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Developmental morphology of branching flowers in Nymphaea prolifera

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J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
DOI 10.1007/s10265-006-0021-8
REGULAR PAPER
Developmental morphology of branching flowers in Nymphaea
prolifera
Valentin Grob Æ Philip Moline Æ Evelin Pfeifer Æ
Alejandro R. Novelo Æ Rolf Rutishauser
Received: 16 March 2006 / Accepted: 29 May 2006 / Published online: 5 October 2006

The Botanical Society of Japan and Springer-Verlag 2006
Abstract Nymphaea and Nuphar (Nymphaeaceae)
share an extra-axillary mode of floral inception in the
shoot apical meristem (SAM). Some leaf sites along
the ontogenetic spiral are occupied by floral primordia
lacking a subtending bract. This pattern of flower ini-
tiation in leaf sites is repeated inside branching flowers
of Nymphaea prolifera (Central and South America).
Instead of fertile flowers this species usually produces
sterile tuberiferous flowers that act as vegetative
propagules. N. prolifera changes the meristem identity
from reproductive to vegetative or vice versa repeat-
edly. Each branching flower first produces some peri-
anth-like leaves, then it switches back to the vegetative
meristem identity of the SAM with the formation of
foliage leaves and another set of branching flowers.
This process is repeated up to three times giving rise to
more than 100 vegetative propagules. The develop-
mental morphology of the branching flowers of N.
prolifera is described using both microtome sections
and scanning electron microscopy.
Keywords AGAMOUS Æ Floral reversion Æ
Homeosis Æ Meristem identity Æ Nymphaea prolifera Æ
Proliferated flowers
V. Grob Æ P. Moline Æ E. Pfeifer Æ R. Rutishauser (&)
Institut für Systematische Botanik, Universität Zürich,
Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
e-mail: rutishau@systbot.unizh.ch
A. R. Novelo
Departamento de Botánica, Instituto de Biologı́a,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México,
Mexico, D.F. 04510, Mexico
Introduction
Water lilies have attracted botanical systematists for at
least 200 years. Nymphaeales (Nymphaeaceae and
Cabombaceae) comprise eight genera and approxi-
mately 70 species of aquatic plants, with a worldwide
distribution in tropical to temperate regions. Whereas
the stem lineage of Nymphaeales is old based on fossil
evidence (125–115 million years ago), molecular dating
indicates that the extant nymphaealean genera diver-
sified relatively recently, i.e., not earlier than approxi-
mately 46 million years ago (Gandolfo et al. 2004; Yoo
et al. 2005). Features like scattered vascular bundles,
embryological data, cotyledonary and floral structure
have linked them to monocots, especially to the Alis-
matidae (Les and Schneider 1995). Molecular data
corroborate the recent morphological understanding of
the relationship among basal angiosperms: Amborella
as the basal-most angiosperm is sister to all extant
angiosperms, with Nymphaeales being the first branch
after Amborella (Zanis et al. 2002; APG II 2003; Löhne
and Borsch 2005; Qiu et al. 2005; Soltis et al. 2005). All
Nymphaeales share several morphological characters,
e.g., rhizomatous stems, solitary flowers, acropetal
initiation of floral organs, radial floral symmetry,
simultaneous initiation of the carpels in a whorl, and
formation of a vascular plexus at the base of the flower.
Floral characters vary extensively among genera,
ranging from the small, simple monocot-like flowers of
Cabomba to the large, showy, elaborate flowers of
Nymphaea and Victoria (Les et al. 1999; Ronse De
Craene et al. 2003; Schneider et al. 2003; Soltis and
Soltis 2004; Yoo et al. 2005).
Most angiosperms show axillary branching, where a
lateral bud is subtended by a leaf or bract. Nymphae-
123
562 J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570

ales, however, show various deviating patterns with completely white flowers that have sepals that are
respect to flower positioning at the shoot apex. For usually shorter and narrower than the outer petals, and
example, flowers of Victoria and Euryale arise in carpellary appendages with tips that are mostly less
nonmedian axillary positions to the associated leaf or than 1.5 mm thick (Wiersema 1987).
seemingly so (Cutter 1961; Weidlich 1980), whereas in The purpose of this paper is to explore the devel-
Nuphar and Nymphaea each flower replaces a leaf in opmental morphology of the repeatedly branching
the ontogenetic spiral of the shoot apex (Cutter 1961; flowers of N. prolifera using both microtome sections
Chassat 1962; Weidlich 1976a, 1976b; Les et al. 1999; and scanning electron microscopy:
Schneider et al. 2003).
1. We ask if the meristem of branching flowers of N.
The genus Nymphaea consists of approximately 45
prolifera mirrors the pattern of the SAM of other
species of aquatic herbs with perennial rhizomes,
Nymphaea spp. such as N. alba
mostly floating leaves and showy flowers. The bractless
2. We search for comparable patterns in the Nymp-
flowers have mostly tetramerous calyces, whereas the
haeaceae and other vascular plants
other flower organs occur in whorls or rings of many
3. We discuss the observed patterns in the light of
members. The petals are white, blue, red or yellow in
developmental genetic findings
various shades (Wiersema 1987).
Nymphaea prolifera Wiersema belongs to the neo-
tropic and night-flowering subgenus Hydrocallis, which
Materials and methods
according to molecular data is a basal division of the
genus (Borsch et al. 1998). This species was originally
The material of N. prolifera Wiersema used for this
described by Wiersema (1984, 1987) from Argentina
study was collected in the Reserva de la Biosphera
(Corrientes). Since then it has also been found in
‘‘Pantanos de Centla,’’ Estado de Tabasco, Mexico (1
Brazil: Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul (Pott
November 1998). The material of N. alba L. was col-
1998), and in Paraguay (Ritter et al. 2001), Ecuador
lected from plants cultivated in the Botanical Garden
(Cornejo and Bonifaz 2003), and Mexico (Olvera and
of the University of Zurich (Switzerland). The material
Lot 1991). Fruits and seeds are rarely, if ever, produced
was fixed and preserved in 70% ethanol. For scanning
in N. prolifera. Propagation seems to rely mostly, if not
electron microscopy, the dissected material was critical
exclusively, on the tuberiferous (sterile) flowers. In-
point dried and sputter coated (Au). The micrographs
stead of sexual reproduction, these flowers are tubers,
were taken with scanning electron microscopes Cam-
giving rise to another set of leaves and tuberiferous
bridge S4 and JEOL. For microtome sections, speci-
flowers. The floral meristem, which starts with the
mens were embedded in Kulzer’s Technovit (2-
development of the perianth, switches back to an
hydroethyl methacrylate), as described by Igersheim
indeterminate, vegetative meristem. This ‘‘sleeping’’
and Cichocki (1996), and sectioned with a MICROM
shoot apical meristem (SAM) starts the establishment
HM 355 rotary microtome and conventional micro-
of a new rhizome as soon as the detached flower has
tome knife types C and D. The mostly 7-lm thick
dropped to the ground. This is an effective way of
sections were stained with ruthenium red and toluidine
asexual propagation, as hundreds of tiny tubers, al-
blue (Weber and Igersheim 1994). The permanent
ready complete with juvenile leaves and roots, can be
slides of the microtome sections are deposited at the
released from a single individual (Wiersema 1987). N.
Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Zurich
prolifera seems to occur with a disjunct pattern within
(Z). Fixed and dry voucher specimens (Novelo 3347) of
the species area of Nymphaea amazonum, a close rel-
N. prolifera are housed in the Herbarium of Zurich
ative of N. prolifera. Overall, the morphology of N.
Universities (Z/ZT); dry material is also deposited in the
amazonum and that of N. prolifera are very similar.
Herbarium of UNAM (Mexico). The authorities of
Cornejo and Bonifaz (2003) even observed N.
additional species names mentioned in the text are
amazonum individuals with tuberiferous flowers.
equivalent to the species and author names given by
Wiersema (1987) found potential hybrids in Argentina,
Wiersema (1987).
propagating entirely via tuberiferous flowers. They
were triploid (3n=27) compared with the diploid
(2n=18) mother species. Wiersema (1984, 1987) sepa-
rated the two species in that N. prolifera lacks pubes- Results
cence on the petioles. Moreover, N. prolifera usually
has a few inconspicuous green sepaloid organs instead The measurements in the following description are
of white petals. Rarely, N. prolifera produces based on our own observations in the field (Tabasco,

123
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
Mexico). They may deviate to some degree from the
measurements given by Wiersema (1987).
Leaves and branching flowers arising from rooted
tubers
N. prolifera is a perennial aquatic herb, as typical for
most Nymphaeaceae (Fig. 1a–d). The rhizome of this
species consists of an erect and nearly spherical tuber
or caudex 2–2.5 cm in diameter. Its lower side is fixed
to the muddy soil by several contractile roots. Mature
Fig. 1 Nymphaea prolifera. Plants photographed in the field:
Reserva de la Biosphera ‘‘Pantanos de Centla,’’ Estado de
Tabasco, Mexico (1st November 1998, photographs by R.
Rutishauser). a Mother flower (F) with daughter flowers (F¢)
and granddaughter flowers (F†). Note that the perianth of all
flowers is green and consists of approximately 4–8 sepal-like
organs only. b Three mother flowers, two of them with the
perianth partly removed in order to see the starch-containing
tuber in the center (arrowhead). The right mother flower with
seven perianth members, green on outer side, whitish inside
563
leaves arising from this rooted tuber consist of cylin-
drical stalks (petioles) up to 1.2 m long. Their base is
provided with two attached lateral stipules that are
fused to some degree along the adaxial leaf insertion
zone (Figs. 2a, 4e, f). Stipules of mature leaves are
attached to a slightly broadened leaf sheath 4–7 cm
long. The suborbicular to reniform leaf blades are up to
20 cm wide with a slight tendency towards peltation
(Fig. 1d). The rooted tubers (rhizomes) also produce
flowers on stalks up to 80 cm long. This first set of
branching flowers will be called here mother flowers,
(arrow). This mother flower gives rise to seven daughter flowers
(F, one removed) and three stalked leaves (L). One daughter
flower already with outgrowing granddaughter flowers (F¢). c
The only flower (F) found to have an increased number
(approximately 15) of mainly white perianth members, giving
rise to nine daughter flowers (F¢). d Two whole plants pulled out
of the soil. Arrows point to the tuber-like rooted rhizomes. The
tubers already produced mother flowers (F) and leaves (L) on
long stalks
123
564
i.e., first-order flowers, which give rise to daughter
flowers, i.e., second-order flowers, and so on (Fig. 1a–
c). The stalks of the daughter flowers are usually less
than 20 cm long. No sign of any stamens or carpels
were found in any of the flowers inspected in the field
(Tabasco, Mexico).
Size, colour, and merosity of mother
and daughter flowers
The largest branching flower found had a diameter of
10 cm and consisted of 15 perianth members, the
usually four outermost ones (‘‘sepals’’) were spreading
and green on the outer side, white inside; the inner
ones (‘‘petals’’) were upright, and white on both sides
(Fig. 1c). This mother flower contained a set of nine
Fig. 2 Nymphaea prolifera. Lateral and top views of central
portion of branching flower, before and after removal of
protecting hairs. a Mother flower (perianth removed) containing
leaves (L) and daughter flowers (F). Arrowhead points to lateral
stipule at leaf base. Scale bar 2 mm. b Top view on central
portion of mother flower. Leaves (L) and daughter flowers (F)
are arranged along the same ontogenetic spiral (1–7). Note that
‘‘1’’ indicates the youngest primordium observable in the thicket
of hairs protecting and hiding the meristematic centre. Scale bar
500 lm. c and d Lateral and top views on central portion of
123
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
daughter flowers, all of them green and stalked. Most
mother flowers examined in the field, however, were
much less attractive, being green and having a reduced
number of perianth members (Fig. 1a, b). Most mother
flowers investigated consisted of 4–8 greenish perianth
members (i.e., without clear differentiation into sepals
and petals). These mother flowers contained a starch-
bearing center approximately 1 cm wide (Fig. 1b,
arrowhead).
Mother flowers produce daughter flowers and addi-
tional small foliage leaves (Fig. 1b). The same also
happens inside the daughter flowers. The ratio of
leaves to flowers in mother and daughter flowers is
approximately 1:2, i.e., there are about twice as many
daughter (or granddaughter) flowers as foliage leaves
per mother (or daughter) flower (Fig. 1b). Both pedi-
daughter flower after removal of hairs and peripheral append-
ages. The flower center behaves like a shoot apical meristem
(SAM), showing primordia (1–10) along a Fibonacci spiral
(divergence angle approximately 137.5). Most leaf sites are
occupied by floral primordia (4–6, 8–10). Dorsiventral shape of
primordia 1 and 3 (next to apical meristem) indicates their
putative leaf identity. Hemispherical primordium 2 appears to be
the first stage of a young flower. Each floral primordium initiates
first the abaxial tepal (a), then the two transversal ones (t). Scale
bars 200 lm
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
Fig. 3 Nymphaea prolifera. Longitudinal sections of mother
flowers (F) and daughter flowers (F¢). a Portion of mother flower
with sepal-like perianth member (P), showing aerenchyma.
Tuber-forming center of mother flower (F) with scattered
vascular bundles (arrowheads) in starch-containing parenchyma.
Arrow points to vascular bundle supplying daughter flower (F¢).
This flower (with perianth P¢) contains primordial granddaughter
flower (F†). Scale bar 500 lm. b Another daughter flower with
granddaughter flowers (F†). Arrow points to aerenchyma in
cels (floral stalks) and petioles (leaf stalks) have a
cylindrical cross-section, but differ slightly in their
pattern of aerenchyma (Fig. 4d, f). Moreover, only
petioles are provided with lateral stipules, which are
slightly fused along the adaxial insertion line (Fig. 4-
e, f).
Initiation order of flowers and leaves in shoot tips
of N. prolifera and N. alba
The SAM of N. prolifera produces floral primordia and
leaf primordia as part of the same ontogenetic spiral, as
is typical of other Nymphaea species such as N. alba
(Fig. 5a, b). All flower buds are occupying leaf sites
(i.e., completely replacing leaf primordia) along a
spiral approaching Fibonacci angles of 137.5. There is
no sign of bracts subtending flower primordia. They
565
pedicel (flower stalk). Note plenty of hairs (asterisk) inside
perianth (P¢). Scale bar 500 lm. c Oblique longitudinal section of
daughter flower (with perianth P¢). Note stalked granddaughter
flower (F†) containing great-granddaughter flowers (F¢¢¢). Inte-
rior of daughter flower filled with hairs (asterisks). Scale bar
1 mm. d Close-up of meristematic zone of daughter flower.
Inside its perianth (P¢) are granddaughter flowers (F†). Arrow
points to obliquely cut leaf primordium next to apical center.
Scale bar 200 lm
arise as hemispherical bumps whereas leaf primordia
originate as dorsiventral bulges that are soon provided
with stipules. SAMs (i.e., rhizome tips) of N. alba and
N. prolifera usually produce fewer flowers than leaves
(Fig. 5a, b).
Initiation order of flowers and leaves
in the branching flowers of N. prolifera
The spiral initiation pattern of lateral organs as de-
scribed above is found again inside the tuberiferous
flowers of N. prolifera. Instead of producing sexual
organs (stamens, carpels) the meristematic center of
these flowers remains indeterminate and repeats the
growth behavior of a SAM with new flower buds
(arising in leaf sites) and leaves as part of the same
ontogenetic spiral (Fig. 2a–d). The empty spaces be-
123
566
Fig. 4 Nymphaea prolifera. Basal portions of flowers (transver-
sal microtome sections) and leaves (SEM graphs). a–d Series of
four transversal sections of the same flower, from its tuberiferous
center down to its pedicel. a Level of tuberiferous flower center
(F) surrounded by the pedicels of four daughter flowers (F¢).
Scale bar 500 lm. b Base of tuberiferous flower with insertion of
sepals (P) containing aerenchyma. Gaps between sepals and
flower center are completely filled with hairs (asterisks). Scale
tween the perianth members and the solid center in
floral buds are completely filled with hairs that grow
out next to the apical meristem. The very same pattern
of flower initiation in leaf sites is repeated inside
daughter flowers, granddaughter flowers (Fig. 3a–d),
and perhaps also inside great-granddaughter flowers.
Each floral bud produces some perianth-like leaves,
then it switches back to the developmental behavior of
the SAM, with the formation of small foliage leaves
and another set of branching flowers. As a conse-
quence, more than 100 branching flowers acting as
vegetative propagules are produced by a single mother
flower (Fig. 3a–d). The floral center gives rise to a tu-
ber that mainly contains starch-filled parenchyma with
scattered vascular bundles (vascular plexus), but
without aerenchyma, whereas in the flower stalk there
is a prominent lacunae system (Fig. 4a–d).
123
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
bar 500 lm. c Level below perianth insertion. Note central group
of vascular tissue and lack of aerenchyma. Scale bar 1 mm. d
Floral stalk (pedicel) with symmetrically arranged aerenchyma
and vascular bundles forming a ring (besides inconspicuous
central bundles). Scale bar 1 mm. e, f Base of leaf stalk (petiole)
with two lateral stipules, which are fused along the adaxial side of
the petiole base, seen from ventral side and from above,
respectively. Scale bars 500 lm
Discussion
Flowers and vegetative buds arising from leaf sites
in Nymphaea spp.
As in Nuphar, floral primordia in Nymphaea are pro-
duced by the rhizome apex (SAM) as members of the
same ontogenetic spiral approaching the Fibonacci
angle of 137.5. There are no bracts subtending the
flowers (Schneider et al. 2003). Thus, flower primordia
are occupying leaf sites (i.e., replacing whole leaf pri-
mordia) in Nymphaea, as already described by Cutter
(1957a, 1957b, 1961) and Chassat (1962). In Nymphaea
spp. the ratios of leaves to flowers for entire plants vary
from 1:1 to 4:1. Thus, there are usually fewer flowers
than leaves arising from a SAM (Cutter 1957a; Weid-
lich 1976a, 1976b). Very occasionally, vegetative buds
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
Fig. 5 Nymphaea alba. Rhizome tip with shoot apical meristem
(SAM) (photographs received from Matthias Wolf, Zurich). a
Top view of SAM with primordia arranged along a Fibonacci
spiral (3–10). Positions 4 and 7–10 are occupied by young leaves
(L); positions 3, 5, and 6 are occupied by flower primordia. Note
are also formed. In Nymphaea they occupy leaf posi-
tions, i.e., positions in which flowers are also expected.
In Nuphar, however, vegetative buds are axillary and
subtended by a leaf (Cutter 1961; Chassat 1962).
In branching flowers of N. prolifera a small number
of tepals and, instead of stamens and carpels, new
leaves and flowers are produced along a spiral. Com-
pared with the rhizome tips of Nymphaea in general
the ratio of leaves to flowers (approximately 1:2) is
considerably smaller inside the branching flowers of N.
prolifera.
Flowers or vegetative buds (shoots) arising
from leaf sites in Nymphaeaceae and other
vascular plants
Flowers occupying leaf sites are known from other
nymphaeaceous genera such as Nuphar and Ondinea
among basal angiosperms (Cutter 1957a, 1961;
Schneider et al. 2003). Bractless flowers arising directly
from the SAM are also known from eudicots, such as
wild-type Arabidopsis and other Brassicaceae (Ve-
nugopala Reddy et al. 2004; Dornelas and Rodriguez
2006), also Theligonum (Rubiaceae), with regard to
male flowers (Rutishauser et al. 1998). Vegetative buds
occupying leaf sites are (besides Nymphaea) also ob-
servable in angiosperms such as Utricularia spp. (Rut-
ishauser and Isler 2001) and in club mosses such as
Huperzia (Stevenson 1976). Cutter (1957b, p. 93)
called the gemmae forming short shoots in Huperzia
and the floral buds in Nymphaea ‘‘topographically
homologous with leaf primordia.’’ Thus, a certain kind
of homology (i.e., homotopy) exists between leaves
and shoots (also between leaves and whole flowers), as
567
prominent lateral stipules (S) at the base of leaf 10. Scale bar
500 lm. b Close-up of same SAM, showing youngest primordia
1–6 (abbreviations as above). Note difference in primordial
shape between initial stages of young flower (position 1) and
young leaf (position 2) bordering the SAM. Scale bar 200 lm
proposed by adherents of the continuum morphology
(Lacroix et al. 2005; Rutishauser and Moline 2005).
The topological correspondence of shoots (including
flowers) and leaves in various vascular plants (e.g.,
Nymphaea flowers in leaf sites) may be due to
uncommitted primordia that only subsequently be-
come differentiated into shoot and leaf (as known from
certain ferns), or it may be due to homeosis, i.e., ec-
topic expression of a shoot (or flower) completely
replacing a leaf. According to Theissen (2005) there is
increasing evidence that homeotic transitions played a
role in plant evolution.
Branching flowers, floral reversion, and asexual
propagation in various Nymphaea spp.
We hypothesize that there is a reversion of floral
meristem identity back to the SAM in N. prolifera. The
observational evidence for this hypothesis was not
recognized by earlier Nymphaea students. For exam-
ple, Wiersema (1987, p. 88) mentioned N. prolifera as:
‘‘Tuber globose, densely woolly, producing alternating
whorls of tuberous flowers and leaves in (3¢s) 4¢s.’’ We
did not observe such alternating whorls except for the
outermost organs (Fig. 4a, b). Each branching flower
of N. prolifera first produces some perianth-like leaves,
then it switches back to the SAM identity, with the
formation of spirally arranged foliage leaves and sev-
eral daughter flowers arising again from leaf sites. This
process is repeated up to three times giving rise to a
branched structure of more than 100 vegetative mod-
ules. The detachment of these modules results in many
vegetative propagules as products of branching floral
meristems.
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568
Nymphaea prolifera is not the only species of this
genus that exhibits flower reversion as described in this
article. It seems that the transition from sexual her-
maphrodite flowers to sterile tuberiferous flowers
serving as vegetative propagules is known from four
other Nymphaea species (N. lasiophylla, N. mexicana,
N. pubescens, N. rubra), at least occasionally or as
teratology. N. lasiophylla, as described by Wiersema
(1987, pp. 90–94) in his monograph on the subgenus
Hydrocallis, has regular flowers, but there are ‘‘tube-
riferous flowers usually present’’ and ‘‘propagation in
most populations is by means of abortive tuberiferous
flowers.’’ He found seeds in only 1 out of 20 popula-
tions. This species from northeastern Brazil is linked to
Nymphaea lingulata and not to N. amazonum or N.
prolifera. N. mexicana is another species with flower
reversion. Mohan Ram and Nayyar (1974) reported
tuberiferous flowers from a few N. mexicana plants,
cultivated in a pond of the Botanical Garden of Delhi
(India). The regularly yellow flowers were replaced in
these cultivated plants by tuberiferous flowers with
roots. N. pubescens and N. rubra are two other
Nymphaea species in which tuberiferous flowers have
also been observed. It seems that in N. rubra propa-
gation is achieved mainly asexually with tuberiferous
flowers (Conard 1905; Debbarman 1934). Mitra and
Subramanyam (1982) found fruits neither in natural
populations examined in West Bengal and Bangladesh
nor as result of an intensive herbarium search. The
tuberiferous flowers are described as bearing leaves
and tuberiferous flower buds in the position of floral
parts, as well as roots. In N. pubescens, Bose (1961)
described a specimen with tuberiferous flowers. Here
the floral organs were completely suppressed, a few
bract-like structures subtended the terminal portion of
the shoot, where several regular flowers and leaves
developed.
Branching flowers of N. prolifera compared
with proliferated flowers in other angiosperms
Proliferated flowers are flowers that return completely
or partially to the vegetative and indeterminate meri-
stem identity, after having started the floral develop-
mental program. Proliferated flowers have been
recorded for more than 2,000 years (Meyerowitz et al.
1989). The first records date back to Theophrastus 286
BC, who described double roses, i.e., flowers contain-
ing more than the normal number of petals. Well-
known are the unbranched proliferated rose and the
branched proliferated pink described by Goethe (1790;
see translation and comments by Arber 1946). Flowers
in angiosperms are—by definition—determinate and
123
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
unbranched short-shoots. Thus, the indeterminate
branching flowers of N. prolifera violate this flower
definition twice, as long as we do not accept overlap-
ping concepts such as ‘‘inflorescence flowers’’ with
mixed developmental programs, as proposed and dis-
cussed by Baum and Donoghue (2002), Lacroix et al.
(2005), and Rutishauser and Moline (2005).
Nymphaea prolifera and the molecular models
of floral development
The isolation and induction of specific mutations and
their products have given a new boost to the unraveling
of the development of the flower. Currently, two
widely accepted models explain nicely how floral
development is controlled molecularly. The ABCDE
model introduces floral homeotic functions, which are
represented by groups of homeotic genes. In this model
one organ, like the stamen, is influenced by several
homeotic functions, i.e., B, C, and E. The more recent
floral quartet model attributes four homeotic genes to
each of the four floral organs (Theissen 2001). As both
models are widely applicable to the angiosperms,
including basal angiosperms such as Nymphaeaceae
(Goto et al. 2001; Kim et al. 2005; Soltis et al. 2005;
Theissen 2005) they help to find candidates for genes
responsible for the peculiar phenotype of N. prolifera.
The most promising will be found in the AGAMOUS
(AG)- or SEPALLATA (SEP)-like MADS-box genes.
The class C genes (AG-like genes) specify the carpels
and also play a role in floral meristem determinacy
(Bowman et al. 1989; Zahn et al. 2006). For example,
the sepals and petals of ag mutants in Arabidopsis are
as in the wild type. The stamens, however, are replaced
by additional petals, and in the position of the gynoe-
cium a daughter flower develops showing the same
characteristics as the mother flower. This scheme is
repeated up to five times along the same floral axis
(Bowman et al. 1991; Goto et al. 2001). However, since
according to the ABCDE model class E genes are re-
quired for the specification of reproductive organ
identity and floral determinacy, changes in class E
genes (such as SEP) may also underlie the branching
flowers of N. prolifera. The SEP homologues act on
petals, stamen, and carpels as well as the determination
of the floral meristem (Theissen 2001; Zahn et al.
2006). For example, transgenic plants of Gerbera hyb-
rida (Asteraceae) with strongly reduced SEP homolog
expression have been studied (Uimari et al. 2004). The
capitula of these plants lose their determinacy, and
they continue to produce new florets as long as they
live. Within the single florets, there is a reversion of
ovaries to inflorescences. Moreover, meristem identity
J Plant Res (2006) 119:561–570
genes like LEAFY (LFY) also influence the fate of the
meristem. lfy mutations of Arabidopsis show prolifer-
ation of inflorescence meristems and the formation of
shoot–flower intermediates in the place of flowers
(Yoon and Baum 2004).
The switch from a sexually producing ancestral
Nymphaea sp. (possibly N. amazonum as the next
relative) to N. prolifera with repeating vegetative
propagules inside the flower may be due to a single
mutation of a gene homologous to, for example, AG,
SEP, or LFY. To verify this hypothesis, expression
patterns of the aforementioned genes should be
investigated for N. prolifera. Any developmental ge-
netic hypothesis explaining the branching flowers of N.
prolifera, however, should also explain the replace-
ment of leaf primordia by floral buds as being typical of
Nymphaea and Nuphar in general, and the nonmedian
axillary positions of flowers with regard to their ‘‘sub-
tending’’ leaves in Victoria and Euryale (Schneider
et al. 2003).
Acknowledgements We thank G. Theissen (Jena) and two
anonymous reviewers for valuable comments on the manuscript.
The last two authors also wish to thank Biol. J. C. Romero
(Director of the Reserva de la Biosphera ‘‘Pantanos de Centla,’’
Estado de Tabasco, Mexico) for permission to collect plant
material. The technical assistance (scanning electron micros-
copy) of U. Jauch (Institute of Plant Biology, University of
Zurich) is gratefully acknowledged. This paper is part of a re-
search project supported by the Swiss National Science Foun-
dation (grant no. 3100AO-105974/1). We dedicate this
publication to Matthias Wolf (
), an inspiring young biologist
and lover of water lilies. He provided the SEM graphs for N. alba
(Fig. 5).
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