World History Somp

WORLD HISTORY
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
“Industrial revolution “- Changes that occurred in the industrial development of England between 1760
to 1820. Those changes were rapid , extremely fundamental and far reaching in economic organisation,
technology and business structure .
IR Put an end to orthodox ,less productive and stagnant economy . Therefore new institutions ,values
emerged and lifestyle & outlook underwent major changes
Changes occurred in IR
Manual work replaced by steam power machines
Agriculture was mechanised and big farms replaced small fields
Increase in international trade in goods and capital
Development of chemical industry,coal mines, iron and steel industry

and other engineering technologies
Great changes occurred in transportation due to steam engine and

mechanised ships
Why IR in England
 Proximity of coal and iron mines facilitated manufacturing of essential machinery #. Monopoly
over sea trade . It had its ports situated in commercial routes
 By end of 18 th century England established colonial empire .colonies exploited for importing
raw materials and exporting finished goods
 Availability of huge semi skilled artisans as the feudal system ended
 No political or religious restrictions on scientists . The English royal society encouraged new
inventions.British society had a liberal and progressive outlook.
 They are free from socio cultural restrictions that enabled them to think
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WORLD HISTORY
 Serfdom and class system abolished in England ,created a conducive atmosphere for promotion
of trade and commerce
Effects of IR

WORLD HISTORY
Mercantilism
Mercantilism is the economic doctrine that government control of foreign trade is of paramount
importance for military security of the country
Mercantilism dominated Western Europe economic policy and discourse from 16 th to 18th centuries . It
was the cause of frequent wars in Europe and motivated colonial expansion
Features of mercantilism
 High tariffs on import especially on manufactured goods

 Building of network of overseas colonies
 Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations
 Export subsidies
 Maximising use of domestic resources
 Non tariff barriers to trade
 Promoted trade and navigation
 Encouraged intra European war and imperialism
American Revolution
The Revolutionary War (1775-1783) began as a conflict between Great Britain and her North American
colonies. It ended as a global war, pitting European powers against each other in a time of intense
imperial rivalry. In the end, the American colonies gained their independence, ruling themselves .
 Greatest movement in human history for freedom and equality

 Colonies were exploited by Britain
 13 colonies came together against mercantilism

WORLD HISTORY
Causes of American revolution

WORLD HISTORY
Course of events
The 1st Continental Congress in Philadelphia (1774) /Philadelphia Congress
which had representatives from 12 colonies (Georgia did not participate because it wanted British help
in dealing with militancy of American Indians) was held in response to the Intolerable Acts/Coercive Acts
passed by the British Parliament earlier in 1774 to punish the colony of Massachusetts for the incident
of Boston Tea Party by taking away its right of self-government.
Appeal to King George III and his declaration of military action
The Americans also appealed to King George III to remove restrictions on indigenous industry, allow
Americans to trade with all the countries at reduced tariffs and not to tax the American colonies without
their consent. Britain interpreted these demands as a Mutiny and attacked the colonies in 1775. This
was beginning of American War of Independence
Declaration of Independence in second philapdelphia convention
This led the American representatives to proclaim the Declaration of Independence in 1776 (drafted by
Thomas Jefferson).The Declaration of Independence document did two things - it summarized the
political philosophy of Enlightenment thinkers like Locke in form of “self evident truths” and it listed the
grievances to justify the breaking of ties between the colonies and the mother country.
American Revolutionary War or American War of Independence (1775)
What was to follow, was the American War of Independence. The Loyalists were the British settlers who
remained loyal to Britain and fought on their side. France, Spain and Dutch Republic helped the
Americans secretly. Spain and Dutch Republic also fought with Britain in Europe and Asia. Spanish Army
expelled the British army from Florida.In 1783, the British commander Cornwallis surrendered before
the army led by George Washington and the war ended in favour of Americans
Signing of Second Treaty of Paris 1783
It ended the American War of Independence. Some of its important clauses were:
 Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain

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 All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent states, with Britain giving
up all claims on government, property and territory.
Significance of AR
The American colonies became free and the Republic of the United States of America
was established.
The Bill of Rights ensured fundamental rights to the citizens of the U.S.A.
The first democratic government with a written constitution in the world

became a reality.
It was not only a war against England but against aristocracy and rreactionary
elements. It was also a fight against colonial domination.
The American War of Independence was also called the American Revolution
because it inspired the French Revolution.
It introduced new political, social and economic set up in the United States of
America

WORLD HISTORY
FRENCH REVOLUTION
The French Revolution was brewing while the War of American Independence was being fought.
Conditions in France were vastly different from those in the New World, but many of the same
revolutionary ideas were at work. The French Revolution, however, was more world-shaking than the
American. It became a widespread upheaval over which no one could remain neutral.
GENERAL CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
1. Large gap between the rich and the poor.

a. First estate: Aristocracy
b. Second estate: Clergy and Priest
c. Third estate: common man
Heavy tax burden on the Third Estate (including the poor). Peasants lost about half of their
income to taxes. The first two estates were exempt from taxes and the nobility refused to share
the tax burden.
2. Growing number of poor and unemployed in the cities.

3. Growth of a strong middle class (Bourgeoisie) in France. The middle class had wealth but lacked
the political and legal rights of the nobility.
4. Development of Enlightenment ideas of; freedom, natural rights, social contract and democracy
by Voltaire,Montesquieu,Rousseau.
5. Weak leadership and Lavish lifestyle of Louis XVI and Maria Antoinette. She was Austrian
(Franceʼs longtime enemy).
6. French Government was deeply in debt. Louis XVI had borrowed to help American
Revolutionaries.
EVENTS IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

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Convening of the Estates-General

Louis XVI calls a meeting of the Estates-General to
raise money.
Louis XVI sided with the first and second Estates and
said that each Estate would meet by itself and then
have one vote.
The Third Estate declares itself to be the National

Assembly. In effect declaring an end to absolute monarchy
and the beginning of representative government. This was
the first deliberate act of revolution. The members of the
National Assembly went to a nearby Tennis Court and took
an oath to frame a new constitution. This is known as
Tennis Court Oath.
3.Louis XVI orders Swiss mercenaries (soldiers for hire) to

march toward Paris to suppress the National Assembly
Storming of the Bastille.

mob of Paris attacked the State prison called the Bastille,
murdered the guards and freed the prisoners. The fall of
the Bastille was regarded in France as a triumph of liberty
The split of National Assembly into radicals , moderates

and conservatives.

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Political Clubs The political clubs sprang up

in different quarters. Of these, most
conspicuous were the Jacobian Club and
Cordelier Club
The Terror grips France The National convention

was controlled by the Jacobians, who formed the
majority and were major force to carry out the
execution
The Jacobians had set up the Revolutionary

Tribunal to deal with the moderates.
The Jacobians suspended the constitution and

created the Committee of Public Safety with full
powers to deal with the people causing the
internal threat. Maximilien Robespierre was the
leader of this committee. He slowly gathered all
control in his hands. As head of the committee,
he decided who should he decided who should
be considered enemies of the republic
End of Revolution With the fall of Robespierre

the Reign of Terror gradually came to an end. The
Revolutionary Tribunal was suspended and the
function The Revolutionary Tribunal was
suspended and the functions of Committee of
Public Safety were restricted. The Jacobian Club
was closed

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Impact of French Revolution
 French Revolution inspired movements against colonialism in colonies around the world, while
movements for democracy and self-rule rose in whole of Europe.
 The wars with France weakened the European colonial powers like Spain andPortugal and their
colonies.Simon Bolivar from 1813 to 1824 liberated many South American countries .He freed
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia from the Spanish rule through an armed revolt.
 The abolition of Slavery after French revolution was the first move against this repressive system
and Britain followed suit in 1833 while USA banned it in 1865.
 It led to destruction of feudalism in France as all laws of old feudal regime were repealed and
lands of the nobles and church were confiscated and redistributed. The privileged classes i.e.
first and second estate, were abolished. Anti-Feudalism wave that hit Europe in 19th century
owes its origin to the events in France. French revolution ushered in the new economic system
of Capitalism as against the prevalent Feudalism.
 Jacobian constitution, which although never came into effect, was the first genuinely democratic
constitution. It gave the right to vote to all
 Under Napoleonʼs rule, Napoleonic Code as a civil code for France, was introduced and some of
its provision like merit-based recruitment to government jobs and focus on clearly written law,
continue to effect the present legal system in France and other nations.
 The French Revolution of 1789 inaugurated a new era in the history of the mankind. The ideas of
“liberty, equality and fraternity” spread to other parts of the world. The Bourbon monarchy was
abolished.
 The Revolution rejected tyranny, divine right, conservatism, and feudal vestiges associated with
bourbon rule in France.
Reforms by Napoleon Bonaparte
 Peace with Europe

 Education: Separated education from religion and started secular educational institutions:
Primary, Secondary and Higher Education.
 Economic Reforms: established Bank of France to improve currency system
 Cultural reforms: Emphasised on construction of Palaces, started Legion of Honour award to
satisfy the sentiments of his supports
 Religious Reforms: Concordat Agreement with Pope: Pope was declared formal head of religion
in state, Catholic religion as religion of majority. Separated education from religion.
 Napoleonic code: Took law out of hand, Civil code, Code of Criminal Procedure, Penal Code,
Commercial code etc.
 France wanted growth and development but Napoleon instead of emphasising on nation and
Nationalism, he prompted Napoleonism. So, he is termed as “Destroyer of FR” and because of
this he created internal enemies in France.
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WORLD HISTORY
COLONIALISM
Colonialism is the establishment of a colony in one territory by a political power from another territory,
and the subsequent maintenance, expansion, and exploitation of that colony. The term is also used to
describe a set of unequal relationships between the colonial power and the colony and often between
the colonists and the indigenous peoples.
1. The two main countries in the first wave of European colonialism were Spain and Portugal which
were responsible for colonizing South America and the Caribbean through. The first European
colonization wave took place from the early 15th century (Portuguese conquest of Ceuta in
1415) until the early 19th century (French invasion of Algeria in 1830). The expansion achieved
by Spain and Portugal caught the attention of Britain, France and the Netherlands. The entrance
of these three empires in the Caribbean and North America perpetuated European colonialism
in these regions.
2. The second wave of European colonialism commenced Britainʼs involvement in Asia with the
support of the East India Company. Other countries such as France, Portugal and the
Netherlands were also involved in European expansion in Asia.
3. The Third wave consisted of the Scramble for Africa which was organized through the Berlin
Conference in 1884-1885. The conference was established to divide Africa among the European
powers. Vast regions of Africa were given to Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, Belgium, Italy
and Spain which gives insight to Africaʼs post- colonial diversity.
4. These three waves of colonialism have been linked to capitalism. The first wave of European
expansion was exploring the world to find new revenue and perpetuating European feudalism.
Whereas the second wave focused on developing the mercantile capitalism system and the
manufacturing industry in Europe.The last wave of European colonialism solidified all capitalistic
endeavours thorough the rising of new markets and raw materials.
IMPERIALISM
Imperialism refers to the highest stage of capitalism which made it necessary to find new markets and
resources. Political control over colonies is more formal and aggressive
Means of imperialism

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 Military
 Economic
 Cultural
NEW IMPERIALISM
The events after the Industrial Revolution in the colonial empire building are termed as New
Imperialism. Now what was new? The New in this New-Imperialism, which started after the Industrial
Revolution in Europe was the race component. There was also an increase in the degree of every aspect
of the Colonial actions. Race signified the economic competition between the European powers to get
hands on to as many colonies as possible. It was a race for raw material sources and export markets,
both of which would be provided for by the colonies. It was also a race for securing sea-lanes of
commerce by either colonizing the ports of call or signing treaties with other nations to provide safe
harbours to the merchant vessels. The race component also included a race for naval supremacy and
build-up of land based military forces.
Causes of development of new imperialism
Economic Surplus production , surplus capital ,need for raw

causes material , development of means of transportation
and communication , population pressure.
Ardent nationalism , merchant class , after
Political discovery of sea routes great trading nations want
causes to conquer island nations on these sea routes to
establish their supremacy there
Social Contribution of christian missionaries ,expansion

causes of imperialism under the pretence of “ divine holy
task” of spreading their civilisation , explorers.

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WORLD HISTORY
FIRST WORLD WAR
First World War is considered as one of the largest wars in history . The worlds greatest powers
assembled in two opposing alliances
The allies (British empire ,France and Russian empire ) vs Central powers ( Germany , Austria Hungary )
In the background there were many conflicts between European nations. Nations grouped among
themselves to form military alliances as there were tension and suspicion among them. The causes of
the First World War were:
Causes of the first world war (1914 -1919)
(1) Conflict between Imperialist countries:
• Ambition of Germany
o Conflict between old imperialist countries (E.g.: Britain and France) vs. new imperialist
countries (E.g.: Germany).
(2) Ultra nationalism
• Pan Slav movement – Russian, Polish, Czech, Serb, Bulgaria and Greek.
• Pan German movement

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(3) Military Alliance
• Triple Alliance or Central Powers (1882) – Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary. Triple

Entente(1907)–Britain,France, Russia.
(4) International Anarchy
• Secret agreement between Britain and France allowing Britain to control Egypt and France to
take over Morocco. Germany opposed, but settled with a part of French Congo.
• Hague conference of 1882 and 1907 failed to emerge as an international organisation.
(5) Balkan wars
• Many Balkan nations (Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece and Montenegro) were under the
control of Turkey. They defeated Turkey in the First Balkan War. The subsequent war was
between the Balkan countries themselves – E.g.: Serbia vs. Bulgaria.
• Defeated countries like Turkey and Bulgaria sought German help.
(6) Alsace Loraine
• During German unification, Germany got Alsace-Loraine from France. France wanted to capture
Alsace-Loraine back from Germany.
(7) Immediate Cause: assassination of Francis Ferdinand
• Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated by a Serbian native (in Bosnia). Austria
declared war on Serbia on 28th July, 1914. [Reason for assassination: Annexation by Austria the
Bosnia- Herzegovina, against the congress of Berlin, 1878]
Course of first world war
During the war Germany and her allies were called Central Powers. England and her allies were called
Allied Powers. Germany entered the war to defend Austria. Shortly all the powers in the hostile camps
were automatically drawn into the war. Turkey and Bulgaria joined the war on the side of Germany. Italy
left the Triple Alliance and joined the opposite camp with the idea of recovering Italian territories under
Austrian control.

WORLD HISTORY
England joined the war against Germany. There was bitter fighting on the French soil. The Battle of
Verdun decided the fortunes of the war in favour of the Allies. Germany started submarine warfare in a
large scale. All the laws relating to naval warfare were thrown out.
Russia fought on the side of Allies up to 1917. The Bolshevik regime wanted peace with Germany. Thus
the Brest-Litovsk Treaty was signed between Russia and Germany.
The Lusitania ship was drowned by a German submarine and consequently many Americans lost their
lives. This resulted in the declaration of war against Germany by the U.S.A. In spite of best efforts,
Germany could not stand and ultimately she surrendered in November 1919.
German army signed armistice agreement on November 11, 1918 mark their surrender to the Allies. The
allies of Germany had earlier suffered defeat at the hands of the Allied powers.
Results of the war
1) Loss of lives and property
→ The Great War took a heavy toll of lives. It is estimated that about ten million lives were lost and
twenty million people have been wounded. People all over the world suffered untold miseries.
There was a large scale damage to civil property.
2) Economic losses
→ It is estimated that the direct cost of the war reached just over two hundred billion dollars and
the indirect cost more than a hundred and fifty billion dollars.
→ A large variety of deadly weapons such as incendiary bombs, grenades and poison gases were
used. Tanks, submarines and aircrafts were also used.
→ The war wrought its havoc on the economics of the participating countries. World economy was
in shambles
3) Treaties signed.
→ Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28th June 1919. It was a dictated peace
and Germany had by then become even too weak to protest. She lost everything. Germany and
her allies suffered most since they had to pay heavy sums to the victorious allies as reparation
debts
→ Austria Hungary signed the Treaty of St. Germaine. Hungary signed the Treaty of Trianon with
the allies in 1920. Bulgaria had accepted the Treaty of Neuliy in 1919. Turkey, which sided with
Germany during the war, signed the Treaty of Sevres

WORLD HISTORY
TREATY OF VERSAILLES 1919
Victorious power met at Versailles. The number of countries represented was 27. The terms of treaty
was decided by Britain, France and USA. Germany and Russia were excluded. The treaty was not a
negotiation but imposition of demands on defeated by the victors. It was one of the most controversial
settlements ever signed & was criticised even in the Allied countries.
The British wanted a lenient treaty with Germany because a prosperous Germany would serve as a
market for British exports.
France desired a harsh treaty with Germany so as to ensure that it is not able to threaten French
frontiers in the foreseeable future.
US also wanted a lenient treaty with Germany but were disappointed with the harsh treaty that
Germans signed with the Russians & the destruction of civilian infrastructure by the Germans during
their retreat from France and Belgium.
Finally, a compromise was reached and Germans were not to pay the whole cost of war but just the cost
in lieu of damage done to civilians and their property.
Provisions of treaty of Versailles
1. Germany lost territories In Europe
2. Saar valley was to be administered by league of nations for 15 years . France was to use its
coalmine for 15 years
3. Estonia ,Latvia, Lithuania were taken away from Germany and set up as a independent states
according to principle of self determination
4. Union between Austria and Germany was forbidden
5. Germany's African colonies were taken away and became mandates under league of nations
6. Germany's armaments were strictly limited to 1lakh troops and no conscription
7. Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarised
8. Germany was to pay war reparation
9 . League of Nations was set up
The treaty had serious moral and practical defects which German felt was injustice meted out to them ,
huge German reparations and the war guilt clause fostered deep resentment of the settlement in

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Germany, and when Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland in 1936 (a violation of the treaty), the Allies did
nothing to stop him, thus encouraging future German aggression.
RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
The Russian Revolution is dated to November 1917 (October 1917 on the Russian calendar), when
Bolshevik Party forces took over the government offices in Petrograd. However, the problems that led
toward revolution had been developing for generations. The revolutionʼs consequences, too, were far-
reaching—the Communist Party, which formed to lead post-revolutionary Russia, remained in power
until 1991.
Russian revolution is a combination of two revolutions – February Revolution & October Revolution. The
February Revolution led to the end of the rule of Czar & establishment of a provisional government. The
October Revolution resulted in the overthrowing of the provisional govt in a coup by the Bolsheviks and
consequent establishment of a communist state of Russia.
Causes
 Widespread suffering under autocracy—a form of government in which one person, in this case
the czar, has absolute power
 Weak leadership of Czar Nicholas II—clung to autocracy despite changing times
 Poor working conditions, low wages, and hazards of industrialization
 New revolutionary movements that believed a worker-run government should replace czarist
rule
 Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1905), which led to rising unrest
 Bloody Sunday, the massacre of unarmed protestors outside the palace, in 1905
 Devastation of World War I—high casualties, economic ruin, widespread hunger
 The March Revolution in 1917, in which soldiers who were brought in for crowd control
ultimately joined labor activists in calling “Down with the autocracy!”
 Poor peasants,lack of industrialisation- widespread discontentment among all classes

WORLD HISTORY
Stages in Russian revolution

WORLD HISTORY
1) Fall of tsardom
A. Russo Japanese war

 Politically the Tsarʼs rule was very weak. Russia fought a war with Japan in 1904-05.
Small Asian Country Japan defeated the mighty European country Russia in the
Russo- Japanese war. This lowered the international and domestic prestige of Russia.
B. Bloody Sunday
 Tsars believed in the divine right theory of kingship. Tsar Nicholas II was autocratic in his
administration. The people had many grievances. Tsar was not prepared to sanction any
reforms. Meantime, the working class of St. Petersburg went on strike. the workers
reached Tsarʼs palace the guards fired on the unarmed crowed. This event is known as
“Bloody Sunday” as it took place on a Sunday, 22nd January 1905. This is also known as
1905 Revolution. This event was indeed a prelude to the October Revolution of 1917.
C. Entry in World War-I

 In 1914, Nicholas II decided to drag Russia into World War I, despite the fact that Russia
was unprepared for a war. More than 4 million Russian soldiers were killed or wounded
or taken prisoners. In 1905, Nicholas shifted his headquarters to the War Front to
encourage his soldiers.
D. Rasputin
 The real government back home came into the hands of his wife Tsarina Alexandra. She
ignored the Tsarʼs chief advisers and came under the influence of one mysterious
Rasputin, a self proclaimed holy man.Alexandra allowed Rasputin to make key political
decisions.Rasputin opposed reforms and obtained powerful positions for his close ones
and spread corruption
E. March Revolution 1917

 Neither Nicholas nor Alexandra could tackle the enormous problems on war front as well as
domestic fronts. The March revolution was a general uprising which forced Nocholas II to
abdicate his throne. A year after, he was executed by the revolutionaries. The leaders of
the Duma established a temporary government under Alexander Kerensky, who decided to
continue with the war. The decision to continue with the war cost him support from army as
well as civilians. Meanwhile, the Social revolutionaries, competing for power,formed soviets
i.e. the local councils which consisted of workers, peasants, and soldiers.
F. Bolsheviks and mensheviks

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 Mensheviks and Bolsheviks Various revolutionary movements grew in the Russian Society
inspired the thoughts of Karl Marx. They had a belief that the the industrial class of workers
would overthrow the Tsar and then would form a dictatorship of the proletariat.
2) Dual power and provisional government
A. Dual power
a. Meanwhile, the Social revolutionaries, competing for power, formed soviets i.e. the
local councils which consisted of workers, peasants, and soldiers. These soviets were
popularly elected by the masses and so enjoyed more popular support than the
Provisional Government which represented the interests of the bourgeoisie and the
landlords. This situation was one of ‘dual powerʼ.
B. Provisional government
a. The Provisional Government was recognized as the legal authority by both the foreign
governments and the soviets in Russia. The foreign governments recognized the
Provisional Government because it advocated those democratic principles close to
British and American democracy. The soviets accepted the legality of the Provisional
Government on condition that it did not go against the aims of the soviets. the
Provisional Government ruled the country with full support only of the middle classes;
the soviets got the majority support from the people but did not want to rule the
country. Thus, the rule of the Provisional Government had to depend upon the
conditional support of the soviets.The provisional government Attempted to Preserve
Its Own Power
3) Lenins return and internal split within privisional governmant
A. Meanwhile Lenin returned from Germany after many years in exile. He reached Petrograd in
April 1917. Along with BBolsheviks, he soon gained the control of Petrograd soviet, as well as
the soviets in other major Russian cities. Leninʼs slogan—“Peace, Land, and BrBread”—got
widespread appeal.
B. As the conflict between the Provisional Government and the Bolsheviks grew, Lenin feared the
Provisional Government would set up a dictatorship. In September, he began discussions for an
uprising against the government. Bolshevik supporters in the army, soviets and factories were
brought together.
4) OCTOBER REVOLUTION /The Revolution of October 1917
A. On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a
socialist seizure of power.At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the
majority approved the Bolshevik action.

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B. During October, 1917 (November as per Gregorian Calender), the Provincial Government was
removed and replaced with a Bolshevik government in Russia which led to formation of USSR.
This was the October revolution which got over in a matter of hours. Kerensky and his
colleagues disappeared from the scene.
Measures taken by Lenin
The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industry and banks were nationalised in
November 1917. This meant that the government took over ownership and management. Land was
declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.
In March 1918, despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at
Brest Litovsk. In the years that followed, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the
elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country. Russia
became a one-party state. Trade unions were kept under party control.
Consequences
 The government is taken over by the Bolshevik Party, led by V. I. Lenin; later, it will be known as
the Communist Party.
 Farmland is distributed among farmers, and factories are given to workers.
 Banks are nationalized and a national council is assembled to run the economy.
 Russia pulls out of World War I, signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, conceding much land to
Germany.
 Czarist rule ends. Nicholas II, his wife and five children are executed.
 Civil war, between Bolshevik (“red”) and anti-Bolshevik (“white”) forces, sweeps Russia from
1918 to 1920. Around 15 million die in conflict and the famine
 The Russian economy is in shambles. Industrial production drops, trade all but ceases, and
skilled workers flee the country.
 Lenin asserts his control by cruel methods such as the Gulag, a vast and brutal network of prison
camps for both criminals and political prisoners.
Positive impacts of Russian Revolution
1. Impact on working class

a. It brought home to the ruling classes of Europe the urgency of making concessions to
workers.These took the form of the public provision of health, education and housing.It
is built on the premisies that all value is created by labour, entitling them to a larger
share of the surplus than the bare necessities.

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2. Impact on colonies
a. The other consequence of the Russian Revolution was for Europeʼs colonies.The early
communist movement had a global ambition aiming for the emancipation of all subject
peoples. This was to have an impact on India.The Soviet declaration of equality of all
nations and assertion that the people can change the entire property system for their
own good were ideas that directly affected our National Movement after 1917.
SECOND WORLD WAR
The Second World War, like the First, started in Europe and assumed the character of a world war. In
spite of the fact that Western countries had acquiesced in all the aggressions of Japan, Italy and
Germany from the invasion of Manchuria to the annexation of Czechoslovakia, the fascist countriesʼ
ambitions had not been satisfied.
These countries were planning another re division of the world and thus had to come into conflict with
the established imperialist powers. The Western policy of diverting the aggression of the fascist
countries towards the Soviet Union had failed with the signing of the Soviet German Non-Aggression
Pact.
Thus, the war began in Europe between the fascist countries and the major West European Powers-
Britain and France. Within a few months it became a world war as it spread to more and more areas,
ultimately involving almost every country in the world.
1) Humiliation by the Treaty of Versailles
 War indemnity.

WORLD HISTORY
 The provision for disarming Germany.

 Saar coal mine to France for 15 years.
 Polish corridor was given to Poland.
 City of Danzing was made free.
According to the treaty of Versailles Germany was made to pay for the damage that the world war
one had caused. And even Germany was allowed to have a small army and six naval ships. No
tanks, no airforce and no submarines were allowed. The land was taken away from Germany and
given to other countries.The German people were very unhappy about the treaty and thought that
it was too harsh. Germany could not afford to pay the money and during the 1920s the people in
Germany were very poor. People were dissatisfied with the government and voted to power a man
who promised to rip up the Treaty of Versailles. His name was Adolf Hitler.
2) Growth of Fascism and Nazism
 Mussolini (Italy) and Hitler (Germany) strongly glorified war and violence.
 While West was fighting communism, Germany and Italy started massive militarization.
A. Rise of Nazism in Germany: The humiliating terms of the Versailles Treaty strengthened German
nationalism love. And Germanyʼs problems made people more aware of the need for unity and
strength. Therefore they willingly accepted the dictatorship of Hitler and his policy of restoring
the prestige of Germans by taking revenge upon those responsible for humiliating Germany at
the Paris Peace Conference.
B. Fascism in Italy: Italyʼs failure at the Paris Peace Conference to secure the desired gains made it
completely dissatisfied and annoyed with Britainʼs and Franceʼs role. The 1930s economic
depression gave another blow to the power of Italy. During this period that Mussolini and his
Fascist Party came to power, making Italy rich and powerful. To safeguard Italyʼs ,interests the
fascists advocated extreme nationalism, war and imperialism as the means. The Italian people
found fascism to be a very attractive ideology because it promised a glorious future for them.
Italy began to expand its power and secure new territories under Mussolini. Thus paved the way
for the development of the Rome-Berlin Axis in international relations — a development that
became responsible for the outbreak of World War II.
3. Formation of military alliance

 Military Alliance between countries was accompanied by dangerous developments
 Allies – Britain, France, USA, USSR and China vs Axis Powers – Germany, Italy and Japan
Leaders – Churchill (Britain), Roosevelt (USA), Stalin (USSR)
4. Failure of League of Nations:

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 The League of Nations was established to secure international peace in 1919. However,
due to several structural defects, such as the provision for unanimous decisions, lack of
adequate resources, etc., as well as the unhelpful environment, the League has failed to
function effectively as a peace instrument.
5. National Minorities problems:

 The Paris Peace Conference failed to resolve the issue of minority settlement. The need to
base the peace treaty on the principle of self – determination had been advocated by US
President Wilson. But it was found difficult to operationalize this principle because of
several social, cultural, religious, economic and military factors.
 As a result, minorities opposed to each other were left under an alien rule in many states.
For example, a large number of Germans were left in Poland, Czechoslovakia and Austria.
Consequently, in many states, a fierce dissatisfaction developed among minorities.
6. Policy of Appeasement:
 European nations were weary after World War 1, and they did nʼt want another war. When
countries like Italy and Germany became aggressive and started taking over their
neighbours and building up their armies, countries like Britain and France hoped to maintain
peace through “appeasement.” This meant that they tried to make Germany and Hitler
happy instead of trying to stop him. They hoped he would be satisfied by fulfilling his
demands and there would be no war. Unfortunately, the policy of appeasement backfired. It
only made Hitler bolder. It also gave him time to build up his army.
7. Invasion of Germany on Poland:

 World War Two began in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on
Germany following Germanyʼs invasion of Poland. Hence it is one of the main causes for the
outbreak of the war.
The course of the war
 The world war second was followed through the below-mentioned course;
 The OutBreak of the Second World War in 1939
 German invasion on Poland
 Initial Russian role and actions( attack on Finland and annexation of Lithuania, Latvia and
Estonia).

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 Hitler conquered Denmark, Norway, Belgium and Holland.

 German Invasion of France and the French failed to meet the invasion.
 Control of Europe by Germany; By the middle of 1940, almost the whole of Western Europe
from the Arctic Sea to the Pyrenees came under the control of Germany. But Germany failed to
defeat Britain.
 German Invasion of the U.S.S.R.
 The Italian campaigns in Africa and the Near East( annexation of Albania and success in Libya
and Egypt)
 The defeat of Italy in 1943 by the Allies( Collapse of Fascist regime and arrest of Mussolini)
 The War in the Pacific and the U.S. involvement in the Second World War followed by Japanʼs
attack on Pearl Harbour and the result was the defeat of Japan
 The defeat of Germany by allied power and death of Hitler.
Consequences of World War II:
World War II is the most vicious war in all of history. There were massive casualties of human lives. It
was estimated that casualties in World War II may have approximately 50 million service personnel and
civilians
Major upshots of this war were:

1. The End of the European Age.
2. The rise of the US to superpower status.
3. The expansion of the Soviet Union and its rise to superpower status. The emergence of
the Cold War.
4. The beginning of the nuclear age.
5. The rise of nationalism and independence movements in Asia and Africa.(From Britain
– India, Myanmar, Egypt, Sri Lanka; From America – Philippines; From France – Indo-
China; From Dutch – Indonesia)
6. A renewed effort to secure lasting peace through international organizations.UNO was
set up in 1945.
7. Increase in the rate of decolonization
8. Rise of Communist influence in Southeast Asia End of colonialism and imperialism

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FASCISM AND NAZISM
Fascism
Fascism is an intensely nationalistic, anti – communistic and anti – democratic movement which served
as a model to dictatorial regimes in Italy and Germany.
Fascism in Italy:
The term ‘fascismʼ is of Italian origin.It was first used for the movement which started in Italy under the
leadership of Benito Mussolini.Mussolini had organised armed gangs against socialists and communists
in 1919.
Causes that led to the rise of fascism
i) Discontentment after the Treaty of Versailles:
 Italy joined the Allies in the First World War to gain territories of Turkey and Germany. But by
the Treaty of Versailles, she could get only Southern Tyrol and Trentino, and the coastal regions
of Dalmatia. She could get no part of the German and Turkish colonial empire.
ii) Economic Crisis:
 Italy suffered heavy losses in terms of life and property in the First World War. After the War,
many soldiers became unemployed. Trade and commerce were ruined leading to large – scale
unemployment. There was a shortage of food grains.
iii) Political Instability:
 Italy was governed by a series of coalition governments and there was no continuity in their
policies. Governments were unable to deal with problems of unemployment, strikes and riots.
iv) Class Conflicts:
 The common man had been promised, during the war, that he would be rewarded greater
attention to his economic needs, these promises were ignored and the common man was

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embittered. Thus, people wanted the control of the government to be in the hands of the
common man.
v) Threat of Socialism or Communism:
 Inspired by Communism, the peasants took away the land from the landlords and workmen
organized strikes and took hold of factories. The industrialists were worried about the strength
of the labour unions and wanted a powerful government who could establish peace they
therefore provided financial support for fascism.
vi) Failure of the League of Nations:
 The League of Nations proved to be weak and failed to check the rise of dictatorship.
vii) Leadership provided by Mussolini:
 Mussolini had a charismatic personality. In his speeches he praised the past glories of Italy and
won the faith of his countrymen.
Nazism
What led to the rise of Nazism in Germany
i) Treaty of Versailles
 Germany was forced to cede large chunks of her territory to France, Belgium, Poland and
Denmark. Her overseas possessions (colonies) were divided by the Allies in the War among
themselves.
 Germany was forced to pay heavy reparations to the tune of 33 billion dollars and the total
strength of the German army was fixed at one lakh.
 The terms of this treaty were greatly resented by the Germans who eagerly looked for an
opportunity to avenge the same. These sentiments were exploited by Hitler who openly
encouraged the Germans to consign the Treaty of Versailles into the waste – paper basket, to
rebuild the empire of Germany, and to recapture the lost colonies.
ii) Growing fear of Communism

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 After the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, the Communist influence in Germany increased
considerably. The Communists organised themselves effectively and succeeded in capturing a
number of seats in Reichstag.
 Hence, Hitler warned the people that Communists of Germany would become the servants of
their Russian masters and follow the dictates of Communists.
iii) Economic Crises
 Due to the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to suffer in agricultural
production, colonies, foreign investment, trade contracts, etc. The foreign countries raised
tariffs against the German goods. The number of unemployed people increased.
iv) Resurgence of Militant Nationalism
 The Germans preferred prestige and glory to liberty and freedom and hence could not reconcile
with the democratic parliamentary system prevailing in their country.
 They felt that only a strong man could restore the past prestige of Germany and check the rising
popularity of Communism. When Hitler promised them all glory, they welcomed him with open
arms.
V) Anti – Semitic Propoganda
 The Nazis described the Jews as traitors. They said that the Jews had conspired with the Allies
during the War and could again commit treason against Germany. They told Germans that their
hardship was due to the exploitation by the Jews, who dominated German economy.
vi) Absence of Strong Opposition
 The Nazi Party did not encounter any effective resistance and its popularity achieved great
heights.
vii) Establishment of Volunteer Corps
 Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germanyʼs military force was considerably reduced and a large
number of German soldiers were thrown out of employment.
 Hitler roped in all these soldiers and organised them into Volunteer Corps that served as the
party army. The members of the Volunteer Corps propagated the programme of the Nazi Party
and worked for safeguarding its interests.
viii) Charismatic personality of Hitler

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 Hitler, a shrewd politician and a brave soldier, was a gifted orator who captivated the Germans
by his emotional speeches.
 The Germans nourished a feeling of resentment against the humiliating and insulting behaviour
meted out to them by the Allies and wanted to avenge the same.
 Hitler fully exploited the sentiments of the Germans and openly encouraged them to consign
the Treaty of Versailles into the waste – paper basket, rebuild the German Empire and to
recapture the lost colonies.
 Hitler assured the Germans that if they would abide by the Nazi ideology their economic misery
would come to an end. This greatly appealed to the German people and they extended full
support to Hitler and his Nazi party.
Aims of Nazism
In ‘Mein Kampfʼ (‘My Struggleʼ) Hitler expressed the aims of the Nazi movement as follows:
1) To exalt nationalism;
2) To advocate the rule by a great leader from a single party;
3) To despise internationalism, peace and democracy;
4) To use force and brutality;
5) To extol war;
6) To uphold the racial supremacy of the Germans and to have hatred for the Jews.
Similarity between the AIMS of Fascism and Nazism.
1) To have faith in the totalitarian rule.

2) To despise democratic political systems.
3) To hold that the state is supreme and it could suppress the fundamental rights and freedoms of
individuals.
4) To uphold One – Party and one leader.
5) To believe in aggressive nationalism and imperialism.
6) To regard war as an instrument for furthering national interests.
7) To uphold intensely nationalistic, anti – communist, anti – democratic, rule.

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SOCIALISM
Socialism is a system in which, in contrast to capitalism, there is common ownership of the means of
production instead of private; planned production for use instead of anarchic production for profit. With
the advent of the Industrial Revolution and the growth of the factory system, the inefficiency,waste,
irrationality, and injustice of Capitalism were apparent to thinking people. Beginning about the year
1800, in both England and France, the evils of capitalism were brought before the public in pamphlets,
books, and speeches.
Emergence of Socialism
1) Industrialization and capitalism brought benefits as well as hardship to man – unemployment,

smoky, crowded cities, unhealthy living and working conditions, rivalry and conflict between
nations. As working men got the right to vote and elect their representatives in government,
they forced the passage of laws that eliminated many of the early evils that industrialization had
brought about.
2) Greatest challenge to laissez faire, & to capitalism itself, has come from the idea of socialism,
which grew in beginning as a reaction against the evils of capitalism.The idea appealed
particularly to workers. Through their struggles, they were able to achieve much improvement
in their living conditions.Laissez faire doctrine was opposed by many people. Gradually, almost
all the countries came to accept the idea that the state has a legitimate right and duty to
regulate the economy.
3) Ideas of socialism also arose which while recognizing the importance of Machines & making
them even better, aimed at solving the problems created by capitalism, by building a new social
order.
4) The idea grew that, capitalism itself is evil and needs to be replaced by a different kind and
economic system in which the means a production would be owned by the society as a whole
and not by a few individuals.
Principles of Socialism
1) The socialists wished to establish a society in which production was based on need rather than
greed ,opportunities were offered to all members of society.

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2) To achieve these ends, socialists saw the need for the means of production to be placed in the
hands of the community rather than a specific social class.
3) That is, they sought the socialisation of industry. In their view, the exploitation would be thus
abolished and a better society created.
Babeuf Conspiracy:
1) The French Revolution a 1789 promised equality But while it put an end to the autocratic rule of
the French king, it did not did not usher in an era of equality in economic, social and political life.
The-wide gap between the aims of the French Revolution and the actual conditions in France
after the revolution created serious discontent among the people.
2) Babeuf Conspiracy was an attempt to overthrow the existing government in France with a view
to building a society based on socialist ideas.
3) Babeuf organized a secret society called the “Society of the Equals”.
4) Babeuf, in a manifesto, had declared, “Nature gave everyone an equal right to the enjoyment of
all goods. In a true society, there is no room for either rich or poor”.
Utopian Socialists
There was another group of socialists in the early history of socialism which included
1. Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
2. Charles Fourier (1772-1837)
3. Robert Owen (1771-1858)
They viewed property in relation to its usefulness to society. They recognized the evils of capitalism
and proposed the establishment of a new and better system of society in its place. Saint-Simon
coined the slogan, ‘from each according to his capacity, to each according to his work‘.
They visualized a society free from exploitation of any kind and one in which all would contribute
their best and would share the fruits of their labour. However, the methods they advocated for the
establishment of such a society were impracticable and ineffective. Hence they came to be called
utopian socialists.
Marxian Socialism
1) Communist Manifesto: Prepared by Marx and Engels, Most important document in socialist
movement

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2) Communist Manifesto stated that the aim of workers all over the world was the overthrow of
capitalism and the establishment of socialism.
3) It pointed out that socialism was not merely desirable, but also inevitable. Capitalism, it said,
does not serve the needs of man and, like other social and economic systems in History; it
would be replaced by a system, better suited to human needs.
COLD WAR
A state of military and political tension between the Western Bloc comprising of the USA, its NATO allies
and some others and the powers in the Eastern Bloc comprising of the Soviet Union along with its allies
from the Warsaw Pact post World War II is known as the Cold War.
The term “cold” signifies absence of fighting on a large-scale directly between the two opponents
despite major regional wars, termed proxy wars, supported by both the sides.
Underlying Reasons
Competing Ideology: The United States and the Soviet Union represented two opposing systems
of government.
Economic: The United States wanted to encourage free trade throughout the world. The Soviets,
however, wanted to close themselves off from the world and international trade and solely
benefit from its resources. These differences led to resentment between the United States and
the Soviet Union.
Power Rivalry: After the decline of Europe following the Second World War, power was largely
shared between the Soviet Union and the United States as they were considered the newly
formed superpowers. They wanted to dominate each other and spread their ideologies

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Causes of cold war
1) Ideological confrontation
→ Communists vs capitalists
2) USSRs expansion into eastern Europe
→ Soviet tried to setup communist government in Czech , Bulgaria , Romania

→ The Iron Curtain specifically refers to the imaginary line dividing Europe between Soviet
influence and Western influence, and symbolizes efforts by the Soviet Union to block itself and
its satellite states from open contact with the West and non-Soviet-controlled areas.
→ Yalta declaration by Churchill ,Roosevelt to create liberated Europe , setting up democratic
government through free and fair elections was despised by Soviet Union
3) Mutual mistrust and threat among US and USSR

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→ One of the main issues that strained relations between the Soviet Union and the West was the
threat of nuclear war.This was highlighted by the Cuban Missile Crisis that involved a political
and military standoff.
→ The Soviet Union was extremely concerned about its security after being invaded twice in the
twentieth century. In 1945, America created and used the atomic bomb against Japan and the
USSR was determined to create one of its own. Both the USSR and the U.S.A. built up huge
arsenals of Inter-Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).
→ Neither side trusted the other. Because they were so different, each side saw each event
differently and believed they were in the right. So every action they took made them hate each
other more.
4) Truman doctrine and policy of containment 1947
→ Truman Doctrine, which vowed to help countries under threat from the Soviets. It is worth
noting that the Soviet Union later issued the Brezhnev Doctrine, which decreed that the Soviet
Union would intervene with force in order to protect communism in its satellites.
→ America would provide moral and financial support to countries whose integrity threatened by
communism . Containment means to contain the limits of USSR
5) Support of Proxy-wars
→ These didnʼt necessarily cause the Cold War, but worsened it. The two superpowers often
wrestled for superiority when it came to third world countries, supporting proxy wars in which
they typically supplied and advised opposing factions in civil wars including the Vietnam War to
the U.S. backing the Ethiopian government and the Soviets going with next-door rival Somalia in
the 1970s. This just goes to show that their alignments were often arbitrary.
Development of Cold War:
The Cold War that took place between the Soviet Union and the United States lasted for decades.The
Cold War was at its peak in the period of 1948–53.The Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat between
1953 to 1957.
The Warsaw Pact, which was a unified military organisation, was formed in the year 1955. Then in the
period of 1958-1962,again cold war intensified.Intercontinental ballistic missiles were being made by
the Soviet Union as well as the United States.
The Soviets began installing their missiles in Cuba secretly and these could be used to launch nuclear
attacks on the cities of U.S.Throughout the entire cold war duration, the Soviet Union and the United
States avoided direct Military confrontation in Europe.

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1) Phase 1: 1945 - 1953: Beginning of Cold War

2) Phase 2 (1953–1962):: Crisis and escalation
3) Phase 3 (1962–1979): Confrontation through détente
Phase 1: 1945 - 1953: Beginning of cold war
1) The yalta conference 1945
This was held in Russia and attended by the three allied leaders Stalin , Roosevelt and Churchill ,so that
they could plan what was to happen when the war ended.
Agreements were reached on the following points
→ A new organisation to be called the United Nations should be setup to replace the League of
Nations
→ Germany was to divided into zones - Russian ,American and British , while Berlin would be split
into corresponding zones
→ Free elections would be allowed in the state of Eastern Europe
→ Stalin promised to join the war against japan on conditions that Russiaʼs received Sakhalin island
and some territory in Manchuria
→ There was signs of trouble over what was to be done with
2) The Potsdam conference 1945
Like yalta was attended ted by three allied powers US ,Britain and USSR Agreement reached on
following points--
→ Germany was to be disarmed

→ Nazi party was to be disbanded
→ Germany was to pay war reparations of which would go for USSR
→ Disagreement continued over Poland
3) The Truman doctrine and the Marshall plan Truman doctrine
→ This sprang from the events in Greece , where communists were trying to overthrow the
monarchy
→ Britain who wanted to help Greece against the communists appealed to USA for help
→ Truman , US president in his doctrine made it clear that USA had no intention of returning to
isolation as she had after First World War . Committed to a policy of containment not just in
Europe but throughout the world

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4) Marshall plan 1947
→ Economic extension of Truman doctrine

→ Under Marshall plan , US produced Economic recovery programme which offered financial help
to Western Europe
→ A prosperous Europe would provide lucrative markets for American exports , but its main aim
was political : communism was less likely to gain control in flourishing Europe
→ USSR didnʼt allowed her satellite countries to take advantage of Marshall plan
5) The cominform
→ The communist information Bureau or cominform was the soviet response to marshall plan .
Setup by Stalin ,in 1947 to introduce Russian style communism in satellite nations .
→ Cominform was flooded by the Molotov plan and comecon to aid Eastern European nations
6) Russian Developments:
→ The Cominform, September 1947.

→ Communist Information Bureau,1947.
→ Molotov Plan,1947 : Russian aid to satellites.
→ Comecon ( Council of Mutual Economic Assistance) set up to coordinate economic policies
7) Communist Takeover of Czechoslovakia, Feb 1948.
Reasons for Thaw in Relation post 1953:
1) Death of Stalin, 1953.

 The next leader of USSR, Nikita Khrushchev believed in the philosophy of “Peaceful
coexistence”.
2) JosephMcCarthy Discredited(US).
 He was an American politician who is popular for spreading rumours about increasing USSR
infiltration in US institutions which created a fear in USA towards USSR. This fear manifested
in the form of arms race and increasing mistrust between the two blocs.
 He was discredited with the documentary of Journalist Edward R. Murrow which showed
the groundlessness of McCarthy's allegations. McCarthy was eventually censured by the
Senate.

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3) End of Korean War by Signing of Peace agreement at Panmunjom, 1953.

4) Russian Concessions:
→ It gave up military bases in Finland.
→ Allowed 16 nations to enter UN by lifting veto.
→ Cominform was abandoned, suggesting more freedom for satellites.
5) Austrian State Treaty, May 1955: It established Austria as a sovereign nation
Factors against Thaw in Relation post 1953 which led to Thaw being only Partial:
 Hungarian uprising against the communist government was ruthlessly crushed by Russian tanks.
 Warsaw Pact, 1955 was established after west Germany entered NATO.
 Arm build up by Russians.
 Berlin wall was created.
 Cuban crisis of 1962
Phase 2 (1953–1962):: Crisis and escalation
1. Khrushchev, Eisenhower and de-Stalinization: In 1953, changes in political leadership on both

sides shifted the dynamic of the Cold War. After the death of Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev
became the Soviet leader.
2. Warsaw Pact and Hungarian Revolution: While Stalin's death in 1953 slightly relaxed tensions,
the situation in Europe remained an uneasy armed truce. Hungarian Revolution was a
nationwide revolt against the government of the Hungarian People's Republic and its Soviet-
imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Though leaderless when it
first began, it was the first major threat to Soviet control since the USSR's forces drove Nazi
Germany from its territory at the end of World War II.
3. Competition in the Third World (Nationalist movements in some countries and regions, notably
Guatemala, Indonesia and Indochina were often allied with communist groups, or perceived in
the West to be allied with communists.)
4. Space Race: On the nuclear weapons front, the United States and the USSR pursued nuclear
rearmament and developed long-range weapons with which they could strike the territory of
the other. In August 1957, the Soviets successfully launched the world's first intercontinental
ballistic missile (ICBM) and in October, launched the first Earth satellite, Sputnik 1.The launch of
Sputnik inaugurated the Space Race. This culminated in the Apollo Moon landings, which
astronaut Frank Borman later described as "just a battle in the Cold War."
5. Cuban Missile Crisis and Khrushchev's ouster (1962):
 Timeline of Crisis:
 Fidel Castro seized power from the corrupt American backed dictator Batista. The First
step of Castro was nationalisation of American owned estates and Factories. This led to

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worsening of relations with USA and improvement in relations with USSR. In Jan 1961,
USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba while Russians increased their economic
aid. Kennedy attempted to ouster Castro by Batista supporter with the active support of
CIA(Operation Mongoose). Castro defeated them and announced himself as Marxist and
Cuba as Socialist. Seeing an opportunity, Khrushchev decided to setup nuclear missile
launcher in Cuba aimed at USA. Kennedy created naval blockade and Russia emerged as
Chicken hearted.
 Outcomes:
 Hotline established post this event between Moscow and Washington in July
1963.USSR, USA and Britain signed Nuclear Test Ban treaty.
CAMPAIGN AGAINST NUCLEAR WEAPONS, 1958:
This was a time when the threat of nuclear war was imminent and thus civil society across the world
raised a campaign against nuclear weapons to encourage governments for unilateral disarmament.
However, the campaign failed as no government including Britain where the campaign started went for
unilateral disarmament due to the risk being too high given the tense environment. All countries
demanded multilateral disarmament.
Phase 3 (1962–1979): Confrontation through détente
Détente (a French word meaning release from tension) is the name given to a period of improved
relations between the United States and the Soviet Union that began tentatively in 1971 and took
decisive form when President Richard M. Nixon visited the secretary- general of the Soviet Communist
party, Leonid I. Brezhnev, in Moscow, May 1972.
1. French withdrawal from NATO

2. Invasion of Czechoslovakia
a. In 1968, a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia called the Prague Spring
took place that included "Action Program" of liberalizations, which described:
i. increasing freedom of the press,
ii. freedom of speech and freedom of movement, along with
iii. an economic emphasis on consumer goods,
iv. the possibility of a multiparty government,
v. limiting the power of the secret police and
vi. potentially withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact.
b. In answer to the Prague Spring, on 20 August 1968, the Soviet Army, together with most
of their Warsaw Pact allies, invaded Czechoslovakia.
3. Brezhnev Doctrine: the right of the Soviet Union to violate the sovereignty of any country
attempting to replace Marxism–Leninism with capitalism.

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4. Phase 4 (1979–1985): "Second Cold War"

a. The term second Cold War refers to the period of intensive reawakening of Cold War
tensions and conflicts in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Tensions greatly increased
between the major powers with both sides becoming more militaristic.
b. Soviet War in Afghanistan: In April 1978, the communist People's Democratic Party of
Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution.
c. Gorbachev's economic reforms leading to disintegration of USSR:
i. Glasnost (openness) and Perestroika (restructuring)
 Perestroika: It restructured Soviet Economic and Political policy. It led to
decentralisation of economic control and encouraged enterprises to
become self-sustaining. Gorbachev proposed reduction of the direct
involvement of Communist party leadership in the country's governance
and increasing the authority of local government. Non-communist
parties were allowed to participate in elections.
 Glasnost: Glasnost was Soviet policy of open discussion on social and
political issues. It allowed criticism of the government officials and
allowed the media freedom of expression.
With the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the collapse of Communism in the Soviet Union and Eastern
Europe occurred.The bi-polar world became unipolar world. On 31st July 1991, American President
George Bush and Soviet leader Michael Gorbachev signed the ‘historicʼ START - I Treaty in the Moscow
Summit.This marks the end of the Era of Cold War. The ideological war otherwise known as Cold War
was fought for about five decades since 1945.The world saw the vertical division of nation states.
Military alliances were made. Arms race developed.Nuclear holocaust threatened the world on many
occasions. However, after the 1970s détente resulted in the gradual relaxation of tension between the
two super powers which ultimately ended with the dissolution of Soviet Union.

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DECOLONISATION
Decolonization is the action or process of a state withdrawing from a former colony, leaving it
independent. After 1945 many states in Europe and Asia were decolonized. Mainly decolonization
started in Asia, Africa and Middle East.
Decolonization is the process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country.
Reasons for decolonisation:
1) Education: Western education in colonies was crucial factor in rise of nationalism and subsequent
decolonisation. Education shaped thoughts and made the people familiar with rights. Educated and
focussed people led the struggle and fought on behalf of masses
2) Atlantic Charter: The Charter of 1941 that entailed the goals of allied powers after the war asserted
that all the people had the right to self-determination.
3) Economic losses: Post Second World War 2 the European powers were economically devastated and
exhausted with men and material
4) Assurance of independence to colonies: Many of the colonies gave resources and man power to their
respective colonial powers during World War 2 in the hope of achieving autonomy or independence.
5) Cold war period: The rise of two powers USA and USSR also put pressure on European allies to grant
independence as both were against colonial rule.
6) Declaration by UN: UN sharply condemned colonial rule as a denial of fundamental human rights.
7) Support of newly decolonised: There was mutual support among nations Ex: India supported the
cause of African decolonisation.
8) Non aligned movement
 Nehru from India, Tito the communist leader from Yugoslavia, Nasser from Egypt successfully
opposed French and British imperial powers
 However, the struggle for colonies to gain independence was not smooth
 Some European powers tried to regain colonies after world war 2 and left only much later due
to continued struggle of colonies Ex: Dutch tried to regain Indonesia back
 The decolonisation of Africa was not smooth and has led to long standing issues India though
gained independence from British had to suffer the pains of partition

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Decolonization of Africa and Asia
In Africa:
 British Colonies- By 1963, all of Africa had achieved independence from Great Britain, except
Rhodesia.
 France also could not maintain control of their colonies; by 1960, all but Algeria had gained
independence.
 Algeria and Kenya both used guerilla warfare to reclaim their independence.
 In many parts of Africa, including South Africa, the presence of European immigrants
interfered with negotiations, resulted in violence, and impeded transition of power. The
withdrawal of resources and lack of preparation for the indigenous people to regain control
complicated matters further.
In Asia and Middle East:
 India-1946, Ceylon and Burma- 1948

 France refused to grant independence to colonies in Indochina but were defeated in 1954
by Ho Chi Minh and Vietnamese Guerrillas.
 Communism in China under the Red Guards acted as a colonizing agent by seeking to
eliminate traditional cultures and customs.
 Following WWII, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan became independent
 Israel was formed as a state by the United Nations in 1948
Cultural, Economic and political impacts of decolonialization:
It was the cultural, economic and political process through which colonies broke free from the colonial
empires and integrated themselves to the new ‘world orderʼ.
Cultural:
 Colonial empires were generally founded on principles of Racism and ‘right to ruleʼ over ‘inferior
racesʼ. These narratives had to be challenged.
 An image of benevolent and modernising influence was used as a pretext for colonial
exploitation. However, this was later broken. (Eg: Indian National Congress popularised the
theory of drain of wealth to demolish the claim of the civilising influence of British Raj)
 The self-confidence of people had to be boosted. Exercises of cultural integration and the
creation of national identities and a shared past were emphasised. Eg: Ancient Greek

WORLD HISTORY
(Hellenistic) culture was emphasised in the Greek War of Independence, 1829 against the
Ottoman Empire. In India, achievements of our ancient civilisation were popularised.
 Most states were successful in this regard, though deep-rooted tribal differences and prejudices
led to problems in Africa.
 Various films, music, fiction, autobiographies, and museum displays were developed to learn the
lessons from the history of colonization and its impacts.
Political:
 Newly freed states had to be allowed to follow an independent foreign policy. They had to raise
resources and build stable institutions (Eg: An Army subject to strict civilian control).
 Representative and democratic institutions needed to be built. This needed an enlightened
citizenry and an empowered leadership.
 USA and European world started democratization of these countries. The Soviet Union deployed
similar effort to encourage new nations to join the communist bloc. Some adopted
capitalism(malayasia,Indonesia) while others socialism(India,Egypt etc)
 Democracies & civil wars: Thoough democratic forms of government were setup in colonies,
only few like india,malayasia and egypt were able to keep their democratic character. In Africa
most countries like angola,Nigeria,zaire etc suffered from civil wars based on ethnic lines and
with a dictator governing the countries.
Economic:
 Raise of Neocolonialism- the practice of using capitalism, globalization, and cultural forces to
control new countries.
 The old European powers sought to exert influence in newly independent trades through biased
trade policies. This came to be known as Neo-Colonialism.
 Most of the investment in these countries came from the erstwhile colonizers. So they were
able to control new governments through lobbying and other informal (often corrupt) means.
 Colonial powers were technologically advanced. So they used it as a leverage in directing foreign
investment and hence controlling the new states. They sought to guard their technological
supremacy through tight Intellectual property regimes.
Decolonisation was a force of good that helped liberate billions of people across the globe from
exploitation under an oppressive foreign rule. As a cultural process, it is continuing to date. It ended up
with the majority of the world achieving self- determination and self-rule. Though the hegemonic
nations still exert large influence through international trade, investment and technology control, these
countries are free to script their own destiny. Majority of the so-called “Third world” is still mired in
extreme poverty.

WORLD HISTORY
The way forward is through human development, the spread of education and building of institutions
through regional (Pan-African, Pan-South Asian collaboration etc) cooperation. Work of UN agencies is
commendable in this regard. UN General Assembly has emerged as a potent forum where world opinion
is mobilised in favour of third world countries. Its powers and influence have to be enhanced. The
democratisation of international order will help the third world more in getting its grievances addressed
and in building a more equitable world.

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WORLD HISTORY

Manual work replaced by steam power machines

Agriculture was mechanised and big farms replaced small fields

Increase in international trade in goods and capital

Development of chemical industry,coal mines, iron and steel industry

Great changes occurred in transportation due to steam engine and

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 High tariffs on import especially on manufactured goods

 Greatest movement in human history for freedom and equality

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Causes of American revolution

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The 1st Continental Congress in Philadelphia (1774) /Philadelphia Congress

Appeal to King George III and his declaration of military action

Declaration of Independence in second philapdelphia convention

American Revolutionary War or American War of Independence (1775)

Signing of Second Treaty of Paris 1783

 Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain

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The first democratic government with a written constitution in the world

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GENERAL CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

1. Large gap between the rich and the poor.

2. Growing number of poor and unemployed in the cities.

EVENTS IN THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

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Convening of the Estates-General

The Third Estate declares itself to be the National

3.Louis XVI orders Swiss mercenaries (soldiers for hire) to

Storming of the Bastille.

The split of National Assembly into radicals , moderates

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Political Clubs The political clubs sprang up

The Terror grips France The National convention

The Jacobians had set up the Revolutionary

The Jacobians suspended the constitution and

End of Revolution With the fall of Robespierre

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Impact of French Revolution

Reforms by Napoleon Bonaparte

 Peace with Europe

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Causes of development of new imperialism

Economic Surplus production , surplus capital ,need for raw

Social Contribution of christian missionaries ,expansion

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FIRST WORLD WAR

Causes of the first world war (1914 -1919)

(1) Conflict between Imperialist countries:

(2) Ultra nationalism

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(3) Military Alliance

• Triple Alliance or Central Powers (1882) – Germany, Italy, Austria-Hungary. Triple

(4) International Anarchy

(5) Balkan wars

(6) Alsace Loraine

(7) Immediate Cause: assassination of Francis Ferdinand

Course of first world war

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Results of the war

1) Loss of lives and property