SBC 3053

ANIMAL ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY

EXPERIMENT 2
MUSCLE TISSUE AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE

NAME SAYYIDAH NAFISAH BINTI MOHAMAD SUFIAN

(D201921088247)

NUR AISYA NADIRA BINTI MUHD ZAILANI

(D201921088250)

SITI ANIS IZZATI BINTI AZMI

(D201921088260)

LECTURER’S DR ALENE BINTI TAWANG

NAME
LABORATORY B02-01-MP10
DAY AND DATE MONDAY 28/10/2019
OBJECTIVES
1. To recognize the different types of muscle under microscope with 10x10
magnification.
2. To state the differences between the types of muscle.
3. To recognize the red blood cell and white blood cell in connective tissue.
4. To calculate the white blood cell in blood.

MY OBSERVATION

 Muscle Tissue

Figure 1: smooth muscle

Figure 2: heart muscle

 Connective Tissue

o Red Blood Cell

Figure 3: normal red blood cell

o White Blood Cell (Agrnulocytes)

Figure 4: lymphocyte

o White Blood Cell (Granulocytes)

Figure 5: neutrophil Figure 6: eosinophil Figure 7: basophil

MY INFERENCES
-smooth muscle
HEART MUSCLE

Heart muscle is Cardiac muscle cells. There are found only in the heart, and are
specialized to pump blood powerfully and efficiently throughout our entire lifetime. Four
characteristics define cardiac muscle tissue cells which is involuntary and intrinsically
controlled, striated, branched and single nucleated. Cardiac muscle is considered to be an
involuntary tissue because it is controlled unconsciously by regions of the brain stem and
hypothalamus. It is also considered to be an intrinsic, or self-controlled, tissue because the
normal cardiac rhythm is set by specialized pacemaker cardiac muscle cells in the heart itself.
The cells of cardiac muscle tissue are shorter than skeletal muscle tissue and form a network
of many branches between the cells. Intercalated disks of overlapping cell membrane form
between the cardiac muscle cells to lock them together tightly and allow the quick passage of
electrochemical signals between cells. The cells do not fuse during development, leaving each
cell with a single nucleus. One commonality between skeletal and cardiac muscle is the
presence of striations due to the arrangement of actin and myosin into regular myofibrils. The
presence of myofibrils and many mitochondria in cardiac muscle cells provides them with great
strength and endurance to pump blood throughout an entire lifetime.

The differences of cardiac muscle with smooth muscle is cardiac only found in the heart while
the smooth muscle are found in the organs, blood vessels, and bronchioles of the body to move
substances throughout the body. Smooth muscles lack of striations while cardiac muscle have
striations. Four characteristics define smooth muscle tissue cells, involuntarily controlled, not
striated, not branched, and singly nucleated. Each smooth muscle cell is long and thin with a
single central nucleus and many protein fibers. The protein fibers are arranged into strings
called intermediate filaments and masses known as dense bodies. Intermediate filaments
contract to pull the dense bodies together and contract the visceral muscle cell. Each visceral
muscle cell is very weak, but working together these cells can produce powerful, long-lasting
contractions. For example, many visceral muscle cells in the uterus are able to contract together
to push a fetus out of the womb during childbirth.
CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissue is forms of a framework upon which epithelial tissue rests and within which
nerve tissue and muscle tissue are embedded. It works as a mechanical support. Blood vessels
and nerves travel through connective tissue which works as communication and transport. We
have conducted an experiment to determine lymphocytes in the blood. Blood cells contain
many types of cells; white blood cells which are monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils,
eosinophil, basophils and macrophages. It also contains red blood cell and platelets. Blood
circulate throughout the body in the veins and arteries. In this experiment, we also found red
blood cell. By practising the blood smears, it can help to detect the shape of red blood cells and
the white blood cells. Blood smears can help to detect abnormalities in the blood cells such as
anemia, white blood cell disorders such as leukemia and blood borne parasites like malaria and
filarial. Red blood cell contains a protein called haemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the
lungs throughout the body. It is also carrying out carbon dioxide, a waste of metabolism to the
lungs where it is excreted. It has an iron-containing biomolecule that can bind oxygen. The
mature human red blood cell is small, round and biconcave shape with no nucleus. The
biconcave shape of the red blood cell allows oxygen to exchange at constant rate over the
largest possible area. The cell is flexible and covered with a membrane composed lipids and
proteins. There are many different types of the red blood cell disorders, for example;

 Anemia: low red blood cell count that can cause fatigue weakness.
 Polycythemia: slow growing blood cancer in which the bone marrow makes too many
red blood cells.

However, in the figure 4, it shows normal red blood cells. According to Leukemia and
Lymphoma Society, the normal red blood cell range for men is 4.7 to 6.1 million cells per
microliter. The normal red blood cell range for women is 4.2 to 5.4 million cells per microliter.
The normal red blood cell range for children is 4.0 to 5.5 million cells per microliter. The
number of red blood cells and the amount of haemoglobin vary among different individuals
and under different conditions.

Normal percentage of overall WBC count

LYMPHOCYTES
Lymphocytes are white blood cells uniform in appearance but varied in function and include
T, B, and natural killer cells. These cells are responsible for antibody production, direct cell-
mediated killing of virus-infected and tumor cells, and regulation of the immune response.
Advances in immunology have led to the characterization of newly appreciated effector
populations such as IL-17–producing T cells, T cells with regulatory function, and natural killer
T cells, thus revising established paradigms. The T and B lymphocytes (T and B Cells) are
involved in the acquired or antigen-specific immune response given that they are the only cells
in the organism able to recognize and respond specifically to each antigenic epitope. The B
Cells have the ability to transform into plasmocytes and are responsible for producing
antibodies (Abs). Thus, humoral immunity depends on the B Cells while cell immunity depends
on the T Cells.
T and B lymphocytes are indistinguishable since they are both small cells (8–10 microns in
diameter) and each possesses a large nucleus with dense hetero-chromatin and a cytoplasmic
border that contains few mitochondria, ribosomes, and lyzosomes. When they are activated by
the antigenic stimulus, they may enlarge, thus increasing their cytoplasm and organelle number.
Lymphocytes present receptors for antigen (Ag) recognition (TCR and BCR respectively) with
different specificities on their surfaces. The genes that encode for these structures undergo a
series of DNA recombinations, which provides them with immense phenotypic diversity.
The principal function of the B-lineage cell is to produce Ig to protein and carbohydrate
antigens (chemical determinants or epitopes deerned nonself) on microorganisms, viruses,
toxins, or other substances potentially harmful to the body. General principles of genetic congol
of the synthesis and three-dimensional structures of Ig molecules have been worked out during
the last 20 year. These principles have provided an explanation for the manner in which the
numbers of antibodies necessary to maintain an effective immune response against a diverse
variety of antigenic determinants are generated. The T-lymphocytes are formed in the thymus
from immunoincompetent pre-T-cells originating from the bone marrow or fetal liver. The
thymus is a primary lymphoid organ essential for development of mature Tcells. In the thymus,
T-lymphocytes acquire surface expression of the TCR. A number of critical, yet poorly
understood, selective or regulatory events occur during residency of T-cell precursors in the
thymus, resulting in death of a majority of cells and acquisition of self-tolerance, antigen
specificity, and MHC restriction by surviving cells.
NEUTROPHILS
Neutrophils, the most abundant human immune cells, are rapidly recruited to sites of infection,
where they fulfill their life-saving antimicrobial functions. While traditionally regarded as
short-lived phagocytes, recent findings on long-term survival, neutrophil extracellular trap
(NET) formation, heterogeneity and plasticity, suppressive functions, and tissue injury have
expanded our understanding of their diverse role in infection and inflammation. Neutrophils
are the predominant immune cell population in human blood, where they patrol and protect us
from pathogens, and diseases with neutropenia show that they are indispensable for controlling
bacterial and fungal infections. Neutrophils develop in the bone marrow from haematopoietic
stem cells in a process called “granulopoiesis” and mature neutrophils are characterised by
their segmented nucleus and granules that are filled with >700 proteins.
Neutrophils function in three primary capacities: generation of oxidative bursts, release of
granules and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs); these combined functions
enable neutrophil involvement in inflammation, macrophage recruitment, M2 macrophage
differentiation, resolution of inflammation, angiogenesis, tumor formation and immune system
activation. Neutrophils exhibit great flexibility to adjust to the prevalent micro environmental
conditions in the tissue; thus, the biomaterial composition and fabrication will potentially
influence neutrophil behavior following confrontation.
-eosi
BASOPHILS
Basophils are one of the types of white blood cells exist in our body. It can be found in tissues
throughout the body. White blood cells work to help the body fighting over viruses, bacteria,
parasites and fungi. Hence, it is a part of body’s immune system and plays a role in its proper
function. In addition of fighting the parasites and viruses, basophils works as helper in
preventing blood clotting. It is because the basophils contain heparin. Heparin is an
anticoagulant that prevents the formation of blood clots. Heparin is used to treat the blood clots
by certain medical conditions or medical producers. It is also used before surgery to reduce the
risk of blood clots. In allergic reactions, basophils help to reconcile allergic reactions.
Basophils release histamine during allergic reactions and play a role in causing the body to
produce the antibody called immunoglobin E (IgE). This IgE then binds to basophils and mast
cells. These cells release substances such as histamines and serotonin. They help to mediate
the inflammatory response in the area of the body that was exposed to the allergen. Basophils
level is low is may be due to a severe allergic reaction. However, having too many basophils
can result be a result from certain blood cancer diseases. Blood testing is a way to determine
the normal or abnormal of the basophils in the blood cells. Basophils account for less than three
percent of the white blood cells. A normal person should have 0 to 300 basophils per microliter
of blood.
REFLECTION
As my reflection from this experiment, the main objectives of this experiment are to learn and
recognized different types of muscle tissue and connective tissues are achieved successfully.
As a student of Biology, learning microscope and using it properly is a need. We have been
observing the prepared slide of types of muscle tissues. The muscle tissue in our body works
to stabilize the body positions and help in body movements. Without muscle tissues, our body
will not properly operate and being unable to make any movements or paralysis. For example,
in severe injury can cause the malfunction of muscle in our body. Hence, it is important for us
to know what types of muscle tissues that helps us in our movement. It is because different
types of muscle tissue are placed in different parts of or body. However, they remain to function
the same. For the connective tissue, the main challenge is to prepare the blood smear and
observed it under the microscope. To prepare the blood smear need more practises because
different angle used make the smear too thick and the distribution of red blood cell and white
blood cell might can be seen clearly. It is important to have the skills to prepare the blood
smear. By using microscope with 100x10 magnifications and oil immersion, we can see the
shape of normal red blood cells without parasites in it. We can also see the different types of
white blood cells lay within the red blood cell. As a conclusion, muscle tissues and connective
tissues are important in our body and play a big role to provide us movement and works as
mechanical support and transportation for oxygen and carbon dioxide.
(prepared by: Sayyidah)
 While I attend in the laboratory, there were many challenges that I had to face. I believe
they are the same challenges that many scientists face today in laboratory all over the world.
The main challenge was doing the blood smear because the angle must be 45°. It is so
importance when doing the smear because the when the smear too thick we can see the red
blood cell are double and crowded each other. Technic of smear also very importance to avoid
the cell died. Next, the step of staining the sample also are important, we can’t stain the sample
very thick because we can’t see the RBC and WBC. As a student biology, a great level of use
microscope is needed. The use of microscope is not easy. It is because we need proper step to
use the microscope. The critical step in using a microscope is when we used the highest
magnification (100 x 10) which is oil immersion is needed when we’re observing. After finish
observed for (100 x 10) the slides should be cleaned with lens paper or tissue to remove
fingerprints, oil or dirt. As a student biology, the important of moral value is work together in
a group. As we know the cooperation of members in our group is needed like doing the
experiments together and doing the research together. So that, we can have many new ideas in
our research. In this topic, I had learned a lot of muscle tissue and connective tissue. Muscle
tissue have 3 type which is skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. Skeletal
muscles are found in association with the bone, which explains the name. Human skeletal
muscle is composed of a heterogenous collection of muscle fibers. This range of muscle fibers
allow for the wide variety of capabilities that muscle display. Smooth muscles are associated
with the viscera but not with the bone. These muscles are found in the wall of hollow tube of
gastrointestinal viscera, bronchial tube, urinary bladder, blood vessels ect. While cardiac
muscles are the muscle of heart. It is a type of skeletal muscle but microscopic features of
cardiac muscle differs from those of the skeletal muscles. Mechanism of contraction of
myocardium has great importance because it causes movement of blood. I realized that every
experiments are important to proof the fact and see on our eyes that science is real.

(prepared by: Aisya)

-anis
REFERENCES
Red Blood Cell. (n.d.). In National Cancer Institute. Retrieved from
https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/red-blood-
cell

Purdie, J. (2017, February 13). Everything You Need To Know About Basophils. In
Heathline. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/basophils#what-
happens-if-yourlevel-is-low

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Red Blood Cell. In Encyclopaedia

Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/red-blood-cell

H. Damaris E.Lopera et. al (2013) . Introduction to T and B Lymphocytes. Retrieved

from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459471/

J. A Harp et.al Function and Regulation of Lymphocyte-Mediated Immune Responses:

Relevance to Bovine Mastitis. Retrieved from:
https://www.journalofdairyscience.org/article/S0022-0302(89)79239-0/pdf

David F. LaRosa, et.al. Lymphocytes. Retrieved from:

https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(07)01199-2/pdf

Gretchen S. Selders et.al (2017). An overview of the role of neutrophils in innate

immunity, inflammation and host-biomaterial integration. Retrieved from:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/964b/ddba96f5508327cb9f592ebfbd7620473
5cc.pdf