Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137

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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/palaeo

Record of Albian to early Cenomanian environmental perturbation in the

eastern sub-equatorial Pacific
J.P. Navarro-Ramirez a,b,⁎, S. Bodin a, U. Heimhofer c, A. Immenhauser a
a
Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und Geophysik, D-44870 Bochum, Germany
b
Geological Survey of Peru (INGEMMET), San Borja-Lima, Peru
c
Leibniz Universität Hannover, Institut für Geologie, D-30167 Hannover, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The present paper documents and discusses a new Albian–early Cenomanian carbon isotope (δ13Ccarb and
Received 12 July 2014 δ13Corg) curve from the subequatorial Eastern Pacific in Peru. Chemostratigraphic evidences for the expression
Received in revised form 22 January 2015 of the OAE1b set and for OAE1c and OAE1d are presented. This dataset is relevant inasmuch as previous work
Accepted 28 January 2015
is strongly biased towards study sites in North America (Western Interior Basin), in Europe (Tethys) and the Pa-
Available online 4 February 2015
cific realm. A comparison of the carbon isotope stratigraphy obtained in Peru with published sections from the
Keywords:
Central and Western Pacific, the Western Atlantic and Northern and Western Tethys reveals an overall good
Mid-Cretaceous agreement supporting the global nature of the isotope patterns described here. The δ13C from Peru record is
OAE constrained by biostratigraphic evidence and 87Sr/86Sr isotope stratigraphy using well-preserved oyster shells.
Chemostratigraphy Furthermore, we document the development of a heterozoan epeiric–neritic mixed carbonate–siliciclastic
Pacific ramp in the Western Platform of Peru and its corresponding sedimentary facies associations. This dataset was
Carbonates used to elucidate the complex interplay of climatic changes, nutrient supply, and platform drowning, leading
to the following conclusions: (i) an upper Aptian–lower Albian major change from siliciclastic-dominated to car-
bonate sedimentation coincided with the impact of the Kilian Level, (ii) a lower Albian incipient platform drown-
ing linked to the impact of the Paquier Level, (iii) A lower middle Albian major demise of neritic carbonate
production that coincides with the Leenhardt Level, followed by middle Albian condensed sedimentation that re-
ports prominent negative values in δ13Ccarb prior to the onset of OAE1c and (iv) finally, renewed carbonate ramp
production during the upper Albian–lower Cenomanian. The data shown here represent the foundation for fu-
ture work documenting the mid-Cretaceous of Peru and its implications for the palaeoceanography of the SE
subequatorial Pacific.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Albian–early Cenomanian (mid-Cretaceous, ∼113–96.5 Ma; Ogg
and Hinnov, 2012) witnessed a series of oceanic anoxic events (OAEs,
Leckie et al., 2002; Heimhofer et al., 2004; Jarvis et al., 2006; Sprovieri
et al., 2013; Lorenzen et al., 2013). One of the most prominent features
related to these events is represented by the accumulation of organic
matter in marine sediments (Schlanger and Jenkyns, 1976). These
organic-rich sediments (black shales) can be traced in ocean basins
worldwide as individual, distinct horizons or as bundles with several
layers enriched in organic carbon (Heimhofer et al., 2006; Emeis and
Weissert, 2009; Trabucho-Alexandre et al., 2012). This specific facies
and related carbon isotope anomalies represent short-lived perturba-
tions of the global carbon cycle (Jenkyns, 2010; Melinte-Dobrinescu
and Bojar, 2010; Trabucho-Alexandre et al., 2010; Bodin et al., 2013).
OAEs are also associated with minor extinction and rapid turnover
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49 234 32 2325.
E-mail address: Juan.NavarroRamirez@rub.de (J.P. Navarro-Ramirez).
phases in marine life, changes in carbonate platform ecology and phases
of platform drowning (Hallock and Schlager, 1986; Wilmsen, 2000;
Föllmi, 2012; Krencker et al., 2014). Specifically, during the mid-Creta-
ceous (Gale et al., 2011), OAEs took place (i) during the late Aptian–
early Albian (OAE1b, ∼ 114–109 Ma), (ii) during the early late Albian
(OAE1c, ∼ 102 Ma) and (iii) at the Albian–Cenomanian boundary
(OAE1d, ∼99.5 Ma).
Much of the present understanding of mid-Cretaceous climate and
its perturbations comes from the carbon-isotope proxy making use of
bulk micrite (δ13Ccarb) and bulk organic matter (δ13Corg) sample sets.
Obtained chemostratigraphic sections from numerous basins world-
wide display excursions in the carbon isotope record that have signifi-
cance as time or event markers and shed light on processes involved
(e.g., Erbacher et al., 1996; Bralower et al., 1999; Herrle et al., 2004;
Jarvis et al., 2011; Krencker et al., 2014). Amongst these, OAE1b was a
long-lived event lasting about 6.3 Myr, characterized by a bundle of
up to four black shale levels and associated perturbations in the carbon
cycle recorded as excursions in carbon isotopes (Herrle et al., 2003,
2004; Reichelt, 2005; Madhavaraju et al., 2013). In the Vocontian

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.01.025
0031-0182/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137 123

-70° -50° -50° -40° -30° -20° -10° 0° 10° 20° 30°
Basin (Western Tethys), these levels are represented by the uppermost
North Atlantic

x
Aptian Jacob Level and the lower Albian Kilian, Paquier and Leenhardt x
Ocean
10 N
x
levels. Here, the Kilian and Paquier levels are the most widespread, de- x
Palaeo- x x
posited during eustatic highstands (Bréhéret, 1994) and composed by Equ A
ator

x
-0 W
N D
marine organic matter with a low terrigenous input (Trabucho-

x
Alexandre et al., 2011). x
G O
-10
On the other hand, in the Tethys realm, the early late Albian OAE1c is ANDEAN

x
a black shale level characterized by abundant terrigenous organic mat- Farallon x BASIN
-20 Plate
ter (Amadeus Level; Coccioni and Galeotti, 1993; Galeotti, 1998; x
x x
Luciani et al., 2007). The chemostratigraphic pattern of this event is Pacific

x
-30 Ocean
not uniform, a feature most likely related to differences in sedimenta-

x
Phoenix

x
tion rates, the interaction of local and global processes and other, so Plate

x x
far not well constrained factors. In this sense, only a weakly developed -40
upper Aptian/lower Albian
negative δ13Ccarb shift has been reported in Central Europe for OAE1c x x Subduction zone

(Erbacher et al., 1996), whereas a prominent negative excursion in
δ13Corg has been identified in Mexico (Bralower et al., 1999) or in sec-
tions on Japan (Takashima et al., 2010). At the Albian–Cenomanian tran-
sition, OAE1d has been ascribed to a black shale level known as the
Breistroffer Level in France (Gale et al., 1996). A long-lasting positive ex-
cursion of δ13Ccarb within this interval has led several authors to suggest
globally significant organic-carbon burial (Nederbragt et al., 2001;
Schröder-Adams et al., 2012; Scott et al., 2013). It is likely, however,
that different OAEs have different driving mechanisms and differential
organic matter-rich sedimentation in different localities during an
event as reflected in different types of organic matter found in specific
black shale intervals (Kuypers et al., 2001).
Much of the present knowledge of the Albian–early Cenomanian
OAE records is biased towards data derived from sections in Europe
(Tethys) and North America (Western Interior Basin). In contrast, very
limited information on mid-Cretaceous OAEs is available from the east-
ern sub-equatorial Pacific and generally, the western South American
realm. A limited series of relatively well dated, albeit usually incomplete
records of Albian to Cenomanian marine strata from the Pacific stems
from ocean drilling projects (e.g., Hess Rise, Shatsky Rise, Resolution
Guyot: Price, 2003; Robinson et al., 2004; Dumitrescu et al., 2006;
Ando et al., 2008). Other outcrop-based studies from the Pacific realm
have been reported from Japan (Nemoto and Hasegawa, 2011 and refer-
ences therein). Judging from available data, OAE1a and OAE2 seem to be
more represented in the Pacific region whilst other OAEs show a less
pronounced record. Albian–early Cenomanian occurrences of organic-
rich black shales seem to be less thick and rather patchy in distribution
(Robinson et al., 2004). In conclusion, the eastern sub-equatorial Pacific
is remarkably underrepresented and poorly constrained with respect to
continuous and well-dated chemostratigraphic reference sections for
the mid-Cretaceous interval.
In order to close this gap, a field-based project in northern Peru has
been undertaken and extended Albian–early Cenomanian sections are
here reported. The results shown indicate that OAE1b, 1c and 1d are re-
corded in the Andean Basin of Peru. This paper has the following aims as
follows: to (i) document and interpret the sedimentology of well-
exposed Albian–early Cenomanian sections of the Andean Basin of
Peru; to (ii) provide a carbon-isotope reference curve from these sec-
tions for the marginal SE Pacific and to (iii) discuss and correlate the
Peruvian findings with coeval records documented from the Tethyan,
the proto-Atlantic and the Pacific domains.
2. Regional tectonic and stratigraphic setting
During the mid-Cretaceous, the Andean Basin was located within
the sub-equatorial humid belt of the Southern Hemisphere (Hay and
Floegel, 2012) and separated from the Pacific Ocean by a volcanic arc ex-
tending some 10,000 km from South America to the North Scotia Ridge
in the South Atlantic (Fig. 1; Larson and Pitman, 1972; Atherton and
Aguirre, 1992). Owing to a long-term transgression during the Albian
(Pindell and Tabbutt, 1995; Robert, 2002), broad portions of the Andean
Basin were flooded and mixed carbonate–siliciclastic sedimentation
x
x
1000 km x Area of study
-50
Fig. 1. Palaeogeographic map of Gondwana during the mid-Cretaceous (modified after
Larson and Pitman, 1972; Torsvik et al., 2009; Moulin et al., 2010) indicating position of
what today is the Andean Basin. Black square denotes approximate position of study area.
was accentuated overlying Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic units. Deposi-
tion was controlled by NNW–SSE-trending structures (Figs. 2 and 3).
The Paracas Massif, consisting of Precambrian continental basement,
limits the western part of the Albian volcanic Huarmey Trough (Soler
and Bonhomme, 1990). Further east, the Albian Huarmey Trough
evolved into an aborted marginal volcanic basin characterized by the
deposition of basaltic pillow lavas of the Casma Group (Atherton and
Webb, 1989). Volcanic activity in the Andean Basin was directly related
to the break-up of the Gondwana arc, culminating with the opening of
the South Atlantic Ocean (Torsvik et al., 2009; Moulin et al., 2010;
Winter et al., 2010; Fig. 1) and the emplacement of the Coastal Batholith
in the Huarmey Trough in the Late Cretaceous (Soler and Bonhomme,
1990). In the middle part of the Andean Basin, the Western Platform
was characterized as a back-arc basin, developed on an extensional tec-
tonic margin and activated during Jurassic–Cretaceous times (Jaillard,
1987). Towards the southeast, the Western Platform was attached to
the Marañon Massif, a generally submerged locally also emerged massif,
separating the Western Platform and the Eastern Basin (Benavides-
Caceres, 1956). The Eastern Basin was bound to the east by the
Brazilian shield and comprises deltaic coarse grained deposits (Figs. 2
and 3).
Given the scarcity of stratigraphic data on the Albian–early
Cenomanian of Peru, a summary of the existing knowledge is given for
reference (Fig. 4; Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Jaillard, 1987; Robert et al.,
2009). In the northern Andes (Cajamarca region), the Lower Cretaceous
is represented by the Goyllarisquizga Group that encompasses the
Chimu, Santa, Carhuaz and Farrat formations (Benavides-Caceres,
1956). The Goyllarisquizga Group is assigned to the Valanginites broggii
Zone at the base and an Aptian age was assumed for the top (Benavides-
Caceres, 1956). This group is overlain by Albian transgressive deposits
that resulted in shelf deposition of the Inca, Chulec, Pariatambo and
Yumagual formations reaching the onset of the early Cenomanian.
The Inca Formation consists of iron-rich, sandy and marl–limestones
beds, assigned an early Albian age based on the ammonite
Neodeshayesites nicholsoni (Robert and Bulot, 2004; Robert et al.,
2009). The Inca is unconformably overlain by the Chulec Formation
with a discontinuity surface separating the two units. The Chulec For-
mation is characterized by marl–limestone alternations with a very
abundant and diversified outer shelf fauna (Jaillard, 1987). Numerous
ammonites have been reported and were assigned to the Knemiceras
raimondii Zone (Robert and Bulot, 2004; Robert et al., 2009), indicating
a middle early Albian–early middle Albian age. The Chulec Formation is
conformably overlain by the Pariatambo Formation.
The Pariatambo Formation is characterized by fossiliferous, black, bi-
tuminous, fetid marly limestones facies and includes fine lamination
124 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137

80°W 75°W 70°W

v
N COLOMBIA
v ECUADOR
v

A´

v
v v
5°S v
v
v
v
BRAZIL

We
v
v

st
A v

er
Ea
Pa

n P
v
10°S st
rac
v
x er
n B

lat
x
v a
as

si n

BO
Ma
for
PACIFIC v
ra
x

LIV
LIMA
Ma

ño x x
m
OCEAN

IA
v
n M x x
ss

v a ss
i
if

v
v v x

f
0 100 200 km x
u
H

x x
deltaic sandstone ar
15°S x m x
inner-shallow ramp x e
y

middle-outer ramp Tro

outer deep ramp ug
v Albian volcanic arcs v
x Palaeozoic-Precambrian v v
basements v

Fig. 2. Mid-Cretaceous palaeogeographic map of Peru (based on Pindell and Tabbutt, 1995; Robert and Bulot, 2004). Black square indicates study area. Note size of study area relative to the
vast dimensions of the Western Platform. A–A′ denotes position of transect in Fig. 3.

and siliceous intervals. Ammonites and planktonic foraminifera bioclastic grey marl–limestones of the Yumagual Formation containing
are common, evidencing the Oxytropidoceras carbonacrium and few ammonites. Bivalve biostratigraphy places the Yumagual Formation
Prolyelliceras ulrichi Zones assigned to a middle Albian age (Robert within the Ostrea scyphax and Exogyra mermeli Zones, indicating a late
et al., 2009). The Pariatambo Formation grades upsection into nodular middle Albian–early Cenomanian age (Benavides-Caceres, 1956).

A Andean Basin A´
gh ey

si on

ld an
fo rn
si as

in rn
an c

ou rm

rm

ie ili
as añ
at te
as c
ce ifi

as te
M ara

sh raz
f

f
Pl es
Tr ua
O ac

M ar

B as
W

M
H

B
P

Albian volcanic arcs outer ramp middle ramp inner ramp deltaic sandstones

Distal Proximal
Study area
Sea level
UPPER CEOUS
CRETA
L
UA
Y U MAGMBO
C
G asma PARIATA
C
r o up
low CHULE
er K 0 100 200 km

limestone pillow lavas

marl, locally sandstone or claystone terrestrial or marine volcanics
deltaic sandstone intrusions
coarse grained continental deposits faults

Fig. 3. Hypothetical transect across the Andean Basin during Neocomian–Coniacian times (based on Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Atherton and Webb, 1989; Jaillard, 1987) with inferred
Western Platform ramp morphology. Refer to approximate position of transect in Fig. 2 (A–A′).
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137 125

87 86
Age Sr / Sr
Stage Formation Main fossil reported Zones
(Ma) 0.70725 0.70735 0.70745

Cenomanian
early
Mariella lewesiensis.,
Nummoloculina heimi Exogyra mermeli

100

Ostrea scyphax Hua 199

Yumagual Engonoceras sp.,
MIDDLE CRETACEOUS

Paraturrilites lewesiensis.,
Ostrea scyphax
late Sharpeiceras occidentale

105
Albian

Oxytropidoceras carbonarium,
Venezoliceras sp.,
Branceras sp., Lyelliceras lyelli, Oxytropidoceras
middle

Pariatambo Dipoloceras sp.,Hedbergellae carbonacrium

Puy 91.3
110 Lyelliceras lyelli, Knemiceras raimundi,
Douvilleiceras monile, Protanisoceras Knemiceras
Chulec
blancheti, Parengonoceras sp., raimondii
early

Beudanticeras sp.,Hamites sp.,

Platiknemiceras sp.,Douvilleiceras rex, N. nicholsoni,
Inca
Ap

Neodeshayesites umbilicostatus umbilicostatus

l

L o w e r C r e t a c e o u s G o y l l a r i s q u i z g a G r o u p

Fig. 4. Cretaceous chronostratigraphy of the Northern Andes. Note Goyllarisquizga Group, Inca, Chulec, Pariatambo and Yumagual formations and corresponding biostratigraphic frame-
work (Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Robert and Bulot, 2005; Robert et al., 2009). Variations in seawater 87Sr/86Sr values during early Albian–early Cenomanian times are shown (after Howarth
and McArthur, 1997; McArthur et al., 2001). Timescale is from Ogg and Hinnov (2012). Horizontal lines indicate strontium isotope values of best-preserved oysters used in this study.
Numerical ages are derived following the procedures of Howarth and McArthur (1997).

3. Methods and materials Cenomanian age. Sections were located along the road from Cajamarca
to Celendin (Fig. 5). In total, ca. 450 m of section has been logged. These
3.1. Field work and thin-section microscopy field data, obtained rock samples and thin-sections provide the funda-
ment for the petrographic and facies interpretations presented here. In
Two well-exposed sections (Pulluicana and Huameripashga) were analogy with the nomenclature and approach presented in
chosen for their well-exposed strata of the early Albian–early Immenhauser et al. (2004), non-skeletal and skeletal components

756000 768000 780000 792000 804000 816000 828000

Mara

9252000
ñon river
PE
RU

9240000 Lima CELENDIN

N
9228000

HUAMERIPASHGA
9216000

CAJAMARCA PULLUICANA
9204000

9192000

0 12 24 km

Quaternary deposits Lower Cretaceous siliciclastic deposits Fault

Tertiary volcaniclastic deposits Triassic–Jurassic marine deposits Road
Upper Cretaceous marine deposits Precambrian continental basement Section
Mid–Cretaceous marine deposits Subvolcanic rocks measured

Fig. 5. Geological map of the Cajamarca region (northern Andes) showing main structural elements and location of Pulluicana and Huameripashga study areas.
Modified after INGEMMET (2006).
126 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
were analysed semi-quantitatively with numbers indicating their rela-
tive abundance: 0 = absent, 1 = present, 2 = frequent, 3 = abundant,
4 = dominant. Oyster shells were collected as potential archive material
for radiogenic strontium-isotope stratigraphy. Limestone classification
is according to Dunham (1962). Discontinuity surfaces, mainly marine
hardgrounds, were recorded stratigraphically and traced laterally be-
tween the two sections. Combined with under- and overlying facies,
discontinuities acted as pining points for a first attempt to understand
the sequence stratigraphic evolution of the study area. Emphasis must
be laid on the fact that sequence stratigraphy as based on a limited num-
ber of sections is at best regional in nature but serves as an anchor point
for future work.
3.2. Assessing the diagenetic alteration of shell material
3.2.1. Cathodoluminescence microscopy
Cathodoluminescence (CL) microscopy examination of selected
outer shell layers of five oyster specimens were investigated for their
CL pattern in order to avoid diagenetically altered shell material. This
was carried out with the ‘hot cathode’ CL microscope (type HC1-LM)
at the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany. The acceleration voltage of
the electron beam is 14 kV and the beam current is set to a level gaining
a current density of ~9 μA mm−2 on the sample surface. Refer to Christ
et al. (2012) for details on the analytical procedure.
3.2.2. Trace and major element analysis
Oyster shells that passed initial cathodoluminescence inspection
were subsequently analysed for major and trace elemental composition
at the Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany. Aliquots of the powder sam-
ples (1.35–1.65 mg) were analysed by inductively coupled plasma
atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) for strontium, magnesium,
iron and manganese (Table 1). Refer to Huck et al. (2011) for details
on the analytical procedure.
3.3. Carbon isotope stratigraphy
3.3.1. Bulk micrite (δ13CCarb)
Carbonate bulk rock specimens were sampled by use of tungsten
drill bits. Whilst drilling the carbonate powder, areas rich in sparry ce-
ment, large bioclasts and diagenetic calcite vein material were avoided.
In order to reveal the variability of carbon-isotope composition within a
single rock sample, several sub-samples were drilled from 20% of all the
hand specimens collected. Refer to Immenhauser et al. (2005) for more
details of the analytical procedure. Carbon-isotope analysis of 123
micrite samples was performed using a Thermo Finnigan MAT delta-S
mass spectrometer at the isotope laboratory of the Ruhr-University
Bochum, Germany (see Appendix A). Repeated analyses of certified car-
bonate standards (NBS 19, IAEA CO–1 and CO–8) and internal standards
show an external reproducibility of ≤ 0.06‰ for δ13Ccarb. The δ13Ccarb
values are expressed on a per mil (‰) basis relative to the Vienna-Pee
Dee Belemnite standard (V-PDB).
3.3.2. Bulk organic matter (δ13Corg)
Carbon-isotope analyses were performed on 84 bulk organic matter
samples (see Appendix A). Two grammes of sample powder was placed
in 50 mL centrifuge tubes and 6N HCl was added. This procedure was re-
peated until no carbonate reaction was visible. The samples were centri-
fuged and the supernatant removed, the residues were rinsed with
Table 1
Selected elemental and 87Sr/86Sr data of low-Mg calcite oysters from the Cajamarca region (Western Platform, Peru) and derived numerical ages.
Locality Sample no. Sr Mg Fe
[ppm]
Huameripashga Hua 199 380 2598 720
Pulluicana Puy 91.3 825 873 147
distilled water via centrifuge and dried at 40 °C. The δ13Corg analysis
was conducted using a Finnigan MAT 252 at the stable isotope laborato-
ry of the Leibniz University Hannover, Germany. All isotope results are
reported in per mil (‰) relative to the Vienna-Pee Dee Formation bel-
emnite (V-PDB) standard in the conventional manner.
3.4. Strontium-isotope analysis
Sample powders of low-Mg calcite shells (n = 5) of oysters were
taken by use of tungsten drill bits. The required sample quantity of
500 ng was determined as based on the strontium content of each sam-
ple. The Sr fraction was separated twice using quartz glass columns
filled with BioRad ion exchange resin AG50W-X8 according to column
calibration pattern. The 87Sr/86Sr ratio was determined with a 7 collec-
tor Thermal Ionisation Mass spectrometer (TIMS) MAT 262 at the
Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany, in a 3 collector dynamic mode. As
standard reference materials NIST NBS 987 and USGS EN–1 were cho-
sen. The total blank for Sr isotope analysis, including chemical separa-
tion and loading blank is 1.5 ng. The repeatability was tested with the
USGS EN–1 modern bivalve carbonate, which passed through the
same procedures as all samples. The average 87Sr/86Sr value is
0.709160 ± 0.000027 2σ (n = 209). The reproducibility of Sr measure-
ments represented by NBS987, which was directly loaded onto a Re fil-
ament is 0.710240 ± 0.00034 2σ (n = 233). Refer to Huck et al. (2011)
for more details of the analytical procedure.
4. Data description and interpretation
4.1. Facies associations and depositional environments
The mid-Cretaceous facies belts along the Andean Basin of South
America crop out over a north–south extension of about 2000 km
(Figs. 1 and 2). Hence, despite the wide regional extent of sections mea-
sured in the context of this study, the observational window represent-
ed by our data is dwarfed by the size of the Cretaceous Western
Platform. Having said this, the direct match of coeval portions of mea-
sured chemostratigraphic sections argues for an over-regional signifi-
cance of the data shown here. More fieldwork in neighbouring areas
will support this working hypothesis or claim revision.
The data obtained so far and previous work point to a mixed, carbon-
ate–siliciclastic ramp with decreasing argillaceous influence towards
the west (i.e., Pacific-wards) pinching out against the Albian volcanic
arc (Figs. 1 and 2). The most proximal settings represented by coastal,
deltaic and tidal flat facies in the eastern part of the platform
(present-day eastern Peru and western Brazil, Fig. 2) were not visited
in the context of this project. Integrating previous work (e.g.,
Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Robert et al., 2009), three main depositional
environments, each with a number of standard facies types, are here
established for the subtidal to outer ramp (Fig. 6 and Table 2). The doc-
umentation of these fundamental sedimentological data is important
due to the lack of accessible previous work. Estimates of the approxi-
mate bathymetry of corresponding depositional environments are
based on previous works dealing with comparable depositional envi-
ronments (Yanin, 1983; Lukasik et al., 2000; Immenhauser, 2005, 2009).
4.1.1. Shallow subtidal inner ramp setting
The shallow subtidal inner ramp depositional environment com-
prises three facies types: 1a, 1b and 1c (Fig. 6 and Table 2). The most
87
Mn Sr/86Sr 2σ mean Age [Ma]
(×10−6) Min Mean Max
76.6 0.707435 7 97.93 101 104.12
6.3 0.707380 6 108.87 109.36 109.74
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137 127

Outer ramp Middle ramp: Inner ramp zone:

(~30–50 m) (10–30 m) (<5 m)

below storm wave-base below fair-weather base shallow subtidal zone

mud/wackestones rud/float/grainstones marl/mud/wacke/packstones

redox condictions open marine shallow waters

Sediment input
Storms

Sea level

and reworking
erosion 0 100km
oyster bioherms
3 2 2 1 1
(3a) (2c) (2a–2b) (1c) (1a–1b)
Finely-bedded, Thinly- Well-preserved oysters. Imbricated, chaotic, Bioturbated, Scarce fauna, faint
bituminous, bedded, Commonly bioturbated. and fragmented bioclastic banks, bioturbation, erosional
dark-grey, sulphides, marly, skeletal elements. diverse fauna, surfaces.
Chondrites. bioturba- Parallel lamination, erosional surfaces.
ted. intraclasts.

Fig. 6. Epeiric ramp model for the Western Platform in Peru exposed to occasional storm events and depositional environments recorded in the Inca, Chulec, Pariatambo and Yumagual
formations of the Cajamarca region. Facies types (1a through 3a) are indicated. Refer to Table 2 for more details. FWWB = fair-weather wave base; SWB = storm-weather wave base.

proximal deposits are composed of grey argillaceous mudstone and oc-
casionally iron-rich sandstone, representing intervals of two to five me-
tres thick (upper portions of Inca Formation). Scarce fauna occurs as
undifferentiated shell debris and flora as plant remains (Facies 1a). In
more distal sub-environments, the beds show thickening-upward pack-
ages and the facies is characterized by packstones and argillaceous
wackestones, exhibiting a nodular fabric due to an increased argilla-
ceous content, intraclasts and oncoids are also observed in variable
amounts (Facies 1b; Fig. 8A). Evidence for bioturbation is limited and
primary sedimentary structures such as plane bedding are well pre-
served (Fig. 7A).
Towards more open marine settings, Facies type 1b grades into
thicker beds, characterized by grainstone and occasionally floatstone fa-
cies and reaching 1 to 3 m in thickness (Facies 1c, lower portions of
Chulec Formation). Facies 1c is typically rich in mixed and fragmented
shell debris, mainly of oysters and gastropods and echinoderms

Table 2
Overview of facies classification and interpretation. Numbers indicate the relative abundance of non-skeletal and skeletal components: 0 = absent, 1 = present, 2 = frequent, 3 =
abundant, 4 = dominant.

Facies Colour Facies/key Texture Skeletal and non–skeletal Depositional Facies associations and
code code biota components environment depositional environment

Restricted fauna m Plant remains 1–2, quartz 2–3

1a Shallow subtidal
with quartz
1

Argillaceous m, M–W Micrite envelopes 1–2, peloids 1–2, oyster

1b Shallow subtidal Shallow subtidal
restricted fauna 1, oncoids 1–2, shell debris 1
inner ramp
Peloids 1, oyster 2–3, gastropods 1–2, shell
Argillaceous W, P–G, debris 1–2, oncoids 1, echinoderms 1–2,
1c Shallow subtidal
diverse fauna F benthic foraminifera 1–2

Peloids 1, oyster 1–2, gastropods 1–2,

Diverse fauna– P–G, F shell debris 2–3, echinoderms 2–3,
2a Open marine ramp
high energy benthic foraminifera 1–2
Open marine–
2 middle ramp
Oyster 2–4, shell debris 2–3,
2b Oyster floatstone F–G, R Open marine ramp
echinoderms 1–2

Diverse fauna– Shell debris 1, echinoderms 1–2,

2c M–W, P Open marine ramp
low energy planktonic foraminifera 1–2

Dark grey, Shell debris 1, echinoderms 1,

3a M Outer ramp 3 Outer ramp
muddy facies planktonic foraminifera 1
128 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137

Fig. 7. A): Outcrop image of thickly-bedded Yumagual Formation. B) Bioclastic rudstone of the Yumagual Formation, characterized by oysters in life position in shell debris host facies
(Facies 2a). C) Oyster specimen used for strontium analyses in this study (Facies 2b). D) Discontinuity surface (SB1) that marks the contact between medium-scale sequences (MsS)
1 and 2. Note olistolithic block. MsS 2 displays thin dark-grey to thick-bedded limestones of the Pariatambo Formation.

(Fig. 8B). Bioturbation is locally more intense and the bedding blurred.
Abundant minor discontinuity surfaces are observed. These are charac-
terized by FeO mineralization and increased levels of bioturbation of un-
derlying rocks.
The lithological and palaeontological characteristics of the inner-
most subtidal ramp facies exposed in the study area supports a restrict-
ed, low-energy environment, where punctuated tempestite intervals,
abundant terrigenous influx including plan remains and the scarcity of
a marine ichnofacies indicate a significant level of continentality. Esti-
mates of the palaeo-bathymetry as based on comparable settings else-
where point to water depths of a few metres only (Facies 1a).
Limestones deposited in the more distal inner ramp setting, i.e., to-
wards the west, display a more diverse fauna and much decreased ter-
rigenous influx suggesting a protected, shallow subtidal environment
under low hydrodynamic energy near the expectedly very shallow
fair-weather wave base (Immenhauser, 2009; Facies 1b). The presence
of transported, fragmented and worn skeletal grains points to periodical
storm events (Facies 1c). In the absence of corals, calcareous green algae
or ooidal facies, an estimate of the palaeo-bathymetry of the distal inner
ramp is difficult. In comparison to data shown in Yanin (1983) water
depths from near-sea level to about 5 m are tentatively estimated for
deposits of facies type 1c (Fig. 8B). In this sense, it seems likely that fa-
cies types 1a through c are not differentiated by bathymetry but rather
through their decreasing level of clastic influx and increasingly marine
water masses.
4.1.2. Open marine middle ramp setting
The more open marine, middle ramp depositional environment
comprises facies types 2a, 2b and 2c (Fig. 6 and Table 2). Deposits of
the mid-ramp setting are characterized by packages of oyster bioherms,
interbedded by rare grainstone units yielding various skeletal elements
and intraclasts (Facies 2a; Fig. 7B). Oysters are a dominant faunal ele-
ment and associated with echinoderms and occasional ammonites.
Skeletal elements are locally imbricated, elsewhere bioclasts are
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
Fig. 8. A): Packstone of Chulec Formation composed of oncoids and variegated shell debris (Facies 1b). B) Bioclastic floatstone of the Chulec Formation, showing mixed and fragmented
skeletal debris (Facies 1c). C) Wacke- to packstone of the Chulec Formation, showing some gastropods, echinoderms and unspecified shell debris (Facie 2c). D) Mudstones with Chondrites
burrows of the Pariatambo Formation (Facies 3a).
arranged in lenses and display a chaotic fabric of non-sorted and
fragmented bioclasts. Oyster packstones represent bioherms with di-
mensions of between 5 and some tens of metres and thicknesses of up
to one metre (Facies 2b; Fig. 7C). Basin-wards, beds display thinning
and are represented by bioturbated mud- to wackestones, less com-
monly by packstones. Faunal elements consist of gastropods, echino-
derms and planktonic foraminifera and of unspecified shell debris
(Facies 2c; Fig. 8C).
Generally, oyster-debris facies witness storm hydrodynamics that
eroded, entrained and re-deposited oyster bioherms that were other-
wise situated beneath the effective fair-weather wave base (Facies
2a), i.e., the depth at which wave-orbitals are still capable of moving
sediment particles (Immenhauser, 2009). According to Yanin (1983),
oyster bioherms in mid-ramp settings are often situated at palaeo-
water depths of between 10 and 20 m (Facies 2b). In modern, wave-
exposed oceanic margins the average effective fair-weather wave base
is in the order of 30 ± 15 m. Given the broad epeiric ramp setting stud-
ied here, fair-weather and swell waves from the Cretaceous Pacific
Ocean probably lost much of their energy due to wave base-seafloor in-
teraction and the shallower end-member of this bathymetric range is
expected (Keulegan and Krumbein, 1949). Moreover, the significance
of the Albian volcanic arc to the west is difficult to quantify in terms of
wave climates. The combination of oyster bioherms, combined with
gastropods and echinoids, the presence of planktonic foraminifera and
ammonites may indicate an open marine setting with a water depth be-
tween ∼10–30 m.
4.1.3. Outer ramp setting
The outer ramp setting is characterized by facies type 3a (Fig. 6 and
Table 2) and is located below the reach of the effective storm wave base.
The facies obtained primarily consists of mudstones in dm-thick beds
and yields traces of sulphide deposits (pyrite content). The carbonate fa-
cies is dark grey in weathering colour (Fig. 7D). Chondrites-type biotur-
bation is common (Fig. 8D). The faunal composition includes planktonic
foraminifera and echinoderms (Facies 3a). Fine-grained deposits char-
acterized by dark grey colouring, fine lamination, high pyrite content,
chondrites and scarce fauna may indicate an environment below the
129
reach of storm waves in relatively dys- to anoxic water conditions at
the sea floor.
In modern, open storm exposed oceanic margins, the effective storm
wave base is in the order of 150 m or less (Immenhauser, 2009). Con-
sidering the epeiric shelf and the potential barrier effects of the Albian
volcanic arc to the west (Atherton and Webb, 1989), however, this
depth range seems unlikely due to wave base frictional energy loss
and a depth range of 30–50 m is suggested in a tentative manner. This
is the typical depth range of smaller, epeiric–neritic basins that might
represent some sort of an analogue of the broad Peruvian shelf in the
mid-Cretaceous but the modern world provides no suitable analogues
to the Cretaceous Western Platform of Peru.
4.2. Sequence stratigraphic interpretation
Acknowledging the fact that the present data set covers a compara-
ble small portion of the vast Western Platform of the Cretaceous of Peru,
a first-order assessment of the sequence stratigraphy of these sections is
here presented. The significance of these data lies fundamentally in the
fact that they represent the foundation for future work from this poorly
documented part of the world and allow for a comparison with se-
quence stratigraphic interpretations from neighbouring basins. The fa-
cies analyses of the Pulluicana–Huameripashaga composite section
indicates changes in accommodation space of a least two different or-
ders of magnitude. Essentially, the Inca, Chulec, Pariatambo and
Yumagual formations represent a large-scale sequence (LsS1) with a
minimum stratigraphic thickness of 450 m (Figs. 9 and 10). As the strat-
igraphic top of the Yumagual Formation is not reached in the outcrops
visited, LsS1 is perhaps stratigraphically thicker than documented
here. Overall, large-scale sequence 1 is made up by three medium-
scale sequences with thicknesses ranging between 125 and 150 m, com-
monly delimited by well-marked discontinuity surfaces indicating
changes in the depositional system including abrupt shifts of facies
belts (Fig. 9).
Medium-scale sequence 1 (MsS1) overlies the argillaceous mud-
stone and iron-rich sandstone alternations of the Inca Formation. At
the base, the transgressive system tract is represented by an alternation
 130
Formation
Substage
Pulluicana (lower) - Huameripashga 13 13
C org (‰ V-PDB) Carbonate
C carb(‰ V-PDB) Sea-level

Stage

Exogyra mermeli Zone

(upper) composite section -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -28 -27 -26 -25 50m 30 10 0 Events factory

Medium-scale Sequence 3 (MsS3)

250m deeper
CENOMANIAN
early
225 Pe9b

200
Hua 199
87
Sr/ 86 Sr= 0.707435± 7x10-6
Pe9 Breistoffer OAE1d?
MFI 175

J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137

YUMAGUAL
Ostrea scyphax

150
late

SB2 Pe9a
125
Medium-scale Sequence 2 (MsS2)

100
Large-scale Sequence 1 (LsS1)

75

50 Pe8
Oxytropidoceras carbonacrium
ALBIAN

MFI Pe8
Pe7 Pe7
25
PARIATAMBO

175m

SB1 Leenhardt
middle

0 Pe6
Pe6
Medium-scale Sequence 1 (MsS 1)

mMWPGFR 150

MFI 125

Pe5 Pe5 OAE1b

87
Puy 91.3 Sr/ 86Sr= 0.707380± 6x10-6 set
-6
CHULEC

75
N. nicholsoni K. raimondii

Pe4
50 Pe4
Pe3 Paquier
Pe3
early

25
Pe2
INCA

X Pe1
0 Kilian
0 1 2 -28 -27 -26 -25 50m 30 10 0
mMWPGFR

Fig. 9. Regional sequence stratigraphic interpretation, carbon-isotope stratigraphy and relative sea-level record of the Pulluicana–Huameripashga composite section with indication of Albian OAEs and corresponding sub-levels. Pe1–Pe9 refers to
chemostratigraphic segments defined for the Peruvian reference curve. Data points shaded grey correspond to OAEs based on bio- and chemostratigraphic data. Note position of 87Sr/86Sr data. Biostratigraphic data by Benavides-Caceres (1956)
and Robert et al. (2009).
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137 131

chondrites m = marl
Restricted fauna with quartz Depositional
bioclasts (undiff.) M = mudstone Sequences
Argillaceous restricted fauna W = wackestone
bivalves (undiff.)
Argillaceous diverse fauna oysters P = packstone
HD

Medium-scale
G = grainstone

Large-scale
Diverse fauna-high energy gastropods
planktonic forams F = floatstone
Oyster floatstone R = rudstone MFI
echinoderms
Diverse fauna-low energy nodular aspect
silicification TD
Thinly-bedded turbidites
oncoids
Dark grey, muddy facies
peloids HD = highstand deposit
Siliciclastics intraclasts MFI = maximun flooding interval
Heterozoan assemblages (calcite) Sr-samples TD = transgressive deposit

Incipient demise or condensation - undifferentiated bioturbation

discontinuity surface

Fig. 10. Legend for Fig. 9, denoting colour codes for different facies types and corresponding carbonate factory.

of wacke- and mudstone beds intercalated with some floatstone–
packstone units (Chulec Formation). It is topped by a discontinuity sur-
face bearing field evidence of a marine hardground, which marks the
maximum flooding surface and, thus, the contact between the Chulec
and the Pariatambo formations. The hardground is overlain by more cal-
careous and thicker bedded highstand deposits comprising wacke- to
floatstone units that are often bioturbated. A regionally significant dis-
continuity (SB1) characterized by the impregnation with secondary
iron-oxides and intense bioturbation is recognized in both, the
Huameripashga and Pulluicana sections respectively. On this disconti-
nuity surface an olistolithic block is observed (Fig. 7D) that may indicate
local tectonic faulting along the northern Andes (Jaillard, 1987).
In terms of its sequence stratigraphic significance, SB1 marks the
transgressive surface of the MsS2 (Fig. 9). Due to the lack of evidence
for prolonged subaerial exposure of SB1, such as karstification,
bleaching or saw-tooth-shaped carbon and oxygen-isotope excursions,
the medium-scale sequences shown in Fig. 9 might represent
parasequences topped by marine transgressive surfaces.
Medium-scale sequence 2 (MsS2), i.e., the transgressive systems
tract comprises wackestones, locally with pack- float- and rudstone al-
ternations and some rare calciturbidites. The maximum flooding inter-
val is probably represented by thinly-bedded, black argillaceous facies
and, thus, the contact between the Pariatambo and the Yumagual for-
mations. Upsection, this facies grades into highstand deposits character-
ized by packstone with rud- to floatstone alternations (lower to middle
portions of the Yumagual Formation). At the top, discontinuity surface
SB2 is characterized by impregnation and intense bioturbation and
marks the top of MsS2 and represents the transgressive surface at the
base of MsS3 (Fig. 9).
Medium-scale sequence 3 (MsS3) comprises the upper exposed
portions of the Yumagual Formation. Here, transgressive deposits are
represented by alternations of packstones and argillaceous nodular
wackestones, overlain in turn by a minor marine discontinuity that
may well define the maximum flooding surface. Highstand deposits
are represented by thickly-bedded, grey wackestones that grade
upsection into even thicker bedded, bioturbated grain- and floatstones

A B

500 µm 500 µm

C D

500 µm 500 µm

Fig. 11. A) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph of oyster shell, dark blue luminescence indicates well-preserved shell material. B) Same image under crossed polarizers.
C) Cathodoluminescence photomicrograph of altered shell. D) Same image under crossed polarizers.
132 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
facies. The top of the Yumagual Formation is not exposed in the study
area.
5. Chemostratigraphy
5.1. Radiogenic strontium isotope stratigraphy
In light of limitations related to available biostratigraphic data (e.g.,
Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Robert et al., 2009 and references therein)
from the Inca, Chulec, Pariatambo and Yumagual formations, it is
critically important to apply independent stratigraphic tools in order
to better constrain the chronological framework (Fig. 4 and Table 1).
Strontium-isotope (87Sr/86Sr) analyses of well-preserved low-Mg
calcite biominerals (rudists, belemnites, brachiopods and oysters) rep-
resent a powerful tool in chemostratigraphy (Huck et al., 2011;
Mutterlose et al., 2014) that is well adapted for the mid-Cretaceous.
The first and most important step, however, is the evaluation of well-
preserved biogenic carbonate material for further analysis.
The outer shell layer of a series of macro- and mesoscopically well-
preserved oysters has been investigated for their diagenetic overprint
(Fig. 11). Intact valves and/or fragments of oysters display various levels
of preservation. Cathodoluminescence microscopy revealed well-
preserved valves with formerly organic-rich layers now replaced by
secondary luminescent phases (Fig. 11A and B), whilst others display
growth increments replaced by secondary luminescent carbonate
phases (Fig. 11C and D). The latter specimens were not further
considered here. Well-preserved valves were selected for further geo-
chemical analyses (Sr, Mg, Fe and Mn elemental abundances). High
manganese and iron concentrations (N 100 ppm) in calcitic oyster
shell are used to determine recrystallization under reducing conditions
(Huck et al., 2011 and references therein). Two out of five selected oys-
ter specimens fulfilled these boundary conditions and were used for
chemostratigraphy. As shown in Table 1, these shells yield Sr elemental
abundances ranging from 380 to 825 ppm and Mn elemental abun-
dances ranging from 6 to 76 ppm. Iron abundances exhibits more than
100 ppm, an observation that is in agreement with the mild degree of
alteration observed under the cathodoluminescence microscope being
spatially limited to formerly organic-rich shell portions.
Numerical ages are derived from mean values of theses best-
preserved samples using the ‘look up’ table of McArthur et al. (2001).
The upper and lower age limits were obtained by adding two standard
errors of the mean values of isotopic results to the statistical uncertainty
of the seawater curve (Howarth and McArthur, 1997). The results indi-
cate numerical ages of 109 ± 0.4 Ma (early middle Albian) for the mid-
dle part of the Chulec Formation and 101 ± 3 Ma (late Albian–early
Cenomanian) for the Yumagual Formation (Huameripashga section;
Table 1). Combined with the results of the detailed carbon-isotope
curve documented below and previously published biostratigraphic
data (e.g., Benavides-Caceres, 1956; Robert et al., 2009 and references
therein) these chemostratigraphic pinning points provide a solid funda-
ment for the stratigraphic framework applied here.
5.2. Carbon-isotope stratigraphy
The δ13Ccarb and δ13Corg data sets as described here were subdivided
in chemostratigraphic segments (Pe1–Pe9; Fig. 9). In the case of the Inca
Formation, data are limited to δ13Corg due to the very low carbonate
content.
The δ13Corg section commences with an abrupt negative shift
reaching − 26.3‰ (Pe1), continued by a recovery phase (Pe2) and
followed by Pe3 that exhibits a gradual negative shift reaching −27‰.
Further upsection, Pe4 reaches a recovery phase and Pe5 represents a
plateau. The overlying Pe6 shows a sharp δ13Corg decrease down to
values as low as − 28‰. This feature is followed by a recovery phase
(Pe7). Upsection, δ13Corg values exhibit a short negative shift (Pe8)
and finally a plateau phase (Pe9).
The δ13Ccarb section starts with an abrupt negative shift reaching
values as low as + 0.1‰ (Pe3), continued by a recovery phase (Pe4).
Thereafter, Pe5 shows a plateau that oscillates between 0 and +2.3‰,
Pe6 presents a sharp δ13Ccarb decrease reaching −0.1‰, followed by rel-
atively invariant values (Pe7). Pe8 displays a pronounced negative shift
in δ13Ccarb ratios, reaching a minimum of −3‰ (the lowest values mea-
sured in these sections). Upsection, δ13Ccarb values display a gradual re-
turn to pre-excursion values (Pe9a), followed by a plateau with values
in the order of between +1.3 and +2.1‰ (Pe9b).
6. Discussion
6.1. Large-scale depositional setting of the Western Platform
Controls that play a main role in the type of mid-Cretaceous neritic
carbonate deposition (Lukasik et al., 2000; Schlager, 2005) include sea-
water temperature, degree of restriction, nutrient levels or latitudinal
diversity gradients. Data shown here document the predominance of
heterozoan skeletal elements in the Western Platform of Peru. In tropi-
cal settings, heterozoan carbonate secreting organisms are perhaps
most common in open marine and relatively cool seawater settings
(Philip and Gari, 2005), or where enhanced nutrient levels prevail
(Halfar et al., 2004). Hence, a potential cause for the dominance of a
heterozoan association in the palaeo-tropical setting of Peru is best
found in the lower to middle Albian transgression that likely favoured
an ingression of nutrient-rich oceanic water masses from the Pacific or
the Atlantic. Nevertheless, evidence for the establishment of an open
marine circulation in the Andean basin is indicated by the occurrence
of ammonite taxa of Tethyan affinities (Robert and Bulot, 2005). Accord-
ing to Trabucho-Alexandre et al. (2010), nutrient-rich surface currents
were flowing along the southern margin of the proto-Atlantic into the
Pacific via the northern margin of South America. It is at least conceiv-
able that some of these water masses were flooded onto the Andean
epeiric ramp. Moreover, the Palaeo-Pacific Ocean to the east represents
a potential upwelling zone for cooler, nutrient-rich bottom waters sim-
ilar to the present-day situation. However, the Cretaceous ocean water
structure and current patterns were probably considerably different
from those of the modern Pacific (D'Hondt and Arthur, 1996; Hay and
Floegel, 2012) and differences in the plate tectonic setting were of im-
portance, too. Finally, both the Marañon Massif to the east, as well as ex-
posed continental basement in present-day Brazil in the east (Figs. 2
and 3) formed an important and spatially large source area for continen-
tal runoff delivering freshwater, nutrients and terrigenous influx. Judg-
ing from the argillaceous facies in the innermost exposed ramp settings
(facies type 1a; Fig. 6 and Table 2), Albian transgressive pulses might
have rework clay and silt facies in the flooded coastal settings.
Taking these potential nutrient-sources into account, the overall sce-
nario of a mixed carbonate-siliciclastic ramp – protected perhaps locally
by the Paracas structural high from impinging Cretaceous Pacific swell –
is proposed (Fig. 2). A potential analogue, albeit not in size, is perhaps
found in the Tertiary Murray Basin in SE Australia (Lukasik et al.,
2000), whose environmental deposits pass gradually from a low energy
shallow subtidal environment to more open settings and, then into
outer ramp environment in sub-storm-wave environments. There,
water masses were at least temporally sub-oxic in nature (compare
with Fig. 6).
6.2. A carbon isotope reference curve for the sub-equatorial eastern Pacific
6.2.1. Bulk-micrite carbon isotope ratios
Secular changes in the isotopic composition of the dissolved
inorganic carbon (DIC) pool of the world's oceans are, under favourable
conditions, recorded by marine carbonates (δ13Ccarb) resulting in char-
acteristic chemostratigraphic patterns. This approach is widely accepted
and despite numerous problems and shortcomings, mid-Cretaceous
OAEs are recognized and documented from bulk micrite δ13Ccarb curves
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
worldwide (Jarvis et al., 2002; Weissert and Erba, 2004; Erbacher et al.,
2005; Jenkyns, 2010; Wendler, 2013; Horikx et al., 2014).
In order to provide a chemostratigraphic data set that has the poten-
tial for supra-regional correlation, patterns in δ13Ccarb must at first be
tested for diagenetic alteration masking palaeoceanographic patterns
(Marshall, 1992; Immenhauser et al., 2002). In shallow-neritic bulk
micrite samples, meteoric waters related to transient subaerial expo-
sure stages may introduce 18O-depleted oxygen, whereas 13C-depleted
soil-zone CO2 can alter carbonate samples (Allan and Matthews, 1977;
Christ et al., 2012). Generally, carbon isotope values are less prone to
diagenesis as the carbonates form the dominant C reservoir compared
to oxygen ratios, sourced mainly from fluids (e.g., Marshall, 1992;
Jarvis et al., 2002). Moreover, fractionation of δ13Ccarb during burial is al-
most insensitive to temperature-controlled processes (about 0.035‰
per °C; Lynch-Stieglitz, 2003). In this context, it is of importance that
we found no clear field evidence such as karsting, bleaching or traces
of the roots of land plants in any of our sections. Similarly, evidence
for the typical saw-tooth-shaped isotope patterns described in Allan
and Matthews (1977) and many subsequent papers is lacking. Similar
to Jurassic ramps settings in Morocco (Christ et al., 2012), it is tentative-
ly concluded that low-amplitude sea-level fall was insufficient to expose
portions of the carbonate ramp studied here. Reasons for this might in-
clude rapid basement subsidence, a feature that is probably supported
by the generally stratigraphically thick successions studied.
Given that the chemostratigraphy presented here is mainly based on
bulk micrite data, the δ18O record of the analysed carbonates is not
interpreted in terms of its palaeoenvironmental significance but serves
to understand the degree of diagenetic alteration of sections studied.
Specifically, when plotting the carbon versus oxygen isotope data
from the Huameripashga and Pulluicana sections no correlation is ob-
served (R2 = 0.03) between the two. Often, but not always, the lack in
covariance between carbon and oxygen isotopes serves as an indication
of less than pervasive diagenetic resetting. Generally, the δ13Ccarb ratios
found are typical for mid-Cretaceous oceanic signatures reported from
many basins worldwide (Veizer et al., 1999; Prokoph et al., 2008;
Schulte et al., 2011). An exception is found in the significantly more neg-
ative ratios in the lower Yumagual Formation. This feature is not related
to changes in facies or subaerial exposure-related diagenesis and might
represent a local palaeoceanographic pattern that awaits further study.
Summing up, whilst we do not exclude minor degrees of diagenetic al-
teration, the data shown here support the concept of a carbon isotope
curve that predominantly reflects patterns in oceanic DIC.
6.2.2. Bulk organic carbon isotope ratios
Patterns and amplitudes of δ13Corg ratios may result from variations
in the source of organic carbon as well as from selective preservation
and degradation of organic compounds during diagenesis (Bralower
et al., 1999; Wendler, 2013; Trefry et al., 2014). In order to test the sig-
nificance of the δ13Corg curve obtained here we compare the pattern ob-
tained with that from inorganic carbon isotopes (Fig. 9). The observed
similarities are considered encouraging whilst the two records also
show distinct differences in the amplitude of carbon isotope excursions.
These may be related to variations in photosynthetic fractionation, dif-
ferential organic carbon preservation (e.g., Jenkyns, 2010; Wendler,
2013), differential sources of carbonate mud, differential diagenesis, fa-
cies change or hidden hiatal surfaces (Immenhauser et al., 2008 and ref-
erences therein; Turpin et al., 2014). A prominent example is the
isotope segment Pe8 (Fig. 9) that has a high-amplitude in δ13Ccarb,
whilst we observe a low-amplitude negative inflection in the δ13Corg
curve (~ 1‰). In conclusion, the comparison between organic and
carbonate carbon isotopes supports the overall concept of a mainly
palaeoceanographic record found.
6.2.3. Comparison with other reference curves for Albian OAEs
The Pulluicana–Huameripashga composite δ13Ccarb and δ13Corg
chemostratigraphy results from the stratigraphically most complete
133
intervals of each section. The perhaps best test for the over-regional sig-
nificance of the isotope sections from Peru is their contrast-comparison
with well-established reference curves from other basins. Here, we
compare the Peru section with coeval successions in European Tethys
(Vocontian Basin, France; Piobbico section, Italy), the Pacific realm
(Western Platform, Peru; Pacific Guyots and Hokkaido, Japan) and the
Western Atlantic domain (Sierra Madre, Mexico). Specific focus is
on mid-Cretaceous OAE signatures (OAEs 1b, 1c and 1d). In terms of
the temporal framework, this correlation is primarily based on the avail-
able biostratigraphic and chemostratigraphic analysis as documented
here. Following previous well-established approaches, we assign
chemostratigraphic labels to characteristic segments of the isotope
curves (Pe1 though Pe9; Fig. 12).
The isotope excursion Pe1 in the δ13Corg curve from Peru is dated by
the ammonite N. nicholsoni as early Albian in age (Benavides-Caceres,
1956; Robert et al., 2009). The Pe1 event is correlated with the Kilian
Level in the European Tethys (i.e., the second organic-rich level of the
OAE1b bundle; Herrle et al., 2004; Reichelt, 2005; Fig. 12). In the
Vocontian Basin, this interval consists of black, organic-rich sediment
located close to the Aptian–Albian boundary (Bréhéret, 1986). This
level is tentatively correlated with the Monte Nerone black shale inter-
val in the Umbria Marche Basin, Italy (Erbacher, 1994).
The second negative excursion Pe3, observed both in the δ13Ccarb and
13
δ Corg records, is correlated with the lower Albian Paquier Level from
the European Tethys (Fig. 12; Herrle et al., 2003, 2004; Reichelt,
2005). This is in line with the occurrence of Glottoceras raumundi within
the Chulec Formation (Robert, 2002). The Paquier Level is associated
with one of the most widespread carbon-isotope events of the mid-Cre-
taceous and typically characterized by marine black shale located in the
middle of the Hedbergella planispira foraminifera Zone of the Vocontian
Basin (Herrle et al., 2004). Furthermore, in the Western Atlantic, the
Paquier Level is recorded by organic-rich sediments belonging to the
H. planispira foraminifera Zone (Bralower et al., 1999). In terms of its
δ13C amplitude (N 1‰; Fig. 12), Pe3 in Peru is comparable with the
mid-Pacific record (Jenkyns and Wilson, 1999).
In segment Pe5, a 87Sr/86Sr ratio of 0.707380 ± 0.000006 was obtain-
ed from a well-preserved oyster shell (Fig. 9). This value is typical for an
early to middle Albian, post Paquier Level, marine strontium isotope sig-
nature (Kennedy et al., 2000) and is in good agreement with our inter-
pretation of the carbon isotope stratigraphy. A good correlation of
segment Pe5 in Peru is found with the Mexican record of Bralower
et al. (1999). The subsequent negative excursion Pe6 recorded in the
Pariatambo Formation is assigned to the middle Albian P. ulrichi ammo-
nite Zone (Robert, 2002). Segment Pe6 occurs on top of a marine trans-
gressive surface (SB1; Fig. 9) and spans the transgressive interval of the
MsS2. Segment Pe6 is tentatively correlated with the Leenhardt Level
recorded in the European Tethys (top of the OAE1b set; Herrle et al.,
2004). The Leenhardt Level in the Vocontian Basin is characterized by
a prominent, basin wide black shale interval (Bréhéret, 1986) in the
planktonic foraminifer Ticinella primula Zone (Reichelt, 2005). Interest-
ingly, in the Vocontian Basin, both the Paquier and the Leenhardt levels
have been linked to transgressive phases (Bréhéret, 1994). A similar sit-
uation is observed in the Peruvian record. There, the two negative shifts
(Pe3 and Pe6) fall in the initial transgressive phase of MsS1 and 2
(Fig. 9). This may evidence widespread flooding and associated carbon
cycle perturbations both for the Paquier and Leenhardt levels.
The Pe8 negative shift in the Peruvian δ13Ccarb and δ13Corg section
(Fig. 9) is also observed in limestones deposited during the Biticinella
breggiensis Zone in Mexico, on Pacific Guyots and in Japan (Bralower
et al., 1999; Jenkyns and Wilson, 1999; Takashima et al., 2004). In the
Piobbico area in Italy, Pe8 occurs in the planktonic foraminifer Ticinella
praeticinensis Subzone (Erbacher et al., 1996), but displays a subdued
amplitude only. In the northern Tethyan domain, Pe8 is best correlated
to a δ13Ccarb negative shift observed in the T. primula Zone, making this
feature somewhat older than the other records. This discrepancy might
be explained by the error bars in age models applied. Above this
 134
Eastern Pacific Central Pacific Western Pacific Western Atlantic Northern Tethys Western Tethys
13
Ccarb (‰ V-PDB)
13 13
Ccarb (‰ V-PDB) Corg (‰ V-PDB) Vocontian Basin 13
France Ccarb (‰ V-PDB)

J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137

Western Platform, Peru
(this study) (Reichelt, 2005) Piobbico area,
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -28 -27 -26 -25 1 2 3 Italy
(Erbacher et al., 1996)
CENOMANIAN

13

C
e
early

Corg (‰ V-PDB) 1 2 3 4

CENOMANIAN
Pe9b
Pe9b Hokkaido,
13
Japan Corg (‰ V-PDB)
(Takashima et al., 2004) Sierra Madre,
Breistoffer Level Pe9
? -26 -24 -24 Mexico

late
Pe9b
late

13
Ccarb (‰ V-PDB) (Bralower et al., 1999) OAE1d

ALBIAN
Pe9a Pacific Guyot -26 -25 -24 Pe9a
Pe9b

late
Amadeus (Jenkyns and Wilson, 1999) Pe9a

late
?

ALBIAN
Level

late
1 2 3 Pe9a Pe9 ?

ALBIAN
OAE1c?
Pe9
Pe8

middle
Pe8 Pe8
ALBIAN

middle
Pe8 Pe8 Pe7
Pe8

middle
Pe8 Pe7 Pe7
middle

Pe7? Pe6
ALBIAN

Pe7 ? ?
Pe7 Pe7 Pe6
500m Pe6 Pe4

early
middle
Leenhardt Pe4

ALBIAN
Pe3
Level ? Pe2 Pe3 OAE1b

l e
Pe6 Pe6 Pe6 set
Pe1

AP

AP
Pe5 40m 10m

l
Pe4

50m Pe5 Pe5 Pe3

20m
APTIAN

100m
early
early

Pe4 Pe4
Paquier level Pe4 Pe3
Pe3
Pe3 Pe2
AP

Pe1
l

Kilian Level

Fig. 12. Correlation of Peruvian δ13C reference curve for the subequatorial western Pacific with reference curves from the Central Pacific (Jenkyns and Wilson, 1999), the Western Pacific (Takashima et al., 2010), the Western Atlantic (Bralower et al.,
1999), the Northern Tethys (Reichelt, 2005) and the Western Tethys (Erbacher et al., 1996). Black shale intervals are shaded grey.
 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
negative trend, the Amadeus Level (OAE1c, Erbacher et al., 1996) is co-
eval to a short-lived, small-amplitude δ13C excursion to lower values.
This level, recorded in the Umbria Marche Basin was assigned to the
B. breggiensis Zone and the T. praeticinensis Subzone (Central, Italy;
Galeotti, 1998). In summary, the contrast-comparison of the Peruvian
composite isotope curve with coeval sections elsewhere is indicative
of a good comparability of Pacific and Western Atlantic records and in-
dicates that the sections measured recorded, and preserved, an above-
regional chemostratigraphy.
In the Yumagual Formation, a positive excursion labelled Pe9a
(Fig. 12) is present in the δ13Ccarb curve whereas it is probably absent
in organic carbon. In Europe, OAE1d is defined by a positive excursion
(the Breistoffer Level; Bréhéret, 1997), characterized by black shale ho-
rizons dated as Rotalipora appenninica Zone (Reichelt, 2005). In Peru,
the δ13Ccarb Pe9a segment corresponds to that in the Japan curve
(Pe9a). The observed partial discrepancy in Peruvian curves is interest-
ing but not uncommon in chemostratigraphy. Interpretations common-
ly brought forward include local patterns in organic carbon cycling or
secondary features such as differential preservation of organic matter
or differential diagenesis of δ13Ccarb.
6.3. Impact of environmental changes on Peruvian neritic carbonate factory
The carbonate–siliciclastic ramp deposits in Peru document tempo-
ral changes in sedimentary environments and relative sea-level fluctua-
tions. Moreover, observed patterns of enhanced carbonate production
or demise probably relate to the impact of transient carbon cycle pertur-
bations (OAEs 1b, 1c and 1d).
Within the OAE1b set, the negative excursion of the Kilian Level is
recorded in the North Atlantic and in the Western Tethys. Between
sections, considerable similarities include the coeval occurrence of
organic-rich facies (Bralower et al., 1999; Herrle et al., 2004;
Trabucho-Alexandre et al., 2011). In the Peruvian sections, the Pe1
δ13Corg negative excursion is probably the equivalent of the Kilian
Level (Fig. 9). In Peru, this event is recorded by marls and sandstones al-
ternating with iron-rich facies of a shallow subtidal environment. These
are clearly different lithological patterns when compared to the Tethyan
and North Atlantic realms. Along the northern Tethyan margin (Helvetic
Platform), the onset of the OAE1b set is associated with the final demise
of the neritic carbonate factory (Föllmi et al., 2006) giving way to
siliciclastic sedimentation and phosphogenesis. Due to a gap in expo-
sure in the Peruvian sections, the recovery of the negative δ13Corg excur-
sion is not recorded. The Pe2 excursion might, however, represent an
increase in terrestrial organic matter influx during the turnover phase
from a mainly argillaceous sedimentation to a neritic carbonate factory.
This pattern is in good agreement with the negative δ13C excursion of
the Kilian Level, showing the characteristics of a global carbon cycle per-
turbation (Jenkyns and Wilson, 1999).
The expression of the Paquier Level in Peru (Pe3 segment) is, in
terms of its facies, represented by an alternation of wackestones and
dark-grey mudstones. Here, the base of the Pe3 segment corresponds
to a change from a heterozoan-dominated carbonate factory to a de-
creasing benthic carbonate production in the lower portion of the
MsS1 transgressive phase (Fig. 9). In our view, this shift in sedimenta-
tion represents an incipient phase of platform demise indicative of a
global perturbation of the carbon cycle during the Paquier Level. The ab-
sence of organic-rich deposits in the Pacific realm (Peru and mid-Pacific
Guyot) indicates that the accumulation of organic matter was either due
to local signatures in carbon cycling superimposed on global patterns
(Robinson et al., 2004) or due to the deposition (or preservation) of or-
ganic matter preferentially in deeper settings.
In Peru, the isotopic signature of the Leenhardt level (Pe6; Fig. 12) is
found in dark-grey mudstones. These probably correspond to a major
demise of neritic carbonate production marked in the field by a major
discontinuity surface associated to the MsS2 transgressive surface
(SB1, Fig. 9). Conversely, in the Tethyan and Atlantic deep-water record,
135
the most prominent expression of the OAE1b event is assigned to the
Jacob sub-event associated with the final demise of the neritic carbonate
factory (Föllmi et al., 2006), whereas in the Western Platform of Peru
the OAE1b bundle is best recorded by its final sub-event (Leenhardt
Level).
Following the drowning related to the Leenhardt Level, the Peruvian
sections reflect condensed sedimentation typified by a heterozoan
biofacies in dark-grey mudstones. These condensed beds represent
maximum flooding stages during LsS1 and MsS2 (Fig. 9). Deposition
was probably influenced by ingression of more basinal, nutrient-rich
waters from the Pacific during rising sea level (Trabucho-Alexandre
et al., 2010). This oceanographic reorganization must have resulted in
reduced carbonate production and episodic shutdown of ramp carbon-
ate deposition. This concept is in line with a shift in δ13Ccarb and δ13Corg
towards more negative values (Pe8). Differences in amplitude may re-
flect local environmental patterns in the partitioning of carbon between
organic carbon and carbonate or variations in the values of total dis-
solved inorganic carbon. Interestingly, the Pe8 event seems to be most
pronounced in the Pacific sections (including Japan) and in Mexico,
whereas Tethys sections do not reveal this event. This may point to a
circum-Pacific pattern not affecting the Tethyan realm (Fig. 12).
During the Albian–Cenomanian transition, an oyster-rich carbonate
ramp is established. Carbonate production and sedimentation rates
are high. Here, both the δ13Ccarb and δ13Corg chemostratigraphy exhibit
a plateau phase, suggesting stable sedimentation, oceanographic condi-
tions and a phase of regional tectonic quiescence.
7. Conclusions
An Albian–Cenomanian composite section from the vast Western
Platform in Northern Peru comprises a total of seven facies associations.
These are assigned to a shallow to distal ramp environment with the
most proximal portions not being exposed in the study area.
In the shallow subtidal inner ramp setting, argillaceous deposits are
intercalated with restricted muddy carbonates. The open mid-ramp is
mainly characterized by oyster biostromes established beneath the ef-
fective fair-weather wave base. Storms eroded, entrained and re-
deposited oyster debris resulting in widespread oyster packstone to
rudstone facies. The outer ramp setting is located below the reach of
the effective storm wave base. Owing to the potential barrier effects of
the Albian volcanic arc to the west (Marañon Massif) and wave degra-
dation across the shallow ramp, wave-base depths were probably
shallow.
Both, the Marañon Massif and the Brazilian Shield to the east of the
Western Platform represent important source areas for continental run-
off whilst currents transported proto-Atlantic and Pacific nutrient-rich
water masses onto to the Western Platform as expressed in a tropical
heterozoan carbonate factory. The Western Platform in Peru recorded
characteristic global patterns in Albian and early Cenomanian δ13Ccarb
and δ13Corg ratios. The carbon isotope stratigraphy is constrained by bio-
stratigraphic data and by two oyster-based 87Sr/86Sr marker points. The
correlation with other reference sections in the Central and Western Pa-
cific, the Western Atlantic and the Tethyan realm evidences that the
Peru chemostratigraphy is of over-regional significance and has poten-
tial as a new reference curve for the subequatorial eastern Pacific realm.
Important chemostratigraphic features observed include the OAE1b set
(Kilian, Paquier and Leenhardt levels), OAE1c and OAE1d.
The negative excursion of the Kilian Level in the Peruvian data,
representing part of the OAE1b set, is probably representative of a global
carbon cycle perturbation and linked to the transition from a
siliciclastic-dominated sedimentation to a neritic carbonate factory.
The expression of the Paquier Level corresponds to a change from a
heterozoan-dominated carbonate factory to decreasing benthic carbon-
ate production during incipient carbonate factory deterioration. The im-
pact of the Leenhardt level in Peru is characterized by major demise of
neritic carbonate production, marked in outcrops by a regional
136 J.P. Navarro-Ramirez et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 423 (2015) 122–137
discontinuity. This surface is followed by condensed sedimentation,
triggered by the influx of more basinal, nutrient-rich water masses
from the Palaeo-Pacific. Given that a similar pattern is not known
from the Tethyan realm, this feature seems circum-Pacific in nature.
Further upsection, an Albian-Cenomanian transition oyster-rich carbon-
ate ramp is established, suggesting stable environmental conditions.
The reference curve shown here is significant as (i) the vast area of
the subequatorial eastern Pacific has previously not been covered in
terms of its mid-Cretaceous carbon-isotope record and (ii) pronounced
similarities with well-established chemostratigraphic patterns else-
where evidence the over-regional significance of the Peruvian data.
Nevertheless, the enormous dimensions of the Western Platform re-
quire the incorporation of regionally distributed coeval sections in
order to shed light on spatial variations in carbon isotope stratigraphy.
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
(DFG, project no. BO-365/2-1) and by the Deutscher Akademischer
Austauschdienst (DAAD) through a scholarship to J.P.N. (PKZ:
A/11/97387). We thank the Geological Survey of Peru (INGEMMET) for
important logistical support. W. Gomez is thanked for his help during
field expedition. Analytical work was performed in the isotope laborato-
ries at Bochum and Hannover by A. Niedermayr, D. Buhl and C. Wenske.
The present manuscript benefitted from the comments of two anony-
mous Palaeo3 reviewers and editorial guidance by F. Surlyk.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.01.025.
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