TOEIC Grammar Guide - Verb Tense

Verb Tense

Introduction

Every sentence has a subject and a main verb. Verbs describe what the subject is doing. To be able to show exactly what
the subject does at any time, verbs have different forms and tenses. In order to speak and write English correctly, you
must learn the various verb forms and tenses.

Learning Hint:

To use verbs accurately, learn the standard verb forms and tenses. Memorize common irregular verb forms that do not
follow standard forms.

Verb Forms

Verbs have five forms:

Form Verb Example Irregular Verb Example

Infinitive walk run
Past tense walked ran
Past participle walked run
Present participle walking running
-s or -es form walks runs

The only verb with more than 5 forms is be

Form Verb
Infinitive be
Past tense was (for I / he / she / it); were (for we / you / they)
Past participle be, been
Present participle being
-s / -es form --

The verb be also has 3 present tense forms (am, is, are) while all other verbs have one.

Infinitive Form

The infinitive form is the plain or dictionary form. It is used when the verb's action happens in the present and the subject
is a plural noun or the pronouns I, we, you, or they:

I go to work.

You cook very well.

We live downtown.

They help me.

Past Tense Form

The past tense shows the verb's action happened in the past. It is usually made by adding -d or -ed to the infinitive. The
past tense is formed differently for most irregular verbs:

We lived downtown.

They helped me.

I went to work. (Irregular verb)

Past Participle and Present Participle Form

The past participle is used with the verb have (have / has / had) to create the present and past perfect tenses. The past
participle form is also used to modify nouns and pronouns. One example is the phrase sliced bread.

The past participle is usually the same as the past tense form. Only some irregular verbs have a past participle that is
different than their past tense form.

We have lived downtown.

They have helped me.

I have gone to work. (Irregular verb)

The present participle is made by adding -ing to a verbs infinitive form:

Working

Buying

Eating

The present participle can modify nouns and pronouns. One example is the phrase running water. When used as a noun
(example: smoking is bad), the present participle is known as a gerund. The present participle is also used to create the
progressive tense.

-S Form

The -s form of a verb is made from the infinitive of the verb. This form is used when the verb's action is in the present and
the subject is third-person singular. Third-person singular is a singular noun (examples: desk, John), or a singular
indefinite pronoun (examples: everybody, someone), or the personal pronouns he / she / it.

How the -s form is made depends on the last letter of the verb:

Verb Ending To Make Third Person Singular Example

s add -es Pass - It passes
sh add -es Wish - Everyone wishes
ch add -es Watch - She watches
consonant + y change y to i and add -es Try - He tries
Any other letter add -s Drink - He drinks

Verb Types

Irregular Verbs

Many verbs do not follow the rules to make the different forms. They are called irregular verbs. No single rule explains
how to make their past tense and past participle forms. The irregular verbs must be memorized. These are some of the
common irregular verbs:

Infinitive Past Tense Past Participle

choose chose chosen
do did done
drink drunk drank
eat ate eaten
give gave given
forget forgot forgotten
lie lay lain
let let let
see saw seen
sleep slept slept
throw threw thrown
write wrote written

Helping Verbs

Another important type of verb is the helping or auxiliary verb. Helping verbs show tense and can show person, number,
voice or mood. These verbs combine with a main verb to form a verb phrase. A main verb is an infinitive, a present
participle or past participle. These are verb phrase examples:

will give

has been working

can go

Some helping verbs combine with main verbs to show time and voice. These helping verbs are shall, will, have
(has / had), do (does / did) and the forms of be (am / is / are / was / were / been / being):

We will live downtown. We did not live downtown.

They shall help me. They were helped.
I have been working. I had worked.

Modal Verbs
Helping verbs such as can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, and would are used to add extra meaning
to main verbs. These helping verbs are called modals. They show a necessity, possibility, ability, permission, prediction
or responsibility:

You should write that report. We must go.

He can carry heavy objects. I might leave.

The helping verb do (does) or its past tense did is used together with the infinitive of a verb to ask questions, make the
negative form, or to show added importance:

Does she work this week? Do they go to school?

Where does he live? Where did they live?
She does not sleep well. She did not sleep well.
You do work every day. He does run on weekends.

Verbals

A verbal (nonfinite verb) is no longer a verb. It is a verb form used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. A verbal can
never be a main verb.

Verbal Example Verb Form

Noun Running is great exercise. present participle
Adjective Blocked printers cannot print. past tense
Adverb We were ready to work. to + infinitive

Verb Tenses

Tense shows the time of a verbs action or being. There are three verb tenses: simple, perfect, and progressive. Each
tense has past, present and future forms.

Note: Because tense shows time, a time word in a sentence helps to decide what tense is being used. Most time words
can only go with a certain tense. These are some examples:

Present Past Future Progressive

often yesterday tomorrow now
every hour / day / week last week / month next week / month today
every month/year last year next year this month
usually amount of time + ago in + amount of time for + amount of time
sometimes
today
for + amount of time

Simple Tense

The simple tenses show that an action or state of being is past, present, or future. The present tense shows action that is
happening now as a person speaks or writes. The present tense is also used to describe actions that are factual or
habitual (commonly repeated over a period of time). The present tense uses the verbs infinitive or the -s form for third
person singular subject.
The past tense shows action that has finished as a person speaks or writes. The past tense uses the verbs past tense
form.

The future tense shows action that has not happened yet as a person speaks or writes. The future tense uses the helping
verb will or shall plus the verbs infinitive.

Tense Regular Verb: Walk Irregular Verb: Run

Present I / you / we / they walk. I / you / we / they run.

He / she / it walks. He / she / it runs.

Past I / you / we / they / he / she / it walked. I / you / we / they / he / she / it ran.
Future I / you / we / they / he / she / it will walk. I / you / we / they / he / she / it will run.

Perfect Tense

The perfect tenses show that an action was or will be finished BEFORE another time or action happens. The perfect
tenses are made with the helping verb have (have / has / had) plus the verbs past participle. All subjects use had for the
past perfect tense. All subjects use will have or shall have for the future perfect tense. The infinitive have or has for
singular third person is used for the perfect present tense.

Examples:

Tense Regular Verb: Walk

Present Perfect I / you / we / they have walked.

He / she / it has walked.

Past Perfect I / you / we / they / he / she / it had walked.
Future Perfect I / you / we / they / he / she / it will have walked.
Tense Irregular Verb: Run
Present Perfect I / you / we / they have run.

He / she / it has run.

Past Perfect I / you / we / they / he / she / it had run.
Future Perfect I / you / we / they / he / she / it will have run.

The present perfect tense can also show that an action started in the past and is still going on in the present.

Examples:

He has lived downtown. (Action is finished at the time it is written.)

He has worked for three hours. (Action started in the past and is still going on.)

She has always written in a diary. (Action started in the past but continues now.)

Progressive Tense

The progressive tenses show continuing action. They can also show how long an action has been going on for an amount
of time in the present, past, or future. A verb's present participle joins with some forms of the verb be (am, is, are, was,
were) to make the simple progressive tenses.
Tense Example
Present Progressive I am working.

You / we / they are working.

He / she / it is working.
Past Progressive I / he / she / it was working.

You / we / they were working.

Future Progressive I / he / she / it / they / we / you will be working.

The past progressive can show an action that happened in the past and was not finished:

He was doing his work. (He was working, but he may not have finished the work.)

The perfect tense form plus been plus the verbs present participle makes the perfect progressive tenses:

Tense Example
Present Perfect I / you / we / they have been working.
Progressive
He / she / it has been working.
Past Perfect Progressive I / he / she / it / they / we / you had been working.
Future Perfect Progressive I / he / she / it / they / we / you will have been working.

Not all verbs can make a progressive tense. Verbs that have qualities not able to show change cannot make the
progressive tense. These are some of the verbs:

be guess seem see

believe include think smell
cost like understand taste
desire love want need
doubt remember wish have

Examples:

Incorrect: She is being pretty.

Correct: She is pretty.

Incorrect: That is owning to him.

Correct: He owns that.

Incorrect: They are wanting a raise.

Correct: They want a raise.

 Subject-Verb Agreement

Introduction

Proper sentences must have subject-verb agreement. Subject-verb agreement means the subject and verb match. A
singular subject must have a singular verb. A plural subject must have a plural verb.

Singular Plural

The employee goes to work. The employees go to work.

The employee is going to work. The employees are going to work.
The employee has gone to work. The employees have gone to work.
The employee went to work. The employees went to work.

Learning Hint:

To make sure you use the correct verb form with the subject, use the following steps:

 Figure out what the subject is.

 Decide if the subject is single or plural.
 Identify which verb goes with the subject.
 Check that the verb form matches the subject.
Subjects

There are rules to follow to help decide what form the subject or verb is in. The subject of a sentence is usually a noun or
pronoun.

Singular and Plural Noun Forms

The plural form for most nouns is made by adding -s or -es.

Some nouns plural form is irregular. The irregular ones have to be remembered. Common ones include:

Singular Plural

man men
child children
criterion criteria
medium media

Some nouns with plural form are usually regarded as singular in meaning. Such words include athletics, economics, news,
politics, mathematics and statistics.

Example:

The news tonight has to be good.

Measurements and figures ending in -s may be singular when the amount they refer to is a unit:

Examples:

Three years is a long time to wait.

One-third of the lunchroom has new chairs.

Note: These words and amounts are plural when they describe single items instead of a whole:

The statistics show the market will improve.

One-third of the computers in the office have new memory cards.

Compound Subjects

A compound subject, two or more subjects joined by and, takes a plural verb.

Examples:

Coffee and tea are served hot.

The president, the CEO and the sales manager are having a meeting.

Exception:

When the parts of the subject form a single idea or refer to a single thing, the verb is singular.
Examples:

Ham and cheese is his favorite sandwich.

The new president and CEO arrives in an hour.

(The subject is one person who is both the new president and CEO.)

The new president and his CEO arrive in an hour.

(The subject is two people so the verb has to be plural.)

Collective Nouns

A collective noun names a group of people or things. Examples are army, audience, government, family, group, team, and
public. Although a collective noun looks plural, its considered to be one unit, a whole, so it is singular.

Examples:

The group agrees that action is needed.

The public receives weather warnings on the radio and on TV.

Exception: Number as a collective noun can be singular or plural. When a comes before number, it is always plural.
When the comes before number, it is always singular.

Examples:

A number of employees have decided to car pool.

The number of people without jobs is dropping.

Always Singular or Plural Words

Some words that can be part of the subject need to be remembered as always being singular or always plural.

 Words that are always singular: anyone, anything, no

one, nothing, neither, either, what, whatever,whoever, somebody, something, someone, each, everyone, everythin
g, and everybody. All of these words are known as indefinite pronouns. These words do not refer to a specific
person or thing.

Examples:

Something is wrong here.

Neither is right.

Each employee gets 2 weeks paid vacation.

Everyone deserves to be happy.

Exception: When each follows a compound subject, the verb is plural:

The courier and the mailman each have parcels to deliver.

  Words that are always plural: few, both, several, many.

Examples:

Few people go to the annual picnic.

Several of his friends work in the accounting department.

Both of them deserve a raise.

Many of the senior staff plan to retire early.

Singular or Plural Indefinite Pronouns

Some indefinite pronouns can be singular or plural depending on what comes after them: some, all, most, any, and none.
Whether they are singular or plural depends on the meaning of the nouns they refer to.

Examples:

All of the money is kept for emergencies.

(All refers to the singular noun money, so the verb is singular.)

All of the reports were finished this afternoon.

(All refers to the plural noun reports, so the verb is plural.)

None of the parcels ever arrive on Monday.

(Parcels is plural, making none plural.)

Some of the team needs more time to prepare.

(Team is singular, making some singular.)

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns who, which and that do not have different singular and plural forms. When used as a subject, its verb
should agree with the noun it refers to.

Examples:

The manager should listen to the people who work for him.

(Who refers to the plural people, so the verb is plural.)

Justin is the person who usually fixes our computer problems.

(Who refers to the singular person, so the verb is singular.)

Conjunctions Or and Nor

When parts of a subject are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the part closest to it. If the closest part is singular, the
verb is singular. If the closest part is plural, the verb is plural.
Examples:

Neither the secretary nor the receptionist knows the phone number.

The engineers or the mechanics have the can of oil.

Neither the manager nor the employees were late.

(Manager is singular but employees is plural. Employees is closest to the verb so the verb is plural.)

Either he or they are early.

(He is singular but they is plural. They is closest to the verb so the verb is plural.)

Verbs

Knowing whether the verb is in its singular or plural form shows which form the subject must be in. The singular present
tense of many verbs is formed by adding -s or -es. Irregular verb forms have to be remembered.

Singular Present Tense Plural Present Tense

she eats they eat

I am/ he is we are / they are
bring brings
Singular Past Tense Plural Past Tense

ate ate
was were
brought brought

The subject and verb still need to match when other words come between them. Such words are usually a phrase that starts
with a preposition like of, by, with, from, and to.

Examples:

A web site of new goods and services is being made.

(Web site is the subject, not services. Web site is singular.)

The profits earned by the computer industry have dropped in the past year.

(The subject is profits, not industry. Profits is plural.)

Subject-Verb Agreement Example Questions

When doing a question, first figure out what is the subject of the sentence.

Then decide if the subject is singular or plural. Use the rules. Lastly, decide which verb form will match with the subject.

Note 1: When two verb answers agree with the subject, then the verb TENSE must be looked at. Check for time words to
help decide what verb tense is correct for the sentence.

Example:
He _____ his desk yesterday.

A) cleaned (B) cleans (C) clean (D) cleaner

He is a singular subject so a singlular verb is needed. Both (A) and (B) are singular verbs. (A), not (B), is the correct answer.
The word yesterday shows that the action is in the past so the verb must be in the past tense.

Note 2: When two verb answers match the subject and both are the correct tense, then decide which verb makes sense.

Example:

She _____ made a backup of her data.

(A) have (B) do (C) is (D) should have

She is a singular subject so a singlular verb is needed. Both (C) and (D) are singular verbs. Only (D) can complete the
sentence correctly. The sentence does not make sense if (C) is used.

Word Families

Introduction

How well you understand many kinds of grammar are tested. Your knowledge of vocabulary is also tested. For
this section, the correct answer may be a noun, verb, adjective, or adverb. The correct choice may also depend
on its form. Should it be singular or plural? Is it the right tense for the sentence? Should it be comparative or
superlative? These are some things to think about. Finally, does the choice you pick make sense? Read
through the sentence with your answer.

Learning Hint:

With word families, the possible answers are four forms of the SAME word. Memorize common noun forms,
adjectives, adverbs, and verb forms.

Word Forms

Word families tests how well you know the various types of words that can be made from one word. A word can
go from noun to verb to adjective to adverb by changing the ending of the word.

Example:

Finale (noun, thing) -> finalist (noun, person) -> finalize (verb) -> final (adjective) -> finally (adverb)

Remember the common word endings used to make the different kinds of words:

Noun Verb Adjective Adverb

-ance -en -able -ly

-ancy -ify -ible -ward

-ence -ize -al -wise

-ation -ful

-ian -ish

-ism -ive

-ment -ous

-ness

-ship

-or

-er

Typical Question Examples Found in Word Families

1) The manager read the report _____.

(A) careful (B) carefully (C) care (D) caring

The correct answer is (B). An adverb is needed to complete the sentence. Carefully is the only adverb. Adverbs
modify verbs. How did the manager read the report? He read it carefully. Answer (A) is an adjective. Answer
(C) and (D) are verb forms.

2) The procedure was _____ properly to the new employee.

(A) explain (B) explanation (C) explanatory (D) explained

The correct answer is (D). There is no main verb in this sentence. Was is only acting as a helping verb. The
correct verb form must have a past tense form to agree with was. Only explained is both a main verb and in the
past tense. Answer (A) is the present tense verb form. Answer (B) is a noun. Answer (C) is an adjective.
 Count and Non-Count Nouns

Introduction

Every noun can be counted, but not all nouns are counted the same way. There are two main types of nouns: count nouns
and non-count nouns.

Learning Hint:

Memorize the most common non-count nouns and remember to use singular verbs with these nouns.

Count Nouns

All count nouns have a singular and plural form and are used in agreement with singular or plural verbs. Count nouns are
things that exist as separate and distinct individual units. Count nouns are generally individual persons, places or objects
that can be recognized by our senses.

Count Noun Type Examples

Names of persons, their relationships and their occupations friend, girl, accountant
Names of species, plants, insects cat, dolphin, tree, fly
Names of objects with a finite and specific shape bottle, computer, table, office, building
Units of measurement centimeter, inch, meter, kilogram,
pound, degree
Units of social classification family, language, country
Some abstract concepts idea, invention, plan

Examples:
There will be two proposals submitted to the manager by 2pm.

Each office comes equiped with a computer, a desk and two chairs.

Not all great ideas lead to successful inventions.

Non-Count Nouns

Non-count nouns only have one form and are always used in agreement with singular verbs. Many non-count nouns are
wholes that cannot be cut into parts or counted individually. Non-count nouns also include most shapeless objects and
abstract ideas.

Non-Count Noun Type Examples

Nouns that are whole and made up of smaller parts sand, rice, sugar
Foods that can be purchased in various forms meat, bread, fruit, coffee
Substances that can change shape or have various forms oil, tea, milk, wood, iron, glass, water,
wind, rain, fire, ice
Groups of things that have different sizes and shapes clothing, furniture, luggage, cash
Languages Italian, French, Japanese
Most -ing forms learning, working, speaking
Abstract concepts, often with endings -ness, -ance, -ence, -ity efficiency, progress, intelligence, beauty

Examples:

Clothing is one of the common things collected to give to charity.

Water boils to become steam or freezes to become ice.

Efficiency is a characteristic in employees that managers admire.

Although non-count nouns are considered uncountable, there are times when it is necessary to explain how much of it there
is or to be able to quantify it in some way. This can be done by using a measurement word or counter in combination with
the non-count noun. The most common measurement words are bar, slice, piece, glass, game and cube.

Examples:

I bought two bars of chocolate.

He had four slices of meat in his sandwich.

This recipe requires one glass of milk.

There are five pieces of luggage in the trunk.

We played three games of tennis.

Some nouns can be a count or non-count noun depending on the meaning of the noun used. Normally the non-count
meaning is abstract and general while the count meaning is concrete and specific. Nouns that can be both
include light, glass, sound, business, fire, life, noise, space, thought, success, work, war, pleasure.

Examples:

Count Meaning Usage Non-count Meaning Usage

The city at night is full of bright lights. Sound travels through space slower than light.

He has two papers due next week. We will wrap the gift with paper.

Noun Type Indicators

Indications of what kind of noun is in a sentence can be determined by the quantity term or article used with the noun:

 Only the article a / an can be used with singular count nouns.

 The terms each, every, any and one can only be used with singular count nouns.
 The words these, those, many, both, several, few / fewer / fewest and the phrases a few, one of the, and a couple
of can only be used with plural count nouns.
 This and that can be used with either singular count nouns or non-count nouns.
 Some, any, most, more, all, alot of, no, none of the can be used with plural count nouns or non-count nouns.
 The article the is not a useful indicator since it can be used with both types of count nouns and non-count nouns.

Comparative and Superlative

Introduction

Adjectives and adverbs can be used to make comparisons. They are used to show what is different or similar about two or
more things. There are three kinds of possible comparisons: equal, comparative and superlative.

Learning Hint:

Forming the comparative and superlative forms usually depends on the number of syllables in the adjective. Learn the rules
for each type of adjective and adverb. Do not combine the two ways of forming comparisons in a single sentence.

Equal Comparison

An adjective or adverb is used to show that two things share a quality in the same amount. A quality shared in the same
amount means that the two things are equal is some way. The form used to make this kind of comparison is as adjective /
adverb as. The as as comparison is better known as a correlative conjunction.

Adjective Examples:

Our boss is as friendly as yours.

Her vacation lasted as long as her boyfriends vacation.

Adverb Examples:
He works as efficiently as you.

His computer can download files as fast as their computer does.

Comparative

To show a difference or to show that there is only a similarity between two things, the comparative form must be used. An
adjective or adverb is made into the comparative form in one of two ways. The way that is used depends on the number of
syllables the adjective or adverb have:

 Most one-syllable adjectives and adverbs take the ending -er.

 Two-syllable adjectives ending in y form the comparative by taking the ending -er.
 Other two-syllable adjectives use more + regular form to make the comparative.
 Most adverbs of two or more syllables must use more + regular form to make the comparative.
 All three or more syllable adjectives must use more + regular form to make the comparative.

Adjectives:

Regular Comparative Number of Syllables

new newer 1
hot hotter 1
cute cuter 1
pretty prettier 2
lonely lonelier 2
beautiful more beautiful 3
popular more popular 3

Examples:

She is the shorter of the two sisters.

She is shorter than her sister.

This fax machine is newer than that one.

The manager wants to be more popular than the previous one.

Adverbs:

Regular Comparative Number of Syllables

fast faster 1
quickly more quickly 2
sadly more sadly 2
thoughtfully more thoughtfully 3
politely more politely 3

Examples:

We finished our project faster than they finished theirs.

The new copier prints pages more quickly than the old one.
He understands the course more easily than her.

The word than is usually used following the comparative form in a sentence.

Note: Never mix the two ways to form the comparative.

Incorrect: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here more longer.

Correct: She gets lots of benefits because she's been here longer.

Incorrect: He works more quicklier than us.

Correct: He works more quickly than us.

Superlative

If the comparison is between three or more things then the superlative form must be used. An adjective or adverb is made
into the superlative form in one of two ways. The way that is used depends on the number of syllables contained in the
adjective or adverb:

 Most one-syllable adjectives and adverbs take the ending -est.

 Two-syllable adjectives ending in y form the superlative by taking the ending -est.
 Other two-syllable adjectives use most + regular form to make the superlative.
 Most adverbs of two or more syllables must use most + regular form to make the superlative.
 All three or more syllable adjectives must use most + regular form to make the superlative.

Adjectives:

Regular Superlative Number of Syllables

new newest 1
hot hottest 1
cute cutest 1
pretty prettiest 2
modern most modern 2
beautiful most beautiful 3
popular most popular 3

Examples:

This office is the most modern one in the building.

She is the youngest employee in the company to be promoted.

(Note: She is being compared to all other employees at the company.)

Adverbs:

Regular Superlative Number of Syllables

fast fastest 1
quickly most quickly 2
sadly most sadly 2
thoughtfully most thoughtfully 3
politely most politely 3

Examples:

She can find files the most quickly.

He spoke the most forcefully at the meeting.

The word the is always used before the superlative form in a sentence.

Note: Never mix the two ways to form the superlative.

Incorrect: He was the most wisest man I ever knew.

Correct: He was the wisest man I ever knew.

Incorrect: She types the most fastest out of all the secretaries.

Correct: She types the fastest out of all the secretaries.

Irregular Adjectives and Adverbs

There are some irregular adjectives and adverbs. They do not make the comparative or superlative the same way that other
ones do. They do not use either -er / -est or more / most. Their comparative and superlative forms have to be remembered:

Regular Form Comparative Form Superlative Form

ADJECTIVES
good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
many more most
some more most
much more most
ADVERBS
well better best
badly worse worst
little less least
far farther / further farthest / furthest

Examples:

This program is better than the previous ones.

This program is the best of all.

Incorrect: The software we bought the muchest of came from an online supplier.

Correct: The software we bought the most of came from an online supplier.

Incorrect: She has to travel the far of anyone in the office.

Correct: She has to travel the farthest of anyone in the office.

Words with No Comparative and Superlative Forms

Not ALL adjectives and adverbs can have a comparative or superlative form.

No type of comparison is possible with certain adjectives and adverbs. They cannot show a greater or lesser amount, so
they can only have one form. Some of these words are perfect, unique, dead, impossible, and infinite.

Example:

Incorrect: He was the most unique president we had.

Correct: He was a unique president.

(Unique means one of a kind. There is no other like it, so it is not possible for one president to be more or less unique than
another one.)

Parallel Structure Required

The comparisons must make sense. You cannot compare things that are very different. They must be similar. Apples and
oranges are both fruits, but they are still two different kinds of fruit. So, an apple cannot be compared to an orange.

Examples:

Incorrect: Michael's computer is much older than Will.

(Comparing a computer to a person.)

Correct: Michael's computer is much older than Will's computer.

(Comparing one computer to another.)

Incorrect: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to the United States.

(Comparing a language to a country.)

Correct: The English that is spoken in Canada is close to that of the United States.

(Comparing the English spoken in two countries.)

 Adverbs of Frequency

Introduction

Adverbs are words that are used to help describe verbs. Adverbs can also be used to describe adjectives and other
adverbs. Adverbs of frequency are ones that describe when or how often something is done. There are two types: adverbs
of definite frequency and adverbs of indefinite frequency.

Learning Hint:

The position of an adverb in a sentence tells you whether it is an adverb of definite or indefinite frequency.

Adverbs of Definite Frequency

Adverbs of definite frequency occur at the beginning or the end of a sentence.

Common ones are hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly. Other ones are once a month, every month, and every other
month. In each one, month can be replaced with hour, day, week, or year. Any exact number of times that happen in a given
time period are also adverbs of definite frequency: twice a week, twice a year, three times a month, four times a year, once
every five years, and so on.

Examples:

Every day, some employees go out for lunch.

Some employees go out for lunch every day.

Payroll must be done every two weeks.

The sales manager gets new e-mail hourly.

Adverbs of Indefinite Frequency

Adverbs of indefinite frequency include always, usually, never, often, very often, rarely, sometimes, seldom, once in a
while, repeatedly, typically, hardly ever, and occasionally. Adverbs of indefinite frequency occur in the middle of the
sentence. Where exactly it is placed depends on the type of verbs in the sentence. There are three possible places:

1. Between the subject and the main verb UNLESS the verb is a form of be: is, am, are, was, were.

Examples:

She often takes her vacation in winter.

The employees always work until seven.

The manager usually arrives first at the staff meetings.

2. After the be verb form when it is the main verb.

Examples:

She is often ill in winter.

The employees are always working until seven.

The manager is usually the first person to arrive.

3. Between the helping verb and the main verb. This is always true, even when the main verb is a verb form of be.

Examples:

She has often gone on vacation in winter.

The employees can always work until seven.

The manager will usually arrive first at the staff meetings.

Incorrect: The owners have been rarely unreasonable.

Correct: The owners have rarely been unreasonable.

(Have is the helping verb, been is the be verb form)

Usage note: Some indefinite frequency adverbs can be placed at the beginning or end of a main clause: usually, normally,
often, frequently, sometimes, once in a while, and occasionally.

Examples:
Once in a while we like to for a long drive.

He accompanies her to the shopping mall occasionally.

Word Choice

Introduction

In word choice, how well you understand many kinds of grammar are tested. Your knowledge of vocabulary is also tested.
You will see many commonly confused words. The right answer may be a noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition or
conjunction. The questions with four answers listed are related in some way. The words may look or sound similar, but have
different meanings. Words that are opposite in meaning might also be used. Sometimes more than one word may seem to
be the right choice. Picking the right one will depend on knowing how and when a word is used in English. These words may
have similar meanings (for example, house and home) or grammatical use (for example, much and many). Only one choice
can work properly in the sentence.

Learning Hint:

This is one of the most difficult parts of learning English because there are many words that sound or look the same, but
have different meanings. Pay close attention to each answer choice and check whether it fits in the context of the sentence.

Common Examples

Words with similar spelling, words that rhyme, words that sound alike, or words that are opposite that do not have
similar meanings:

1) Make sure to only use the _____ paper.

(A) vain (B) vein (C) pain (D) plain

The correct answer is (D). An adjective is needed to complete the sentence. Plain is the only adjective that makes sense.
(A) is an adjective used to describe people, not things (paper). (B) is a noun that sounds like (A). (C) is a noun that rhymes
with vein and plain.
2) Charles forgot to order more _____ for the office.

(A) stationary (B) stationery (C) statue (D) moving

The correct answer is (B). A noun is needed to complete the sentence. (B) is a noun meaning writing materials. (C) is a
singular noun which does not make sense in this sentence. (A) is an adjective meaning unmoving. (D) is an adjective with
the opposite meaning of (A).

Words with similar meanings, but different usage:

1) The boss thinks we are doing a _____ job.

(A) goods (B) well (C) good (D) badly

The correct answer is (C). An adjective needed to complete the sentence. Good is the only adjective. (A) is a noun. (D) is an
adverb. (B) is also an adverb. To use well, the sentence would be, The boss thinks we are doing the job well. How is the job
being done? It is being done well. You cannot say, The boss thinks we are doing the job good.

2) I need to choose _____ the report and the presentation.

(A) among (B) between (C) along (D) beside

The correct answer is (B). Between compares exactly two things. Among always compares more than two. The prepositions
along and beside are not used for comparisons.

Prepositions

Introduction

Prepositions are used to show a connection between two words in a sentence. There are many different prepositions in
English which makes it difficult to choose the right preposition to use in a sentence.

For example, there are more than 30 prepositions that may be used to describe the relationship between a desk and
something else. Here are some examples:

I am sitting at the desk.

Please put the file on the desk.

The chair is behind the desk.

These are the most common prepositions: about, above, according to, across, after, afterward, against, along, along with,
among, around, as, at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, despite,
down, downward, during, except, except for, for, from, in, inside, instead of, into, like, near, next to, of, off, on, onto, out,
outside, over, past, regarding, round, since, through, throughout, to toward, under, underneath, unlike, until, up, upon, with,
within, without.

Learning Hint:

To use prepositions accurately, memorize the most common prepositions and how they are used to describe the relationship
between two things.

Prepositional Phrases
Prepositions always link a noun, a pronoun, or a word acting as a noun to another word in the sentence. The noun type
normally comes after the preposition and is called the object of the preposition. The preposition plus its object and any other
words describing the object is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional phrases act as adjectives or adverbs, and add
details to a sentence. They can tell the location of something, or when, how, and where something happens.

Examples:

Basic sentence: The man runs.

The man runs on the sidewalk. The man runs at night.

The man runs on a trail by the water. The man runs instead of walking.
The man runs before eating breakfast. The man is running to catch a bus.
The man runs past the library every day. The man runs with his large dog.
The man runs along the side of the road. The man runs like a professional athlete.

The words in bold are prepositions. The underlined words are the object of the preposition. Together they are a prepositional
phrase. Each one adds details like how or where or when the man runs.

Prepositional phrases can be at the start, middle, or the end of a sentence:

According to the newspaper, the companys profits increased last month.

The accounting job at the company was a great learning experience.

Note: Prepositional phrases can never be a sentence. They do not have a subject or main verb.

Prepositions Linked to Nouns, Adjectives, Verbs

Some prepositions are always used with certain nouns, adjectives and verbs. The preposition and other word work together
as a single prepositional form.

Noun Examples: belief in, concern for, hope for, love of, need for, reason for, understanding of.

Adjective Examples: aware of, angry at, interested in, made of, married to, sorry for, sure of.

Verb Examples: work for, look up, pay for, trust in, think about, belong to, give up, study for, talk about.

Specific Usage of Prepositions

Some prepositions are always used with certain times or place or direction.

Time

On is used with days:

He will meet with her on Thursday.

At is used with noon, night, midnight, and with the time of day:

We eat lunch at noon.

We finish work at 6pm.

In is used with other parts of the day, with months, years, or seasons:
They walk in the afternoon.

His vacation is in October.

The company started in 1999.

Leaves change color in fall.

To show longer periods of time, the prepositions most commonly used are:

Since They have been gone since last week.

For Charles is going on vacation for three weeks.

By We must finish this project by Friday.
Within We must finish this project within a week.
Fromuntil The resort is open from fall until spring.
Fromto The conference runs from Monday to Friday.
During I read during my lunch break.

Places

The prepositions in, at, and on are used with different kinds of places:

In Used before large places (name of a country, state, We stopped in the park.
province, county or city) and small places (a room,
building, park, car, boat).
At Used with specific addresses. We live at 441 Main Street.

Can also be used with some small places: class,

school, the library, home, work and the office.
On Used before middle-sized places: a ship, train, We took the boat on the river.
plane, and the name of a street, road, coast, or
river.

To show something is higher than something else, use above or over. To show something is lower than a place,
use under, underneath, below, or beneath.

Examples:

The book is on a shelf above the desk. The painting hangs over the desk.
The disk is underneath the file folder. The computer is kept under the desk.
Cargo is kept below the main deck. We ate lunch beneath the trees.

To show the location of something in relation to something else, use the following prepositions:

He lives near a school. The hospital is by the library.

She parked her car next to mine. His folder is among the others.
The van parked between a truck and a car.
Direction

Some words that show a location do not use any preposition: home, upstairs, downstairs, downtown, uptown, inside (noun),
outside (noun).

Incorrect: He went on home. Incorrect: They went up upstairs.

Correct: He went home. Correct: They went upstairs.

Incorrect: The kids are playing at outside.

Correct: The kids are playing outside.

The following prepositions show movement toward something:

To Used to show movement towards something He ran to school.

Onto Used to show movement towards a surface He put his cup onto the table.
Into used to show movement towards the interior of a He jumped into the pool.
volume

It would also be correct to say, He jumped in the pool. In and on can be used with many verbs showing
motion. In / into and on / onto can both be used to show that a motion is finished. However, only in and oncan show the
location of the subject as a result of an action (verb):

Examples

Correct: He fell on the floor. He fell onto the floor.

Correct: He is on the floor.

Incorrect: He is onto the floor.

Correct: The book is on the table.

Incorrect: The book is onto the table.

The preposition to also shows direction when used with verbs of motion: move, go, transfer, walk, run, swim, ride, drive, fly,
or travel. The preposition toward can be used also with these verbs except transfer. To is used to show a specific
location. Toward is used to only show a general location.

Examples

Drive to the house.

Drive toward the house.

Correct: He will transfer to another bus.

Incorrect: He will transfer toward another bus.

(Transfer means to go from one place to another, specific, place so toward cannot be used.)

Another use of to is to show a goal that will be reached. For a physical place, the form is to plus a noun: to work, to school,
to the library. For a purpose or reason, the form is to plus the infinitive of a verb: to go, to get, to reach.

Examples

Every morning she goes to work.

He washed his car to get rid of the mud.

Unnecessary Prepositions

Sometimes prepositions are used when they are not needed. They might be heard in conversation, but they are not
grammatically correct. These are some examples: call up, off of, inside of, outside of, stir up, finish up, sit down,
return back, help out, fall over, out of, escape from, jump up, open up, except for, later on. In each, the preposition in bold
should NOT be used.

Examples

Incorrect: She asked me to jump up and down.

Correct: She asked me to jump.

(Jump already means to go up into the air and come back down.)

Incorrect: Be careful not to fall over.

Correct: Be careful not to fall.

(Fall already means go from a higher to a lower level.)

Incorrect: She threw the book out of the window.

Correct: She threw the book out the window.

 Unnecessary Words

Introduction

There are rules to follow to make a proper sentence in English. You learn what words must be used to make a sentence.
You learn how to add words to make sentences express more detail. You learn when each type of word can and cannot be
used. It is not easy to understand all the rules, or to remember them all. So mistakes are sometimes made when creating
sentences. One common type of error is to use too many words. The extra word may be an article, a verb, a pronoun, a
preposition, an adjective, a conjunction, or an entire phrase. Using words with the same meaning in one sentence is another
kind of unnecessary word error. Sometimes a sentence can be written with less words if the word order is changed. In this
section, you will need to use all of your knowledge of grammar. Read through the question. Decide if each answer choice
MUST be in that sentence to make it work.

Learning Hint:

Read the sentence out loud and pay attention to how the sentence sounds. If a phrase sounds awkward or incorrect, check
to see if there are extra words that are not needed.

Common Types of Examples

Too many words with the same meaning used:

Incorrect: He is nearly almost finished with the financial statement.

Correct: He is nearly finished with the financial statement.

Correct: He is almost finished with the financial statement.

Incorrect: Despite leaving 10 minutes early, the worker arrived late nonetheless.

Correct: Despite leaving 10 minutes early, the worker arrived late.

Correct: Leaving 10 minutes early, the worker nonetheless arrived late.

Extra words:

Incorrect: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke on down.

Correct: The secretary was annoyed when the copier broke down.

The preposition on is not used in the verb form broke down.

Incorrect: I will have buy a new car. (Mixed up verb tense formation.)

Correct: I will buy a new car. (Future tense of irregular verb buy is will buy.)

Correct: I will have bought a new car. (Future perfect form: will have + verbs past participle.)

Incorrect: The postman delivers a mail in the morning.

Correct: The postman delivers mail in the morning.

The indefinite article a is not used in front of a non-count noun.

Incorrect: My manager she has some contracts for me to sign.

Correct: My manager has some contracts for me to sign.

Right after a noun, do not also use a pronoun that replaces the noun.

Unnecessary phrase:

Simple, direct sentences are better than complicated, indirect ones.

Incorrect: It was a project which was very complex in structure and very ambitious in nature.

Correct: The project was complex and ambitious.

 Pronouns

Introduction

Pronouns take the place of nouns in sentences. Pronouns work in sentences the same way as nouns. Pronouns are used so
that nouns are not repeated. A pronoun generally refers back to a noun that was written earlier. There are many different
kinds of pronouns. Each kind has different forms and rules for when it is used.

Learning Hint:

Check whether the pronoun used in a sentence matches the noun or subject of the sentence.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to a specific person or persons. The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, weand they. Personal
pronouns change form depending on their role in a sentence. The subjective casemeans the pronoun is used as the
subject of a sentence or a clause. The subjective personal pronouns are I, he, she, you, it, we and they.

Examples:

We are going to the meeting in the same car.

She is going to send the fax now.

The other cases are objective and possessive. Objective case means a pronoun usually is the object of the verb or a
preposition in a sentence. Objective pronouns are me, him, her, us and them.
Examples:

The metal chair gave him an electric shock.

Let us finalize the contract.

Frank took a phone message for her.

Note: When there is a linking verb in a sentence, the pronoun that follows it must be in the subjective, not objective, case. A
common linking verb is any form of the verb be such as is, are, was and were.

Incorrect: This is her speaking.

Correct: This is she speaking.

The possessive case pronoun shows ownership. The possessive pronouns

are my, mine, our, ours, his, her, hers, their, theirs.

Examples:

My boss approves of my conducting of the interview.

Michael bumped his hip against the desk.

Note: Only the personal pronouns have these three cases. All other types of pronouns only have their regular (dictionary)
form and a possessive case. The exception is the relative pronoun who. Whom is the objective case and whose is the
possessive case.

Relative Pronouns

Relative pronouns are which, that, and who / whom. Relative pronouns relate groups of words to nouns or other pronouns.

Example:

The secretary gave three boxes to the mailman who entered the office.

That and which can only refer to things. Who and whom can only refer to people. Who is used as the subject of a sentence
or a clause. Whom is always the object of a verb or prepositional phrase.

Examples:

He doesn't know whom to assign to the project.

(Whom is the object of the verb to assign.)

Who will be assigned to the project has not been decided.

(Who is the subject of the verb will be assigned.)

Intensive Pronouns

Intensive pronouns add emphasis to a noun or another pronoun. The form of an intensive pronoun is a personal pronoun
plus -self: himself, herself, myself, yourself, themselves, ourselves.

Example:
He himself made the coffee.

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive pronouns show that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb in the sentence. Reflexive pronouns
have the same form as intensive ones: a personal pronoun plus -self.

Example:

You might injure yourself.

Note: Objective or possessive pronouns are mistakenly used when a reflexive one is needed.

Incorrect: Help you to whatever you need.

Correct: Help yourself to whatever you need.

Indefinite Pronouns

Indefinite pronouns function as nouns, but they do not replace a noun. Indefinite pronouns include everybody and some.

Example:

Everybody admires the companys president.

Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns identify or point to nouns. Demonstrative pronouns include this, that and such.

Example:

This is the cup he used.

Interrogative Pronouns

Interrogative pronouns introduce questions. Interrogative pronouns include who, which and what.

Example:

Who will be making a speech tonight?

Pronoun Agreement with the Noun

One general rule for all pronouns is that a singular noun must be replaced with a singular pronoun. Also, a plural noun must
be replaced with a plural pronoun.

Examples:

I have to do a presentation tomorrow for my manager.

The employees want their afternoon break to start later.

Note: It is important to remember that any word with an every, like everybody, everyone, or everything is singular, not plural.
Therefore, every type words need a singular pronoun like his or her, and not a plural one like their.
Incorrect: Everybody needs to hand in their report to the manager.

Correct: Everybody needs to hand in his report to the manager.

Another general rule is that the pronoun must have the same gender (feminine, masculine or neuter) as the noun it replaces.

Examples:

Julie wants to upgrade her computer software.

The computer had new software installed on its hard drive.

Conjunctions

Introduction

Conjunctions are words that join together words, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions are used to show a relationship between
the words, phrases or clauses. Conjunctions also show agreement or disagreement between ideas. There are four types of
conjunctions. Only three types will be covered: coordinating, subordinating and correlative.

Learning Hint:

Memorize the most commonly used conjunctions shown below and when they are used to show relationships between
words and phrases.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions join together words or clauses of equal importance.

They are and, but, nor, or, for, so and yet.

The coordinating conjunctions and, but, nor and or always join words or word groups of the same kind: two or more nouns,
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, independent clauses and dependent clauses.

Examples:

James or Michelle will be promoted. (Two nouns joined by or.)

The chair was old but comfortable. (Two adjectives joined by but.)

Amanda worked every day and partied every night. (Two verbs joined by and.)

The conjunctions for and so cannot connect words, phrases or dependent clauses. They can only join independent
clauses. For shows cause. So shows result.

Examples:

She was sick, so she went to the doctor.

(Cause: She was sick. Result: She went to the doctor.)

They stayed late at the office, for they had work to do.

(Cause: They had work to do. Result: They stayed late at the office.)

While the word yet is usually used as an adverb, it can also be a conjunction. Like but, it shows contrast.

Examples:

Charles works as an accountant, yet he was trained to be a lawyer.

She read through the contract carefully, yet she could not understand it all.

Note: Whatever is joined by a coordinating conjunction must be alike.

Incorrect: The assistant needs to edit and typing the documents.

(To edit is a verb form. Typing is a noun form.)

Correct: The assistant needs to edit and to type the documents.

(Now the and joins two verb forms.)

Incorrect: The manager sent a notice to all staff, but written by her assistant.

(The words before but form a clause. What follows but is only a phrase, not a clause.)

Correct: The manager sent a notice to all staff, but her assistant wrote it.

(Her assistant wrote it is a clause. Now but joins two clauses.)

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent (subordinate) clause with an independent clause. They always come at the
beginning of dependent clauses. Dependent clauses are used as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. The dependent clause
can be before or after the independent clause. This means a subordinating conjunction is at the beginning or middle of a
sentence. These are the most common ones:

after because in order that than when

although before once that whenever
as even if rather than though where
as if even though since unless wherever
as though if so that until while

Examples:

Unless we start now, we will not finish on time.

Because he enjoys traveling, he became the company's sales representative.

The main office is in an old building where the alarms need to be updated.

The clerk was writing an e-mail when her computer failed.

Note: Make sure the subordinating conjunction is placed at the start of the dependent clause.

Incorrect: After they have to go to work, their vacation ends.

Incorrect: Their vacation ends after they have to go to work.

Correct: After their vacation ends, they have to go back to work.

The subordinating junction after must be before the dependent clause their vacation ends. They have to go back to work is
the independent clause.

Correlative Conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of coordinating conjunctions that work together. They are always used as a pair. The
words, phrases, or clauses that correlative conjunctions put together must be the same type: nouns go with other nouns,
verbs go with other verbs, adjectives go with other adjectives, and so on. These are the common ones:

both and neither nor

not but either or
not only but also whether or
as as (example: as well as)

Examples:

1. The report is either on the desk or in the copier room.

(Nouns are the type of word joined.)

2. The delivery was made neither in the morning nor in the afternoon.

(Phrases are the type of word joined.)

Note: Never use neither or and either nor.

3. Their manager doesn't laugh as often as your boss laughs.

(Two clauses are joined.)

4. Both his uncle and his cousin work in forestry.

(Nouns are the type of word joined.)

The presentation was both interesting and educational.

(Adjectives are the type of word joined.)

Note: Do not use as well as with both.

Incorrect: My friend learned both French as well as Japanese in school.

Correct: My friend learned both French and Japanese in school.

5. The boss is not only friendly but also very smart.

(Adjectives are the type of word joined.)

Note 1: Do not use but in place of but also.

Incorrect: Leave behind not only your cellphone but your computer.

Correct: Leave behind not only your cellphone but also your computer.

Note 2: Only not is grammatically wrong.

Incorrect: They will teach only not new skills but also new knowledge.

Correct: They will teach not only new skills but also new knowledge.

6. The company creates not hardware but software.

(Nouns are the type of word joined.)

Note: Do not use only in place of but.

Incorrect: He should have spoken not louder only more slowly.

Correct: He should have spoken not louder but more slowly.

 Conditionals

Introduction

Conditionals are statements with an if clause. They show a result depending upon a set of conditions. The result can be
very different because there are many ways that objects and actions can interact. The ifclause controls what the result can
be. Knowing the rules for if clauses let you understand how conditionals work. There are two kinds of conditional sentences:
real and unreal. Each kind of conditional sentence has an if clause and a result (main) clause.

Learning Hint:

Identify whether the conditional is real or unreal. Then use the correct verb tense for both the if clause and the result clause.

Real Conditionals

Real conditionals express facts and what is absolute (completely true). They also express very likely or possible results, or
state something that is done regularly.

Example:

I drive to work if it rains.

Condition: Is there rain? Yes. Or there will be rain for sure.

The if clause is true so it is a real condition.

Verb Tenses Used

The "if" clause is always written in the present tense. The result clause is written in the present or future tense.

1. Present tense verbs for both the result and if clause means the statement is true or a habit or a fact. Do not use helping
verbs have, has, do, does plus the verb in the result clause.

Examples:

The manager is always pleased if the employees work hard.

If water boils, it becomes a gas. (Incorrect: If water boils, it has become a gas.)

Exception: Statements of fact about something done regularly can be made in the past. Simple past tense for the if clause
and result clause is used.

Example:

If we went out on the weekend, it was to go see a movie.

2. A statement of a true, future result has the future tense in the result clause. The future tense is will plus a verb infinitive.

Examples:

If the boss approves, I will go on vacation next month.

We will attend the conference if we get our hotel reservations confirmed.

3. A statement of a possible future result has a helping verb plus the main verb in the result clause. Only the helping
verbs may, might, can , could, and should are used.

Examples:

If the shipment arrives soon, we might be able to fill our orders.

If the shipment arrives soon, we can fill our orders.

We should finish our orders tomorrow if the shipment arrives soon.

Condition: Will the shipment arrive soon? Maybe.

Result: Possible to get orders done.

Unreal Conditionals

Unreal conditionals express not true, very unlikely or not possible results.

Example:
If it had rained, I would have driven to work.

Condition: Is there rain? No, it did not rain.

The if clause did not happen so it is an unreal condition.

Verb Tenses Used

For a present unreal condition, the if clause is written in the past tense. The result clause contains would, could,
or might plus a verb.

1. The verb in the if clause is not a form of the verb be.

Examples:

If she owned the company, she would hire more people.

They could send him the contract if they found his address.

You might find the stapler if you looked in the bottom drawer.

2. When the verb in the if clause is a form of the verb be, it is always written as were, even for a singular subject.

Examples:

Incorrect: If Mark was the boss, he would give everyone a raise.

Correct: If Mark were the boss, he would give everyone a raise.

(Mark is NOT the boss, so the condition is unreal.)

Incorrect: If I was you, I would complete the report quickly.

Correct: If I were you, I would complete the report quickly.

(I am NOT you, so the condition is unreal.)

Note: The unreal conditional is a type of subjunctive. So sometimes it is called subjunctive. The subjunctive mood is a verb
form that shows a requirement, a wish, a suggestion, an uncertainty, or a condition opposite to known fact.

Example: If she were to get sick, her work would suffer.

Known fact: She is not sick now.

Unreal condition equals what is opposite to known fact: She is sick.

This sentence suggests what might happen, but it is not likely to happen.

3. For a past unreal condition, the if clause is written in the past perfect tense. The result clause is written
with would, could, might, plus have plus a verb in the past tense:
Examples:

They could have made more money if they had invested sooner.

If Michelle had become the sales representative, we would have had many new clients.

If you had listened at the meeting, you might have learned all about the new CEO.