may attenuate the
negative impact of mental fatigue on soccer performance.
Conclusions
This investigation demonstrates that mental fatigue impairs
both accuracy and speed of soccer-specific decision-making
skill. It is unlikely that these impairments are related to
changes in visual search behaviour. Alternatively, it is possible
that mental fatigue impaired players’ capability to utilise envir-
onmental cues and/or resulted in changes to attention and
decision-making strategies. Nevertheless, the results of the
current investigation have significant implications for soccer,
where the capability to make quick and accurate decisions is
critical for success.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Linus Zeuwts http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2911-6085
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