Courses Maths 2u 1204321198 2007 Mathematics Notes

Limits, Continuity & Basic differentiation
(Mathematics – Preliminary Course)
H. Lam
July 2007
Limits, Continuity & Basic differentiation (Mathematics – Preliminary Course) : last updated August 17, 2007ad. 1 / 70
Revision of
functions/relations
Notation
Domain & range
Limits
Continuity at a point
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of Revision of functions/relations
polynomials
Additional
differentiation rules
Notation
Revision of
functions/relations
Notation
■ f (x) denotes a function named f that depends
Domain & range on the value of x. Can also write as y = f (x),
Limits e.g. f (x) = x2 is also written as y = x2 .
Differentiation:
derivation & from
■ The function value at a particular point can be
first principles
found by substituting the value of that point into
Differentiation of
polynomials f (x).
Additional
■ ‘x’ is just a “dummy variable” that is a
placeholder. These are all the same functions:
f (x) = x2 + 4x − 5
g(t) = t2 + 4t − 5
h(y) = y 2 + 4y − 5
m(s) = s2 + 4s − 5
Domain & range
Revision of
functions/relations ■ The domain of the function indicates the set of
Notation
Domain & range possible values that x can be.
Limits
Continuity at a point ■ The range (or codomain) of a function indicates

Differentiation:
derivation & from
the set of possible function values, or what f (x)
first principles can be.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
■ A relation can have multiple mappings from the
same value in the domain to different values in
the range
■ A function can only have 1 mapping for each

value in the domain to the range. However, it is
not restricted to how many values in the domain
for each value in the range.
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
A loose definition of
a limit
Does the limit exist
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits
Limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
The limit of a function as it approaches a
point
Revision of
functions/relations Question: what function value (y-value) is the
Limits arrowhead of the function approaching in the diagram?
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
y
a limit
Does the limit exist 4
at x = 2?
at x = 3? 3
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
2
As x → 3− , f (x) →
Finding limits,
algebraically 4.
Evaluate
Solution
1
Exercises
Continuity at a point x
Differentiation: −1 1 2 3 4
derivation & from
first principles −1
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
point
Revision of
functions/relations Question: what function value (y-value) is the
Limits arrowhead of the function approaching in the diagram?
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
y
a limit
at x = 2?
at x = 3? 3
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
2
As x → 3+ , f (x) →
Finding limits,
algebraically 4.
Evaluate
Solution
1
Exercises
Continuity at a point x
Differentiation: −1 1 2 3 4
derivation & from
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
point
Revision of
functions/relations Given that the function f (x) = 43 x approaches the
Limits
The limit of a
same value from both the left and right-hand sides, i.e.
function as it
approaches a point
y = 4, then it is possible to say that
a limit y
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits As x → 3, f (x) → 4.
Important concepts 3
to note
Finding limits,
Or
algebraically
Evaluate
2 4
Solution lim x = 4
Exercises x→3 3
1
Differentiation:
derivation & from
x
first principles −1 1 2 3 4
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
A loose definition of a limit
Revision of
functions/relations
A full limit exists if and only if the left-hand
Limits
The limit of a limit equals the right-hand limit.
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
at x = 2?
■ In the previous case,
at x = 3?
Special limits 4 4
Important concepts lim− x = lim+ x = 4
to note x→3 3 x→3 3
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises LH limit RH limit Limit
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles 4
Differentiation of ■ In short, lim x = 4 . the full limit
polynomials x→3 3
Additional
Does the limit exist at x = 2?
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
y
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
4
at x = 2?
b
at x = 3? 3
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits, 2
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution bc
Exercises
1
Differentiation: x
derivation & from
first principles −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
Differentiation of
polynomials
−1
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations No!
Limits
The limit of a
function as it lim− f (x) = 1
approaches a point x→2
a limit lim+ f (x) = 3
Does the limit exist x→2
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
lim− f (x) 6= lim+ f (x)
x→2 x→2
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Thus the limit as x → 2 does not exist.
Additional
Revision of y
functions/relations
Limits
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
1
a limit
at x = 2? bc x
at x = 3? −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
Special limits
Important concepts −1
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate −2
Solution
Exercises
Continuity at a point −3
Differentiation:
derivation & from
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations Yes!
Limits
The limit of a
function as it lim− f (x) = 0
approaches a point x→3
a limit lim+ f (x) = 0
Does the limit exist x→3
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x)
x→3 x→3
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
∴ lim f (x) = 0
x→3
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Special limits
Revision of
functions/relations
1 1
■ lim = 0; ■ lim = 0;
Limits x→∞ x x→−∞ x
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point 1
A loose definition of ■ lim does not exist.
a limit x→0 x
at x = 2?
Does the limit exist y
at x = 3?
Special limits
Important concepts 3
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
2
Evaluate 1
Solution
Exercises x
Continuity at a point −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3
Differentiation:
derivation & from −2
first principles
Differentiation of −3
polynomials
Additional
−4
Special limits
Revision of
functions/relations
1 1
■ lim 2 = 0; ■ lim 2 = ∞
Limits x→∞ x x→0 x
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
a limit y
at x = 2?
at x = 3? 3
Special limits
Important concepts
to note 2
Finding limits,
algebraically 1
Evaluate
Solution x
Exercises
−3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3
Differentiation:
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials Note that the LH and RH limits both tend to ∞, so
Additional
the full limit exists.
Important concepts to note
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Understanding limits is crucial to understanding
Limits
The limit of a calculus as it is the fundamental way that calculus
function as it
approaches a point works.
a limit
Does the limit exist ■ Finding the limit of a function as it approaches a
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
particular value is not the same as finding the
Special limits function value itself.
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
■ Write expressions in the notation that is given.
Evaluate Creativity is unfortunately, not what is required
Solution
Exercises here.
i.e. Write as
Differentiation:
derivation & from
4
first principles lim x = 4
x→3 3
Differentiation of
polynomials 4
Additional NOT x lim(x → 3) = 4.
differentiation rules 3
Finding limits, algebraically
Revision of
functions/relations ■ If the function is simple and behaves well, then
Limits
The limit of a simply substitute the point into the variable.
function as it
approaches a point
A loose definition of ■ Most often it will not be so simple. In the case of
a limit
Does the limit exist rational functions such as this:
at x = 2?
at x = 3? x2 − 3x + 2
Special limits lim
Important concepts
to note
x→2 x−2
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
factorise and then see if it’s possible to substitute:
Solution

Exercises
x2 − 3x + 2 (x−2)
(x − 1)
lim = lim
x−
Differentiation:
x→2 x−2 x→2 2
derivation & from
first principles
= lim x − 1
x→2
Differentiation of
polynomials =1
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations ■ When evaluating the limit of a rational function
Limits
The limit of a which results in 00 or ∞
∞
function as it
approaches a point
A loose definition of ◆ factorise the numerator and denominators to
a limit
Does the limit exist see if any terms can be cancelled. If that is
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
not possible then
Special limits
Important concepts ◆ divide the numerator and denominators by
to note
Finding limits, the highest power of x to use the special
algebraically
Evaluate limits
Solution
Exercises 1 1
lim = 0 lim =0
x→∞ x x→−∞ x
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles in assisting to find the actual limit.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations x4 − 5x3 + 6x2
lim
Limits
The limit of a
x→3 x3 − 27
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations x4 − 5x3 + 6x2
lim
Limits
The limit of a
x→3 x3 − 27
function as it
approaches a point Solution
a limit
at x = 2?
Does the limit exist x4 − 5x3 + 6x2 x2 (x2 − 5x + 6)
at x = 3? lim = lim
Special limits x→3 x − 27
3 x→3 (x − 3)(x2 + 3x + 9)
Important concepts

to note
Finding limits,
x2 (x − 2)(x−3)
= lim 2
algebraically
Evaluate (x−3)(x
x→3 + 3x + 9)
Solution
Exercises
32 (3 − 2)
= 2
Continuity at a point 3 + (3 × 3) + 9
Differentiation:
derivation & from
9 1
first principles = =
Differentiation of
27 3
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations x2 − 4
lim
Limits x→−2 x + 2
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations x2 − 4
lim
Limits x→−2 x + 2
The limit of a
function as it
a limit

(x+2)
at x = 2?
Does the limit exist x2 − 4 (x − 2)
at x = 3? lim = lim
Special limits x→−2 x + 2 x→−2 x
+ 2
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
= lim x − 2
x→−2
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
= −4
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations 5
lim
Limits x→∞ x
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises ■ The limit of a quotient
equals the quotient of the
Differentiation:
derivation & from limits.
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations 5
lim
Limits x→∞ x
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
Solution
a limit
at x = 2? 5
5 5/x lim 0
at x = 3?
x→∞ x
÷x

Special limits lim = lim = = =0
Important concepts x→∞ x ÷x x→∞ x/x lim 1 1
to note x→∞
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises ■ Dividing top & bottom ■ The limit of a quotient
Continuity at a point by xx is equivalent to equals the quotient of the
Differentiation:
derivation & from
dividing by 1, which limits.
first principles
does not change the
Differentiation of
polynomials value.
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations x2 + x − 1
lim
Limits
The limit of a
x→∞ x2
function as it
approaches a point Note that factorising this expression will achieve little:
a limit it’s still not possible to find the limit
at x = 2?
Does the limit exist (x − 1)(x + 2)
at x = 3?
lim
Special limits
Important concepts
x→∞ x2
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Solution
Revision of
functions/relations
2 x2 x 1
Limits x +x−1 x2
+ x2
− x2
The limit of a lim = lim x2
function as it
approaches a point
x→∞ x 2 x→∞
x2
1 1
a limit 1+ x
+ x2
at x = 2?
= lim
Does the limit exist x→∞ 1
at x = 3?
1 1
Special limits lim 1 + lim + lim 2
Important concepts x→∞ x x→∞ x
to note = x→∞
Finding limits,
algebraically
lim 1
x→∞
Evaluate
Solution 1+0+0
Exercises = =1
1
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations 5x − 4
lim
Limits x→∞ 2x + 1
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
a limit
at x = 2?
at x = 3?
Special limits
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Evaluate
Revision of
functions/relations 5x − 4
lim
Limits x→∞ 2x + 1
The limit of a
function as it
a limit
5
x 4
at x = 2? 5x − 4 lim − lim
x→∞ x x→∞ x
lim =
at x = 3?
x→∞ 2x + 1 2
x 1
Special limits
lim + lim
Important concepts x→∞ x x→∞ x
to note
Finding limits, 5−0
algebraically
=
Evaluate
Solution
2+0
Exercises 5
=
Continuity at a point 2
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Exercises
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Ex 14(a) Fitzpatrick
Limits
The limit of a
function as it
approaches a point
■ Ex 11.9, 11.10 Jones & Couchman
a limit
Does the limit exist ■ p.178 Excel Year 11 Preliminary Mathematics
at x = 2?
Does the limit exist Revision & Exam workbook (Chapter 7: tangent
at x = 3?
Special limits
to a curve & derivative of a function)
Important concepts
to note
Finding limits,
algebraically
Evaluate
Solution
Exercises
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
Definition
Example
A function that is
discontinuous at
x=3
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Definition
Revision of
functions/relations A function f (x) is continuous at x = a iff:
Limits
Continuity at a point ■ Its full limit at x = a exists, and

Definition
Example
A function that is ■ lim f (x) = f (a). That is, the value of the
discontinuous at x→a
x=3 function at x = a is equal to the limit of f (x) at
Differentiation:
derivation & from x = a.
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Example
Revision of
functions/relations The function f (x) = 43 x is continuous at x = 3 as:
Limits
y ■ The full limit
Definition
Example lim f (x)
A function that is
b x→3
discontinuous at 4
x=3
Differentiation:
derivation & from 3 exists, and
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials 2 ■ The function value
Additional at x = 3 is equal
1 to the value of the
limit
x
−1 1 2 3
−1
4
lim x = f (3) = 4
x→3 3
A function that is discontinuous at x = 3
Revision of y
functions/relations
Limits x2 − 9
1 f (x) =
x+3

(x+3)
Definition
Example bc x (x − 3)
=
+
A function that is −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
discontinuous at
x=3 −1 x
3
Differentiation: =x−3
first principles
Differentiation of −3 Essentially
polynomials
Additional
−4 f (x) = x − 3
with the exception

at x = 3 where it
is discontinuous.
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve
Approximating the
Differentiation: derivation & from
gradient of a curve
Differentiating from
first principles
first principles
Results
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Gradient of a tangent to a curve
Revision of
functions/relations ■ It is easy to find the gradient of a straight line, as
Limits
the gradient itself is constant over all x-values.
Differentiation:
derivation & from ◆ Use the point-gradient formula
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve y2 − y1
Approximating the m=
gradient of a curve x2 − x1
first principles
Results
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations
■ For curves , the gradient at a particular x-value
Limits
can be found by calculating the gradient of the
Differentiation: tangent to the curve at that x-value .
derivation & from
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve
Approximating the y
gradient of a curve
first principles
Results 3
Example
Exercises 2
Conditions for
differentiability
1 b
Differentiation of
polynomials x
Additional
−2 −1 1 2 3
differentiation rules −1
−2
Approximating the gradient of a curve
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Actually, it is impossible to find the gradient of
Limits
the tangent at any value of x given only one
Differentiation:
coordinate is known. In fact, two points
derivation & from
first principles
(x1 , f (x1 )) and (x2 , f (x2 )) are required to find
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve
the gradient of a straight line.
Approximating the
gradient of a curve
Differentiating from y
first principles
Results
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional f (x1 ) b
x
x1
Revision of
functions/relations
■ The workaround to this is to use a secant and
Limits
approximate the gradient of the tangent by
Differentiation: finding a limit.
derivation & from
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve y
Approximating the
gradient of a curve
first principles
Results f (x + h) b
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
f (x) b
x
Differentiation of
polynomials x x+h
Additional
differentiation rules h
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Using the point-gradient formula with points
Limits
(x, f (x)) and (x + h, f (x + h)):
y
Differentiation:
derivation & from y2 − y1
first principles m=
Gradient of a x2 − x1
tangent to a curve
Approximating the f (x + h) − f (x) f (x + h) b
gradient of a curve =
Differentiating from (x + h) − x
first principles
Results f (x + h) − f (x) f (x) b
x
Example =
Exercises h x x+h
Conditions for
differentiability h
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
At this step if h is shrunk, the the gradient of the
secant will also change to become more like the
gradient of the tangent at x.
y
f (x + h) b
f (x) b
x+h
h
y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
gradient of secant = m = =
x2 − x1 h
y
f (x + h) b
f (x) b
x+h
h
y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
x2 − x1 h
y
f (x + h) b
f (x) b
x+h
h
y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
x2 − x1 h
y
f (x + h) b
f (x) b
x
x+h
y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
x2 − x1 h
y
f (x + h)
f (x) b
b
x
x x+h
y2 − y1 f (x + h) − f (x)
x2 − x1 h
Differentiating from first principles
Revision of
functions/relations The approximation thus being made for the gradient of
Limits the tangent to a curve at any point x by shrinking the
Continuity at a point horizontal distance h is
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
′ f (x + h) − f (x)
Gradient of a f (x) = lim
tangent to a curve
Approximating the
h→0 h
gradient of a curve
first principles where f ′ (x) is the y
Results
Example gradient of f at point x
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
differentiation rules f (x) b
x
x
Results
Revision of
functions/relations ■ What has been done by finding
Limits
′ f (x + h) − f (x)
Differentiation: f (x) = lim
derivation & from h→0 h
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve is to find the gradient function of f (x).
Approximating the
gradient of a curve
first principles
■ The gradient function returns the gradient of a
Results curve given a particular x-value.
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
■ So to find the gradient of the function f (x) at
Differentiation of
x = a, simply find:
polynomials
Additional
1. f ′ (x), and then
2. f ′ (a).
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Find the gradient function of f (x) = x2 and thus find
Limits the gradient of f (x) = x2 at x = 1 and x = 2.
Continuity at a point Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
′ f (x + h) − f (x) ∵ f ′ (x) = 2x
tangent to a curve h→0 h ∴ f ′ (1) = 2
Approximating the
gradient of a curve (x + h)2 − x2
Differentiating from = lim f ′ (2) = 4
first principles h→0 h
Results
Example x2 + 2hx + h2 − x2
Exercises = lim
Conditions for
differentiability
h→0 h
Differentiation of
h(2x + h)
polynomials = lim
Additional
h→0
h
differentiation rules = lim 2x + h
h→0
= 2x
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
2
1 b
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−2
y
9
8
7
6
4
5
4 b
1
3
2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−2
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Find the gradient function of any straight line denoted
Limits by f (x) = mx + b.
Continuity at a point Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles ′ f (x + h) − f (x)
tangent to a curve h→0 h
Approximating the
gradient of a curve [m(x + h) + b] − [mx + b]
Differentiating from = lim
Results

mx + mh + b − − b
mx
Example
= lim
Exercises
Conditions for
h→0 h
differentiability
m h
Differentiation of = lim
polynomials h→0 h
Additional
differentiation rules =m
Revision of
functions/relations Thus the gradient function of any straight line denoted
Limits by f (x) = mx + b is just m: confirming what is
Continuity at a point already known about the gradient-intercept form of a
Differentiation:
derivation & from straight line!
first principles
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve
Approximating the
gradient of a curve
first principles
Results
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Differentiate f (x) = x3 , from first principles.
Limits Solution
Differentiation: ′ f (x + h) − f (x)
derivation & from f (x) = lim
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve (x + h)3 − x3
Approximating the = lim
gradient of a curve h→0 h
first principles [x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ] − x3
Results = lim
Example h→0 h
Exercises
Conditions for x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3
−x
3
differentiability = lim
Differentiation of h→0 h
polynomials
h(3x2 + 3xh + h2 )

Additional = lim
differentiation rules h→0
h
= lim 3x2 + 3xh + h2 = 3x2
h→0
Exercises
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Fitzpatrick Ex. 14(b) Q. 1,2, 4–6
Limits
Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Ex. 11.2

Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles ■ p.181 Excel Year 11 Preliminary Mathematics
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve Revision & Exam workbook (Chapter 7: tangent
Approximating the
gradient of a curve to a curve & derivative of a function)
first principles
Results
Example
Exercises
Conditions for
differentiability
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Conditions for differentiability
Revision of
functions/relations For the gradient of a curve f ′ (x) to be found at x = a,
Limits
Continuity at a point 1. The curve must be continuous at x = a

Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
(a) LH/RH limits must be equal.
Gradient of a
tangent to a curve
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→a+ x→a−
Approximating the
gradient of a curve
Differentiating from (b) Continuity. f (a) = lim f (x).
first principles x→a
Results
Example
Exercises 2. The gradient to the curve at x = a must exist.
Conditions for
differentiability Gradient at cannot be found if the curve is not
Differentiation of smooth at that point– i.e. is a sharp corner at
polynomials
Additional
x = a.
■ f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but not

differentiable there!
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Spot the trend Differentiation of polynomials
Rule for
differentiating
polynomials
Alternative notation
Exercises
Additional
Spot the trend
Revision of
functions/relations Notice a trend in differentiating simple polynomials
Limits f (x) = x2 and f (x) = x3 :
Differentiation: f (x) f ′ (x)
derivation & from
first principles x2 2x
Differentiation of
polynomials
x3 3x2
Spot the trend
Rule for
differentiating Try differentiating f (x) = x4 !
polynomials
Exercises
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
f (x) = x4
′ f (x + h) − f (x)
Differentiation:
derivation & from f (x) = lim
Differentiation of (x + h)4 − x4
polynomials = lim
Spot the trend h→0 h
Rule for
differentiating (x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 ) − x4
polynomials
= lim
Exercises
h→0 h
Additional h(4x3 + 6x2 h + 4xh2 + h3 )

differentiation rules = lim
h→0
h
= 4x3
Revision of
functions/relations Notice a trend in differentiating simple polynomials
Limits f (x) = x2 and f (x) = x3 :
Differentiation: f (x) f ′ (x)
derivation & from
first principles x2 2x
Differentiation of
polynomials
x3 3x2
Spot the trend
Rule for
x4 4x3
differentiating
polynomials
Notice a trend?
Exercises
Additional
Rule for differentiating polynomials
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Differentiating
Limits
f (x) = axn with a ∈ R, n ∈ Q\{0} will result
Differentiation:
derivation & from
in f ′ (x) = anxn−1
first principles
Differentiation of
(“Drag the index down to multiply with the front,
polynomials and subtract 1 from the index)
Spot the trend
Rule for
differentiating
polynomials ◆ If f (x) = 5x2 , then f ′ (x) = 5 × 2 × x = 10x
Exercises ◆ If g(x) = 8x6 , then g ′ (x) = 48x5
Additional
◆ If h(x) = 23 x2/3 , then h′ (x) = 49 x−1/3
◆ Note that when n = 0,
f (x) = a ⇒ f ′ (x) = 0. Horizontal lines have
gradient of 0.
Rule for differentiating polynomials
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Differentiating sums of polynomial terms is the
Limits
same as the sum of the differentiated terms.
Differentiation: Example
derivation & from
first principles If f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 9x + 8 then
Differentiation of
polynomials
d 3
Spot the trend
Rule for
′
f (x) = (x − 5x2 + 9x + 8)
differentiating dx
polynomials
d 3 d 2 d d
= x − 5x + 9x + 8
Exercises
dx dx dx dx
Additional
differentiation rules = 3x2 − 10x + 9
Revision of
functions/relations Here are other notations used to denote the gradient
Limits function (or first derivative) of f (x).
Differentiation: dy dy
derivation & from ■ ; i.e. f (x) =
′
first principles dx dx
Differentiation of
polynomials ■ y ′ ; i.e. f ′ (x) = y ′
Spot the trend
Rule for
differentiating
2 d 2
polynomials ■ If y = x + 1, then f (x) = (x + 1) = 2x.
′
Alternative notation dx
Exercises
Additional
So for example, if f (x) = 3x4 , then
dy d
′
f (x) = y = ′
= (3x4 ) = 12x3
dx dx
Exercises
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Fitzpatrick Ex. 14(b) Q. 7–14, 16–21
Limits
Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Ex. 11.3, 11.4

Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Spot the trend
Rule for
differentiating
polynomials
Exercises
Additional
Revision of
functions/relations
Limits
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Additional differentiation rules
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Differentiating products of functions
Revision of
functions/relations ■ The rule for differentiating a sum/difference of xn
Limits
terms was given.
Differentiation:
derivation & from ■ How might
first principles
Differentiation of
f (x) = (x4 + 3x3 + 2x2 + 8)(x5 − x4 + x2 − 9)
polynomials be differentiated without expanding?
Additional
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Product rule
Revision of
functions/relations The product rule can be used to differentiate a
Limits function f (x) which is a product of other two
Continuity at a point functions u(x), v(x): (f (x) = u(x)v(x))
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + u′ (x)v(x)
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional Alternatively
differentiation rules dy dv du
Product rule =u +v
Quotient rule dx dx dx
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Differentiate f (x) = x2 (2x8 − 1).
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
■ f (x) is a product of two other functions:
first principles
u(x) = x2 and v(x) = 2x8 − 1.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
u(x) = x2 and v(x) = 2x8 − 1.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional ■ Thus, u′ (x) = 2x and v ′ (x) = 16x7 .
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
u(x) = x2 and v(x) = 2x8 − 1.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Product rule
Quotient rule ■ Using the product rule,
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
u(x) = x2 and v(x) = 2x8 − 1.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Product rule
Quotient rule ■ Using the product rule,
Chain rule
f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

= (x2 × 16x7 ) + 2x × (2x8 − 1)
= 16x9 + 4x9 − 2x
= 20x9 − 2x
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Differentiate f (x) = (3x + 2)(2x2 − 3x + 4).
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
■ Again f (x) is a product of two other functions:
first principles u(x) = 3x + 1 and v(x) = 2x2 − 3x + 4.
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
■ Thus, u′ (x) = 3 and v ′ (x) = 6x − 3.
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
■ Thus, u′ (x) = 3 and v ′ (x) = 6x − 3.
Product rule
Quotient rule
■ Using the product rule,
Chain rule
Example
Revision of
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
■ Thus, u′ (x) = 3 and v ′ (x) = 6x − 3.
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

= (3x + 1)(6x − 3) + 3(3x2 − 3x + 4)
= 18x2 − 3x − 3
+ 9x2 − 9x + 12
= 27x2 − 12x + 9
Example
Revision of dy
functions/relations Find dx when y = (7x + 4)(6x4 − 8x).
Limits Solution
Using product rule:
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
du
Differentiation of
u = 7x + 4 ⇒ dx
=7
polynomials
dv
Additional
v = 6x4 − 8x ⇒ dx
= 24x3 − 8
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (7x + 4)(24x3 − 8) + 7(6x4 − 8x)
Quotient rule
Revision of
functions/relations When f (x) is a quotient of two other functions u(x)
Limits and v(x),
Continuity at a point u(x)
Differentiation: f (x) =
derivation & from v(x)
first principles
Differentiation of then
polynomials
′ v(x)u ′
(x) − u(x)v ′
(x)
Additional f (x) =
Product rule
[v(x)]2
Quotient rule
Chain rule Alternatively,
dy v du − u dv
= dx 2 dx
dx v
u
if y = v
where u and v are functions of x.
Chain rule
Revision of
functions/relations Then f (x) has another function “embedded” in it, e.g.
Limits
Continuity at a point f (x) = (x2 − 5)6

Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles Notice that f (x) can be re-written as say, f (u) = u6 ,
Differentiation of
polynomials and u = x2 − 5 The gradient function of such
Additional
differentiation rules functions is
Product rule
Quotient rule
f ′ (x) = f ′ (u) · u′ (x)
Chain rule
Alternatively,
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
Example
Revision of
functions/relations Differentiate f (x) = (x2 − 5)6
Limits
Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
u(x) = x2 − 5 f (u) = u6
polynomials
u′ (x) = 2x f ′ (u) = 6u5
Additional
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule f ′ (x) = f ′ (u) · u′ (x)
= 6u5 · 2x
= 6(x2 − 5)5 · 2x
= 12x(x2 − 5)5
Remember to substitute the contents of u back to

f ′ (x): a gradient function in x is required, not in u.
Example
Revision of 2
√
functions/relations Differentiate f (x) = x x2 − 1.
Limits Solution
Differentiation:
derivation & from
■ f (x) is a product of two
√ other functions:
first principles u(x) = x2 and v(x) = x2 − 1 = (x2 − 1)1/2 .
Differentiation of
polynomials
2
√
Additional u(x) = x v(x) = x2 − 1
Product rule u′ (x) = 2x v ′ (x) =??
Quotient rule
Chain rule
■ v ′ (x) can be found by using the chain rule and

letting z(x) = x2 − 1
v(z) = z 1/2 z(x) = x2 − 1

′ 1 −1/2
v (z) = z z ′ (x) = 2x
2
Example
Revision of
functions/relations ■ (continued)
Limits
v ′ (x) = v ′ (z) · z ′ (x)
Differentiation:
derivation & from 1 2
first principles
= (x − 1)−1/2 · 2x
Differentiation of 2
polynomials x
Additional =√
differentiation rules x2 − 1
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule
f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

2 x √
=x ·√ + x2 − 1 · 2x
x2 − 1
x3 + 2x(x2 − 1) 4x3 − 2x
= √ = √
x −1
2 x2 − 1
Exercises
Revision of
functions/relations ■ Fitzpatrick Ex. 14(d)
Limits
Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Chapter 12 exercises.

Differentiation:
derivation & from
first principles
Differentiation of
polynomials
Additional
Product rule
Quotient rule
Chain rule

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Courses Maths 2u 1204321198 2007 Mathematics Notes

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Limits, Continuity & Basic differentiation

(Mathematics – Preliminary Course)

Continuity at a point ■ The range (or codomain) of a function indicates

■ A function can only have 1 mapping for each

Continuity at a point ■ Its full limit at x = a exists, and

with the exception

Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Ex. 11.2

Continuity at a point 1. The curve must be continuous at x = a

■ f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but not

Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Ex. 11.3, 11.4

f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

Continuity at a point f (x) = (x2 − 5)6

Remember to substitute the contents of u back to

■ v ′ (x) can be found by using the chain rule and

v(z) = z 1/2 z(x) = x2 − 1

f ′ (x) = u(x)v ′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)

Continuity at a point ■ Jones & Couchman Chapter 12 exercises.

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