Inherent of Traditional Ceramics Industries – it’s Cost Effective Production Route of Today

& Future
Authors
1.
2.
Abstract
In present Scenario, the traditional ceramics is facing the problems of price
Competitivity due to higher green & fired rejections, low productivity etc. Though, On
the other end, the demand of traditional ceramics is quite volumetrically high. Therefore,
the Ideological & Technical principals of manufacturing for Traditional Ceramics should
be addressed in depth and should be modified appropriately for cost effective production
of traditional ceramics.
During the last two decades, the age-old Traditional Manufacturing Technology of
Porcelain, Stoneware and Earthenware Ceramic Tiles has been transform through
Science & Engineering of Ceramics for production of newly developed Tri- Axial
compounding in the name of Porcelain Stoneware Tiles in a Cost Effective Production
(CEP). Now there is a scope for other products of traditional Ceramics like Sanitary
wares, Table wares, Refractories and Glass etc. The production of Porcelain Stoneware
Tiles, as primarily developed in Spain,
1. Introduction
While traditional ceramics have been used for over 25,000 years, Technical ceramics
have only been developed within the last 120 yrs. When, the sintering of chemically
defined powders was started in between 1879 and 1911. In spite of the demand of
Technical Ceramics is growing day by day but the 20th century saw the greatest
achievement in human history in ceramics and materials technology. The potential of
Technical ceramics has been realized due to advancement in Ideological & Technological
principals in respect of understanding firstly ceramic chemistry, crystallography, and the
extensive knowledge gained in regard to their production (1) and secondly, relationship
between the microstructure of the ceramic material, its properties and the processing
routes (2).
During the end of Nineteenth century, the In-depth studies about the major
differences between the manufacturing routes of Traditional and Technical ceramics were
understood and developed an Intermediate route for the developments of Traditional
Ceramic Tiles industries (Fig.1). This Intermediate route was developed through
identification and adaptation of the appropriate manufacturing elements out of the
different elements of manufacturing the Traditional and Technical Ceramics from the
raw-materials to final products, These has resulted in great revolution in the ceramic
sector was based on the concept of Porcelain Stoneware, a type of ceramic tile that
emerged in the late 70s in the district of Saussolo (Italy) , coinciding with the start of the
great technological restructuring in the ceramic sector taken place with the introduction
of roller kiln. The appearance of the product in Spain took place a decade later.
Specifically, Pamesa started manufacturing in 1988, succeeding Porcelanatto in 1989 and
later by other companies in the 90s, (3).
2. Ideological & Technological constraints of Traditional Ceramics
Production.
In Indian scenario, The Traditional Ceramic Industries, mostly of unorganized sector, are
still engaged with Age-old Technologies. The Major Ideological & Technological
constraints of Traditional Ceramics can be summarized as:
Firstly, the supply of raw-materials with
respect of impurities, Physico- Chemical
composition and the repeatability in
supplies is not constant due to
underdeveloped mining sector in India.
To overcome this in case of Technical
ceramics, we use more or less pure
compounds of oxides, carbides, nitrides
etc in case of Technical Ceramics.
Secondly, the age-old traditional Ball
milling, filtering, jiggering and slip
casting is being carried out. Where, the
shaping processes are responsible for
higher shrinkages and thus resulting
higher green & fired rejection in slightly
adverse conditions in firing process to
result higher rejections. Finally, the long
firing schedule (longer cold to cold firing
cycles) results low productivity and
higher cost of production with poor
optimization in quality parameters etc.
While in the Technical Ceramics more
or less pure compounds of oxides,
carbides, nitrides etc are sintered to
form the Ceramic’s products with
specified and controlled characteristics
and the introduction of Roller kilns has
been a boon for the higher productivity
and lower cost of production.(Fig.1).
However, an Intermediate route has been
opined and the research studies are going
on worldwide for the production of
different products of Traditional ceramics
(Fig.2)
2.1 Ideological Constraints of
Body compounding on weight basis of Ingredients:
Identifying the major constraint in Indian scenario in
Table 1:Body Wt
respect of the raw-materials from the underdeveloped Composition (AB-1)
%age
mining sector, where the pre-dispatch samples are not as per
Goyal SF-45 20.00
previous supplies. Then it becomes difficult to adjust the modi PF-35 28.00
composition of body mix in repeated supplies. This is Q-99 1.00
because of the fact that the body compounding is done as per Ah B Grade Ball Clay 9.00
weight percentage of the different ingredient like in table 1 Emeryies clay 26.00
but not like the Ideological principal of compounding the than 23 wash 5.00
body-mix on mole’s basis in Technical Ceramics. To Than -88 4.00
Broken scraps 2 5.00
overcome this Constraint, selection of the other mode of
Total 98.00
compounding of body mix was chosen for the Fast Firing
schedule (C-C of 60 to 120 minutes with peak temperatures 1200 OC). But the
relationship between the microstructure of the ceramic material, its properties, processing
routes and the fast firing schedule was kept in mind, where very restricted reactions takes
place during sintering / firing within 25 minutes up to 1200 OC or so . It is advised to do
the same on rational analysis basis where the purchase of 100 to 500 tons, depending on
the monthly requirements, is carried out and after analyzing them chemically, we entered
the values of chemical analysis in table 2 to find the rational analysis i.e. actual minerals
of quartz, feldspar and clays are to be present on sintering. And make the necessary
changes in composition to keep the rational analysis of the Quartz, feldspar and clay
minerals as same in previous batch composition.(Table 2). Thus, this table helps to control
the repeatability of body composition if there is any change in Physico-chemical
composition of ingredients. This mode also helps to indicate the development of glassy
phase, Mullite crystal and free quartz during the period of state transformation
temperatures of respective ingredients. . Thus, the ideological & Technological
modification for compounding of Body-mix can be carried off as per Rational basis.
Table 2: Control table for quartz, Feldspar and clay minerals based on chemical analysis
through Rational analysis
Chemical Analysis
Al2O

ZrO2
MgO
TiO2
SiO2

K2O
CaO

Na2
Fe2
O3

O
3

Goyal SF-45 67.1 20.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.6 5.8 6.3 0.0 100
modi PF-35 66.6 21.0 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.5 4.2 7.4 0.0 100
Quartz-BR 99.0 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 100
Ah. 32Gr. Ball Clay 65.7 25.7 2.1 3.3 0.3 1.0 0.3 1.6 0.0 100
Emeryies clay 71.0 25.0 0.7 1.2 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.9 0.0 100
Than wash 62.6 31.1 1.3 1.9 0.4 0.8 0.4 1.4 0.0 100
Than -Unwashed 61.5 31.8 1.2 1.8 0.4 1.2 0.4 1.6 0.0 100
Fired scraps 2 68.8 19.6 0.2 0.0 0.9 4.3 2.1 4.1 0.0 100
 Hametite
Dolomite

Wollosto
Feldspar
feldspar
Compo

Potash

Quartz

Calcite

Rutile
soda

Talc

nite
Clay
%
Body composition
AB-1
Goyal SF-45 20.0 20.4 9.9 7.4 0.0 1.8 1.0 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0
modi PF-35 28.0 28.6 9.9 12.3 0.0 4.2 1.8 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Quartz-99 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Ah B Gr. Ball 9.0
9.2 0.2 0.8 0.1 5.0 2.5 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.0
Clay
Emeryies 26.0
26.5 0.6 1.3 0.3 14.4 9.3 0.0 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.0
clay
than 23 5.0
5.1 0.0 0.4 0.1 3.4 1.0 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.0
wash
Than -88 4.0 4.1 0.1 0.4 0.0 2.7 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1
Firedscraps2 5.0 5.1 0.9 1.2 0.1 1.4 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4
Total 98.0 100.0 21.6 23.7 0.6 33.0 18.3 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.5
Composition based on

Hametite
Dolomite

Wollosto
Feldspar
feldspar

Rational Analysis
Potash

Quartz
Calcite

Rutile
soda

Clay

Talc
nite

21.6 23.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 33.0 18.3 0.6
Std Porcelain 45 to 50% 30 10 to 15 %
stoneware Tile to
composition (5) 40%
2.2. Technological constraints for Enhancement of Solid state Reaction in
existing scenario of Traditional Ceramic industries.
Traditional Age-old Porcelain, Stoneware, and earthenware etc are based on
Eutectics based on Phase diagrams of Quartz, Feldspar and clay minerals as shown in
fig.3.In case Of Porcelains ,they are typically tri-axial compositions comprised of about
50% clay, 25% flux-feldspar and 25% filler-Quartz and after firing to high temperatures
around 1300-1400 OC,

Where the Mullite crystals

are dispersed in silica rich
Feldspathic and in silica
glass to result quite high
physical & chemical
properties. While in case of
recently developed Fast fired
product during 1985 95 in
spain -Porcelain stoneware
Tiles- are also from tri-axial
ingredients of Quartz,
Feldspar and Clay minerals
(Fig.3) but comprised of
different micro-regions of
varying compositions of
Quartz particles, Clay
agglomerates with feldspar
enriched regions in green tile
and after sintering of inter
coordinated grain and Bond microstructure , which has large grains or filler (usually
quartz) held together by a finer bond or matrix comprised of Mullite crystals of higher
aspect ratio and a glassy phase. And is produced using a fast firing schedule (temperature
rates up to 60 °C/min), in which
the tiles are inside the furnace no
longer than 60–90 min. This is in
contrast to the lengthy (several
hours) process employed in
porcelain manufacture.
Consequently, the microstructure
of porcelain and porcelain
stoneware is different because
the firing process affects the
ratio of crystalline to amorphous
phases and in the viscosity of
glassy phase in the end
products. However, Mullite and
glass are the major phases in
porcelain. And the compounding
is based on microstructure of
complex silicate as per phase diagram of Al2O3-SiO2-Fluxes (Na2O, K2O MgO, CaO etc).
While in porcelain stoneware tile, quartz is more abundant than Mullite and the
compounding of Porcelain stoneware bodies consist mainly of a mixture of ball clays (30-
40%), feldspars (45-50%), quartz-feldspathic sands (10-15%) and several additives such as
glass-ceramics frits and pigments (5) (Fig.3). And, the Coalescence of particles and
eventual mechanical integrity is based on interlocking micro- structural Characteristics
(9)
.
As per literature survey, the easiest way to make many solid state materials
(coalescence of particles and eventual mechanical integrity) from powdered raw-
materials under standard ceramic route is direct reaction of their components at high
temperatures. Where you Grind / mix the powdered reactants and then press into a pellet
and heat with Long firing schedule. The typical mineralogical composition of
commercial porcelain stoneware tiles, which commonly is 55%–65% glassy phase,
20%–25% quartz, and 12%–16% mullite (6). The microstructure of a standard por-
celain tile consists of quartz grains, primary Mullite crystals, secondary Mullite crystals,
a silica-rich amorphous phase and porosity. Thus, porcelain tiles generally exhibit almost
0% open porosity but they have 2–10% closed porosity in general (10). Thus in Traditional
ceramics, long firing schedules are requires to complete the chemical reactions in
between quartz grains, primary Mullite crystals, secondary Mullite crystals, a silica-rich
amorphous phase and also requires high temperature because chemical reaction is
diffusion limited and
– can be expensive
– may give incomplete reaction
–may give compositionally inhomogeneous products
– There may be some loss of the reactants
– There is little chance of getting kinetic control.
– may not get desired microstructure (6).
This is a major technical constraint for low productivity & higher cost due to
resulting long firing schedule and higher energy consuming factor in traditional ceramic’s
manufacturing along with higher processing rejections.
While the driving forces and diffusion mechanics during sintering in Technical
Ceramics, which leads to coalescence of particles and eventual mechanical integrity of
products, results higher productivity & lower cost of production due to fast firing
schedule. And the Driving force for sintering is the reduction in total surface area and
thus energy and diffusion (atomic- & Bulk-) is responsible for growth of bonds at contact
points (neck) only and no chemical reactions between them,
While in case of cost effective production route of future, the driving force will
remain the same but diffusion takes place between the particles due to development of
interlocked typical grain and bond microstructure with crystalline phases. This is
responsible for coalescence of particles and eventual mechanical integrity. To
promote this diffusion, intimate mixture of reactants is needed, processing through
better & controlled wet milling, spray drying for better control of granulemetric, as
carried out in Technical ceramic Industries(4). Secondly, we adopt Sol-gel process,
Chemical vapor deposition, tape casting, dry -pressing under higher pressure etc are
adopted in Technical ceramics in lieu of traditional slip casting , plastic and semi-stiff
fabrication processes of traditional ceramic route, But ultimate goal is kept to result in
better solid state reactions. This has also facilitated the adaptation of the Fast firing
Single process in Roller kilns to result in higher productivity at lower cost of production.
However, the process of controlled ball milling, spray drying for better granulemetric,
dry pressing under high tonnages and fast firing in Roller hearth is being adopted for
manufacturing Ceramic Tiles. But the development of this cost effective technology with
low rejections for the manufacturing the sanitary wares, Table wares is in process
through introduction of Iso-static presses, vacuum casting etc. where the goal is to
achieve better solid state reactions during processing and shaping of green product.
Such Innovations could be developed after in-depth studies of
Surface area and development of the interlocking micro- structural
Characteristics to result in development green and fired strength.
3. Materials & Methods
Keeping in view the co-relation between typical grain and bond microstructure with
crystalline phases both new formed (i.e. Mullite) and residual ones (quartz, feldspars)
embedded in an abundant glassy matrix(2)(8) to be developed under fast firing and the
particles size distribution (PSD) of processed body mix, the trial of different PSD was
taken to study the variation on green density of green product and the related physical
properties of shrinkage, warpage and delayed bending and the defects after polishing (if
required). With the standard composition as per table 2, the batch is grinded with
standard Materials: Pebbles ratio.
It has also been opined that the clays should be good in Slaking nature. Slaking is the
breakdown of large, air-dry soil aggregates (>2-5 mm) into smaller sized micro
aggregates (<0.25 mm), when they are suddenly immersed in water.

Table 3:- variation of green density v/s Grinding hours & resulting Particle size
Distribution with Body composition AB-1 of different grinding hours
AB-1/6Hrs AB-1/8Hrs AB-1/10Hrs AB-1/6hrs With
cylindrical balls
Median Particle 6.5 5.2 4.9 4.8
size- D50
D-10 1.2 1.0 0.4 0.45
D-90 40 30 28 25
green Density 1.65 1.75 1.85 1.89
after pressing
The unfired body is comprised of different micro-regions of varying compositions
including quartz particles, clay agglomerates and feldspar-enriched regions. Bodies fired
below 1000 °C shows a typical under firing ceramic microstructure with high-
interconnected porosity like traditional red Clay Ceramics. At 1100 °C, two types of
agglomerates are differentiated.
1 Clay relicts that correspond to regions where pure clay was located in the green body
and clay–feldspar relicts associated with clay relicts in which feldspar has penetrated.
2 Quartz grains and different agglomerates are surrounded by a ceramic matrix
comprised of a mixture of fine grains of quartz, feldspar and kaolinitic clay. As
shown in Fig.2.

After firing at above 1200 °C, the microstructure depicts that porcelain stoneware shows
a typical grain and bond microstructure with crystalline phases both new formed (i.e.
Mullite) and residual ones (quartz, feldspars) embedded in an abundant glassy matrix(2)(8).
Depending on the micro-region from which they develop, Mullite crystals have varying
shapes and sizes in the fired microstructure. Pure clay agglomerate relicts lead to fine
cuboidal crystals (termed primary Mullite since they form at the lowest temperatures),
whereas those regions in which feldspar particles were well mixed with kaolinitic clay or
where feldspar has gone through clay agglomerates form elongated needle-shaped
crystals termed secondary Mullite (since they form later in the firing process). Cuboidal
primary Mullite crystals formed from pure kaolinite clay are surrounded by a highly
viscous matrix. Mullite crystals derived from feldspar-penetrated clay relicts find a less
viscous environment since feldspar develops a fluid liquid phase at low temperatures.(5)(7).
(Fig.3)
 4. Summary
The basic control on the microstructure of the crystalline phases in this
Intermediate route can be summarized as below:
The barrier in compounding of body mix in Traditional Ceramics Industries, based
on percentage of raw-material ingredients, is to be changed on rational basis / clay,
Quartz and feldspar mineral basis. This leads to better understanding of microstructure.
To enhance the solid state reactions in the processing and shaping process,
the surface area should be such to adopt the shaping system and higher diffusion to have
better intimate mixture of reactants. Where the green density plays a important part, This
may be around 1.08 kg/cm2 as per products.
The thermal cycles used in industrial production should be fast (45 to 60
min cold-to-cold); so the attainment of thermodynamic equilibrium it unachievable.
Therefore, it is frequent that the fired product contains residual feldspar and quartz
crystals that have not been completely transformed on firing. Bodies fired below 1000 °C
shows a typical under firing ceramic microstructure with high-interconnected structure at
peak temperature, the microstructure depicts that porcelain stoneware shows a typical
grain and bond microstructure with crystalline phases both new formed (i.e.
Mullite) and residual ones (quartz, feldspars) embedded in an abundant glassy
matrix(3).

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