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SBFS1103 Thinking Skills and Prob Solving PDF
SBFS1103 Thinking Skills and Prob Solving PDF
THINKING SKILLS
AND PROBLEM
SOLVING
Dr Haresh Kumar Kantilal
Dr Anton Espira
Dr Anton Espira
Self-Assessment 149
References 150
Topic 10 Strategies and Tools for Making the Final Decision 187
" 10.1 Approaches to Decision Making 188
10.2 Decision Making Strategies 189
10.3 Group Decision Making: Methods 190
10.4 Decision Making Tools 191
10.4.1 Grid Analysis: Making a Choice Whereby
Many Factors Must be Considered 192
10.4.2 Decision Tree Analysis: Choosing Among
Options by Projecting Likely Outcomes 193
10.4.3 PMI: Weighing the Pros and Cons of a Decision 194
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COURSE GUIDE
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INTRODUCTION
SBFS1103 Thinking Skills and Problem Solving is one of the courses offered by
Faculty of Science and Technology at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth three credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is designed for students taking Bachelor programmes in OUM.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, learners should be able to:
1." Explain the process of problem solving and the different approaches to
problem solving;
2." Describe the major antecedents and research in the science of psychology;
3." Discuss the reasoning process, the acceptability of reasons and evaluate
inferences;
4." Describe the development of problem solving;
5." Explain the theories, models and conceptual framework involved in
problem solving and the stepwise conceptions of problem solving;
6." Explain the thinking process, its importance and its application;
7." Describe critical thinking, creative thinking and lateral thinking processes;
8." Discuss the various strategies employed in problem solving including the
common tools and techniques;
9." Describe decision making, the factors that influence the process and our
ability to make decisions; and
10." Identify decision-making strategies, risk and tools.
COURSE SYPNOPSIS
This course will provide knowledge on thinking skills and problem solving,
focusing mainly on the thinking process, its importance and the phases involved,
the roles and functions of the left and right brain, the characteristics and
applications of both critical thinking and creative thinking, identifying reasoning,
the acceptability of reasons and claims, and evaluating inferences. In addition,
there is focus on problem-solving strategies, common tools and techniques. The
final section of this course covers decision making process and strategies.
Topic 6 discusses the critical thinking process which includes its characteristics,
examples, barriers and importance. It also describes the creative thinking process,
its characteristics and how to apply creativity to problems and issues. The topic
concludes by describing lateral thinking and the crossover between the right and
left brain.
Topic 7 presents both the employment of different strategies on its own and
combination of strategies in problems solving. It also introduces other concepts
such as consideration of analogous problems, specialisation and generalisation
and consideration of extreme cases.
Topic 8 introduces common tools and techniques used in the process of problem
solving.
Topic 9 introduces the decision making process and describes different kinds of
decisions and the various factors that affect decision making. It introduces the
Four Quadrants of the Brain Theory and explains how this relates to our ability
to make decisions. The topic includes the Evidence-Driven Decision-Making
Cycle and the effects of quantity on decision making. The topic concludes by
describing decision streams, decision quality and risking.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
There are no pre-requisites for this course. Students are required to understand
this course guide well before starting with the topics in this module.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Adair, J. (2010). Decision making and problem solving strategies: Learn key
problem solving strategies; Sharpen your creative thinking strategies; Make
effective decisions (2nd ed.). London, UK: Kogan Page.
Bedell, J. R., & Lennox, S. S. (1997). Handbook for communication and problem-
solving skills training: A cognitive-behavioural approach (1st ed). New York:
John Wiley.
De Bono, E. (2005). Thinking course. (Revised ed.). Barnes & Noble Books.
Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional
and personal life. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Harrison, A. F., & Bramson, R. M. (2002). The art of thinking. New York, NY: The
Berkley Publishing Group (Paperback).
Meador, K. S. (1997). Creative thinking and problem solving for young learners.
Englewood, CO: Teacher Ideas Press.
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (2005). Critical thinking (8th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Paul, R., & Linda, E. (2002). Critical thinking. Pearson Education Inc.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
Regardless of what we do for a living or where we are, we spend most of our
waking hours constantly trying to solve problems. For many students, problem
solving is a procedure they carry out on a task assigned by a teacher. They view
the problem as something to be completed within a set time so as to avoid
punitive consequences. Unfortunately, in their daily lives, students, and people
in general, have a tendency to overanalyse every action or event deemed
problematic. The problems we face can be small or complex, but they need to be
solved in a constructive manner. Hence, problem solving is an important skill.
Whether we arrive at an effective solution or not depends on how we confront
the problem (Figure 1.1).
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
2 X TOPIC 1 PROBLEM SOLVING
"
Figure 1.1: How we view a problem is the key to determining its outcome
Source: http://beautybrainsnbeyond.blogspot.com/2010/05/thought-of- day_20.html
Figure 1.2: A negative approach to a problem: "If the problem is too big, just blame it on
someone else!"
ACTIVITY 1.1
"There is so far no limit to the rise in food and oil prices, a situation that
is leading many consumers and producers to a point where they are
carrying an unbearable burden." (The Star, 23 June 2008)
Identify one consumer-related problem that can result from the situation
reported above. Can you approach this problem as an opportunity?
Explain your answer.
Problem analysis involves identifying all Problem analysis involves looking for
the possible causes before looking for a information which will help to
solution. suggest a range of possible ways to
solve the problem.
Step Description
Planning and preparing to Involves the conclusion of all efforts and thorough
implement the solution. planning that describes the sequence of actions
needed to fulfil the objective, timescale and
resources required at each stage.
In all the four stages discussed, we need to use our reasoning and thinking
skills. These will be discussed in later topics.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Figure 1.4: Set yourself realistic goals; do not try to solve all problems and do not let
others set goals for you that you know you cannot meet
Robert Harris (1998), in the following excerpt, gives a very good example to
illustrate the need for a goal to identify whether a problem exists:
Let's say you have just brought a pizza home from the pizza parlour and
it is beginning to cool. If your ideal state is to eat very hot pizza, then you
have a problem – you may define it as how to keep the pizza from
cooling, how to heat it back up or how to eat it quickly. On the other
hand, if you like moderately warm pizza, then you do not have a
problem. Similarly, if your friend comes over an hour later and you offer
him a piece of leftover pizza only to discover that your oven is on the
blink, you have a problem: how to heat up the pizza. But if your friend
says, "I really like cold pizza better than hot", you do not have a problem.
Source: http://www.virtualsalt.com/crebook3.htm
Your goals must be achievable within the boundaries of your capabilities and the
tools you possess. Take time to think about your goals and plan your strategy.
Remember, failing to plan is planning to fail.
Goals are never static. Your priorities will change over time, and so will your
goals. The changes may involve a major rethinking of your lifeÊs purpose, or they
may be small refinements to your holiday budget. Whatever the changes may be,
it is essential that you keep your problems and solutions in tandem with your
goals.
Whenever we are faced with a problem, an effective solution to the problem can
be developed using the six steps, as shown in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: The six steps in problem solving and decision making
These steps can each be broken down into smaller steps to better enable you to
carry out the problem-solving process. We will look further into each step in the
following subsections.
Obviously, the nature of the problem will determine how much time is spent on
problem exploration. Simple problems may not need extensive exploration while
complex problems may require extensive exploration. Compare, for example, the
amount of exploration needed to determine why a little bulb is not working in
your house and why a car is not working properly. Problem exploration may
involve some steps which include:
(ii)" What are the assumptions made about the problem? Under what
circumstances would a solution work?
•" This step involves the conscious listing of all assumptions that can
be identified. The listing must be impartial, without prejudice or
judgement.
•" It is important to list the obvious assumptions because often it is
those that later turn out to be alterable.
•" Many assumptions are necessary while some are not.
•" Discussion may help you find a solution from someone else who
has encountered a similar problem or has a different perspective.
•" Generally, when discussing a problem or idea, listen to yourself as
well as to others you talk to.
•" What factors contribute to the cause of the problem and cause it to
continue being a problem?
•" By understanding the contributing or perpetuating factors, you
will be able to take steps to prevent a problem from recurring.
ACTIVITY 1.2
(ii)" We may reduce our expectation for practical reasons like the
constraints discussed above but we need not do this until we have
envisioned the ideal scenario.
(iii)" Sometimes the ideal scenario, after discussion and analysis, may seem
more achievable than previously thought.
In general, RCA works on the principle that systems and events are interrelated.
According to this technique, a symptom can be traced back right to the initial
action that had actually triggered the cascade of events leading to the current
problem. The three basics types of causes that are usually looked at include:
(a)" Physical causes – tangible, material items that failed in certain ways.
(b)" Human causes – a mistake committed by an individual, or a certain task
that was not carried out accordingly by an individual.
(c)" Organisational causes – a faulty system, process, or policy that people
employ to make decisions.
occurrence of the main problem. The most important fact is that one should
always look for as many causal factors as possible.
(d)" Identification of the root cause(s) – this step is carried out to find out the
reason behind the existence of the causal factor and the occurrence of the
problem.
(e)" Recommendation and implementation of solutions – in this final step, you
are supposed to come up with ideas to prevent the problem from occurring
again, planning the implementation of a solution by the assigned
individuals, and identifying the risks that may arise with the
implementation of the chosen solution.
You are encouraged to plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution in order
for potential failures to be spotted even before they occur using tools such as
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Impact Analysis and Kaizen.
1.6 CONSTRAINTS
According to Dörner & Wearing (1995) and Funke (1991) some of the constraints
faced in solving difficult problems include:
•" Lack of clarity of the situation – in this case, one may face difficulty in either
initiating or continuing in the problem solving.
•" Polytely – this involves complex problem-solving characterised by the
presence of several goals or endings.
•" Complexity – problems with a large number of items, interrelations and
decisions.
•" Dynamics – problems that cannot be solved due the insufficient time frame
provided. In certain cases, the exact time required to solve the problem is
unpredictable.
Finally, we will explore the term solution again and relook at planning of the
solution.
with such problems, our main task is to make them less disruptive to the process
of reaching our goals. For this purpose, Harris, R. (1998) defines „solution‰ as the
management of a problem that successfully meets the goals established for
treating that problem. Harris goes on to clarify that "sometimes the goal will be to
eliminate the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only to treat the effects
of the problem. As such, it is vital to realise that your goal as a problem solver
will be shaped by various factors that include your ambitiousness, resources,
values and expectations, as well as the possibilities inherent in the problem itself.
Harris conveniently calls these the „stop it‰ and the „mop it‰ approaches
respectively. Each of these approaches has three basic forms.
The best approach is, of course, the stop-it approach. However, this is not always
possible in all cases, and it may be that the only solution to a problem at hand is
the mop-it one. Nevertheless, an effective problem-solver will always consider
stop-it solutions before exploring mop-it alternatives. It is also important that
problems be solved by treating the root (or underlying) causes rather than merely
addressing the symptoms.
This works best where a team is concerned. Every team member should
contribute one or more suggestions in order for all ideas to be taken into account.
This is important because when all viewpoints are thoroughly considered by the
team, members have a sense of direct ownership in the decision making process.
Eventually, this can assist the team in coming up with a consensus later in the
decision making process.
„External locus of control‰ refers to a person who believes that his problems are
caused and determined by external stimulus, which are beyond their own
personal control and hence there is nothing he or she can do to change a
situation. This mindset can be unhealthy in the context of positive thinking.
We should not succumb to defeat with the belief that forces outside of ourselves
affect our ability to succeed.
•" A problem exists when there is a mismatch between what actually happens
with what we want or expect to have happened.
•" A problem can be defined as an opportunity for improvement.
•" Two basic approaches to solving problems can be tackling it at the source, or
tackling its symptoms or effects.
•" It is important to plan the solution for the problem before proceeding to the
actual process of solving it.
"
Closed-ended problems Root Cause Analysis (RCA)
External Locus of Control "Stop It" Approach
"Mop It" Approach SWOT Analysis
Open-ended problems Thinking out of the box
Problem-solving cycle
7." What are the three types of causes that are usually looked at in the Root
Cause Analysis (RCA) technique?
10." Describe briefly how to use the SWOT Analysis approach in solution
planning.
Adair, J. (2010). Decision making and problem solving strategies: Learn key
problem solving strategies; Sharpen your creative thinking strategies; Make
effective decisions (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.
Bedell, J. R., & Lennox, S. S. (1997). Handbook for communication and problem
solving skills training: A cognitive-behavioural approach (1st ed.). Canada:
John Wiley and Sons.
X" INTRODUCTION
Mental representations and mental computations are the two main issues that
characterise modern psychology. Most individuals feel that thinking is solely
related to something internal or cognitive rather than behavioural. In other
words, thinking is something that takes place almost invisibly and, therefore, we
have no direct observational access to it. Thoughts about thinking date back to
early philosophers like Aristotle. We will discover some of the modern theories
about thinking in this topic. And we will explore a little further on the research
about the thinking process related to problem solving and reasoning later.
ACTIVITY 2.1
2.1.1 Associationism
Associationism, the first movement within science and philosophy to describe in
a formal sense the problems of representation and computation that extends as
far back to Aristotle, states that the world is represented within ourselves, and
our behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas. According to
John Locke (Figure 2.1), an English philosopher who characterised psychology as
the study of mental life, exerts that the mind represents the world as a network of
ideas, interrelated to another through experiences. An idea can be defined as the
irreducible representational unit of human thought that represents meaning,
knowledge and abstraction. Whatever the human mind can comprehend is
represented by a set of complex ideas that is analysable into its component
elemental ideas. Locke went on by insisting that ideas are not inborn or innate,
but rather developed from experiences (Boring, 1950). Locke, states that the
human mind without experience is like a blank slate; thus experience both
engraves its message on this slate and leaves behind signs of itself which
translates into ideas.
Complex ideas are the result of the binding and association of simple ideas. The
level of complexity and connectedness among ideas develop from childhood into
adulthood through experiences. The two experimental sources of simple ideas
are our senses that notice changes in our surroundings and the mind itself,
through reflection upon its own activity. Hence, the mind is able of being
conscious of its own matter and processes; a phenomenon known as
introspection. Due to the fact that the mind is fundamentally independent of
obvious behaviour, an individualÊs capability to explain it seems to be the only
way its activity can be known. This again assumes a certain degree of awareness
of mental representation and/or computation.
The principles that ruled the association of ideas and have stood the test of time
and data include:
(i)" Contiguity: Two ideas that happen together in time or in space are likely to
be associated or linked;
(ii)" Similarity: The higher the degree of similarity between two ideas, the
greater their probability of being associated; and
(iii)" Repetition: The more frequent two ideas come about together, the greater
their strength of association.
Subsequently, British philosophers, James Mill and his son John Stuart Mill,
differentiated between sensations and ideas as basic classes of elements in the
mind. According to them, sensations are the primary elements of consciousness
from which ideas, which are pure abstractions, are drawn from. They developed
the criteria of strength which included:
(i)" Permanence: The more persistent an association as time passes by, the
greater its initial strength;
(ii)" Certainty: The more confident the individual of an association, the greater
the strength; and
(iii)" Facility: The greater the speed and effortlessness with which an association
comes by, the greater its strength.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
ACTIVITY 2.2
2.2.2 Functionalism
Functionalism mainly focused on consciousness and Elementism, and was led by
William James and John Dewey. JamesÊs principles were the foundation of
Functionalism, however, they were enhanced by the insights and observations of
Dewey and others.
(ii)" Location and definition of the problem and the isolation of its relevant
features;
(iii)" Formulation of possible alternative solutions;
(iv)" Thinking over or reasoning through the various possibilities to
determine the most likely candidate solution; and
(v)" Testing the selected solution possibilities.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
1." Define the term „pragmatism‰. In what way was William James a
pragmatist?
40" You are having tough time thinking about your current job due to
the heavy workload and the difficult attitude of your boss. Explain
how you would apply DeweyÊs theory of thinking in handling the
above scenario."
2.2.4 Behaviourism
The system introduced by Watson (1924), called Behaviourism, placed behaviour
or performance as the focus of attention; making it the fundamental element in
psychology. According to behaviourists, it is of no use trying to understand the
inaccessible and possibly non-existing consciousness when the real data of
psychology are open, observable and available to direct measurement. The Law
of Effect: Pain avoidance vs. Pleasure theory was formalised by Edward L.
Thorndike (Figure 2.2) who suggested that behaviour, which results in pleasing
outcomes, tends to be repeated; while behaviour that leads to distasteful
consequences, does not.
Watson is of the opinion that inferred conscious states and processes are excess
baggage, while knowledge of the regularities of performance is all that a
psychologist really requires to be interested in.
Watson further added that we should eventually find out that much of what is
considered mentalistic is in reality unspoken or miniaturised motor activity,
mainly in the voice mechanism. Words, also known as symbols, are responses
that we have learned to apply to objects and events in the environment.
One can think of these objects or events in terms of their verbal counterparts.
When we „think to ourselves‰ about them, we are basically suppressing the
obvious verbal response of naming to a point where it becomes difficult or
impossible for others to find out. However, with suitable sensitive recording and
measuring equipments, we should find proof of them in tiny laryngeal
movements. Hence, thinking is actually sub-audible speech or what is known as
the motor theory of thinking, which places the emphasis on muscular or
glandular changes rather than on central or ideational changes.
Results carried out by Jacobson (1930) revealed that specific patterns of muscular
activity accompany and correlate with the content of thought process. In
addition, Freeman (1931) reported that elementary mental activities could be
facilitated by inducing an increase in generalised muscular tone in the subject.
This leads to the conclusion that there is a correlation between muscular
(especially vocal) movements and thinking. In other words, it may be that mental
activity is in some sense dependent on certain specific muscular tones.
Nevertheless, the evidence has been inadequate to convince all psychologists that
thought and action are identical or that thought can be represented completely
by patterns of peripheral activity.
(b)" Evaluation
The emphasis of Gestalt psychologists on the fundamental and basic
importance of insight as a principle of learning has got them involved in a
long-standing controversy with individuals who regard learning as a
gradual process. The arrival of Gestalt psychology was during the times
when experimentalism was strongly in the grip of Behaviourism that
pictured the organism as a machine, subject to the many different sources of
external stimulation and responding to them in an indispensible automatic
fashion. Overall, Gestalt theory assisted psychology to attain a more
balanced and practical view of complex human behaviour that would have
been difficult to be described solely on the basis of Behaviourism.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
(a)" Hint: Do the 11 objects that appear as a single unit look alike?
(b)" Hint: Although the panda is not complete, enough is present for
the eye to complete the shape; the viewer's perception completes a
shape.
Heidbreder (1946) explained the idea that concepts can be based on different
kinds of criteria. Nevertheless, none of the concepts she demonstrated was based
on common physical elements; in fact, the categories were based on either
concrete objects (e.g., trees), spatial forms (e.g., anything circular) or numbers
(e.g., five objects). According to HeidbrederÊs research, members of a concept
always had „something in common‰, however, that „something‰ may be
complex and abstract. As for Osgood, coming up with a common symbolic
response to physically different stimuli was essentially different from responding
to common physical elements.
Both Hull (1920) and Heidbreder (1924) had contradicting views on the concept-
learning process. In HullÊs approach, learning was passive where stimulus
elements get conditioned to responses in an automatic fashion. On the other
hand, Heidbreder reported two types of behaviour, namely participant and
spectator behaviour. As for participants, they formulated and actively tested
hypotheses on the basis of the concepts they were learning. In contrast,
The two important conclusions that we can arrive at this points are that:
(i)" Concept learners at times actively pursue their ideas about what a
particular concept might be; and
(ii)" A concept-learning task may be approached in more than one method.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Thorndike observed that over repeated trials, the catsÊ behaviour gradually
changed, and after many trials the animals would make relatively direct efforts to
activate the door-opening mechanism. He observed in this behavioural pattern,
no proof of the cat „seeing through‰ the problem. In fact, problem solving was
regarded as a process in which unsuccessful responses were gradually
eliminated and successful responses „stamped in‰. An important characteristic of
the puzzle-box problems was that the solution mechanism was concealed and the
critical elements of the situation were not readily available for inspection.
Woodworth and Schlosberg (1954) stated clearly that trial and error can at times
be necessary, as a strategy of exploring the environment and obtaining
information necessary. In addition, even hypothesis testing could be regarded as
a form of trial and error.
2.4.2 Insight
Thorndike concluded that no perception of critical relations was involved. On the
other hand, Yerkes (1916) reported a sudden shift from trial and error to solution
in chimpanzees, who exhibited good retention of solutions and some transfer to
new situations. Kohler (1925; 1976) realised that when presented with a problem,
the apes tried several different methods such as stretching, jumping, reaching out
for or even bashing any objects that were handy enough. After a certain amount
of time, these chimpanzees would go into a period of calmness, perhaps thinking
thoroughly on its mission. Eventually, with a sudden and planned movement,
the ape would utilise the critical object(s) to obtain the particular fruit
(Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: KohlerÊs most well-known work on chimp cognition was in the use of tools to
gain access to food
Source: http://wkprc.eva.mpg.de/english/files/wolfgang_koehler.htm
Kohler indicated that there was a significant variation in the time required to
arrive at a solution where some animals solved the task in less than 15 minutes
while some required hours before being able to find a solution. Furthermore,
Kohler also observed that the positioning of the objective and the implement in
the animalÊs visual field was vital. The positioning of the fruit and the critical
implement at opposite ends of the cage drastically reduced the attainment of the
solution due to the fact that the animal was not able to look at both these objects
simultaneously. Hence, the effect of visual separation was particularly crucial on
the first exposure to a problem situation, a finding that is in harmony with the
notion that solving a problem involves a change in perception of the situation.
other words, the structure of the problem situation was maintained to affect the
direction that would be followed. Maier (1940) differentiated between habitual
directions and new directions as summarised in Table 2.1.
Are overcome when problem solving Are created when problem solving
requires doing something new. requires doing something new.
Figure 2.6: Classic candle box experiment that illustrates functional fixedness
He found that the most of the subjects either tried to nail the candle directly to
the wall or to glue it onto the wall by melting it. In fact, very few of them came
up with the idea of using the inside of the nail box as a candle-holder and nailing
this to the wall. In DunckerÊs terms the participants were „fixated‰ on the boxÊs
usual function of holding nails and could not re-conceptualise it in an approach
that allowed them to solve the problem.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Imagine that you have three jars, A, B and C. For each of the seven
problems below, the capacity of the three jars is listed. You must use
these jars in order to obtain the amount of liquid specified in the Goal
column. You may obtain the goal amount by adding or subtracting the
quantities listed in A, B and C.
Problem A B C Goal
1 24 130 3 100
2 9 44 7 21
3 21 58 4 29
4 12 160 25 98
5 19 75 5 46
6 23 49 3 20
7 18 48 4 22
Premise 1: All X is N.
Premies 2: Some N is Y.
Conclusion: Some X is Y.
The conclusion above is invalid as the conclusion does not logically follow the
premises presented. Studies have shown that people frequently accepted
conclusions that are invalid.
Woodworth and Sells (1935) suggested that the atmosphere created by the
premises was a vital determinant of these errors. Generally, the atmosphere
indicated the modifiers found in premises (all, some, no) with the view that
negative premises created a negative atmosphere and so on. It is believed one
negative premise is able to determine the atmosphere, and hence conclude the
type of invalid conclusion individuals would accept. In addition, Sells (1936)
found that invalid conclusions were frequently accepted if supported by the
atmosphere.
Premise 1: Amar knows that one needs winter clothing in cold weather.
Premise 2: It is very cold in London during winter.
Conclusion: Amar needs winter clothing in London.
In contrast, the process where simple observations of a particular type are made
and applied through generalisation to a totally different problem in order to
make a decision is called inductive reasoning. A good example of inductive
reasoning is given below:
Premise: All grasshoppers seen by Eric and his wife are green.
Conclusion: Therefore, they reason that all grasshoppers on earth are green.
Figure 2.7 shows the relationship between deductive and inductive reasoning
whereas Table 2.2 exhibits the differences between both types of reasoning.
"
Figure 2.7: Relationship between deductive and inductive reasoning
Conclusion Conclusion is more special than Conclusion is more general than the
the information the premises information the premises provide. It
provide. It is reached directly by is reached by generalising the
applying logical rules to the premisesÊ information.
premises.
Validity If the premises are true, than the If the premises are true, than the
conclusion must be true. conclusion is probably true.
Usage More difficult to use. One needs Used often in everyday life.
facts that are definitely true. Evidence is used instead of proven
facts.
SELF-CHECK 2.5
1." Adam: I've noticed previously that every time I kick a ball up, it
comes back down, so I guess this next time when I kick it up, it
will come back down, too.
•" Associationism states that the world is represented within ourselves and our
behaviour is guided by associations formed among these ideas.
•" William James described the human mind as an array of functions, and
consciousness as a dynamic stream of inter-reacting events.
•" Learning and problem solving are gradual processes based on the increasing
strength of the connection between the stimulus situation and certain
response possibilities.
•" Trial and error is linked with the view that obtaining a solution is a gradual,
undirected process that does not involve perception or comprehension of the
problem requirements or structure.
•" Functional fixedness refers to the fact that an object with a strong expected
function cannot be observed as playing a different role.
•" Inductive reasoning is the process where a simple observation is made and
applied through generalisation to a totally different problem to make a
decision.
•" Transition to the new cognitive era included concepts such as hypothesis,
strategy, heuristics, encoding, and retrieval, and was greatly affected by the
emergence of computer technology.
"
Associationism Elementism
Atmosphere effect Functional fixedness
Behaviourism Functionalism
Common elements Gestalt psychology
Content effects Inductive reasoning
Consciousness Successive scanning
Conservative focusing Syllogism
Deductive reasoning Trial and error
1." State the two main problems that characterise modern psychology.
2." Describe the principles that ruled the association of ideas and have stood
the test of time and data.
3." State the four stages of analysis of thoughts as introduced by Graham
Wallas.
4." Briefly explain „Behaviourism‰ as introduced by John B.Watson.
5." What do you understand by the term „Gestalt Psychology‰?
6." Define common-element concept.
7." Compare and contrast between „conservative focusing‰ and „successive
scanning‰.
8." State the three major differences between habitual directions and new
directions.
9." What are the benefits of good transfer to appropriate new situations in
problem solving?
10." Briefly describe the „atmosphere effect‰.
Dellarosa, D. (1988). A history of thinking. In Sternberg, R. J., & Smith, E.E. (Eds),
The psychology of human thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Newell, A., Shaw, J. C., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Elements of a theory of human
problem solving. Psychological Review, 65, 151-16.
Yerkes, R. M. (1916). The mental life of monkeys and apes, a study of ideational
behavior. Behavior Monographs, No. 12.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Determine if reasoning is present in an argument;
2." Identify words used in the language of reasoning;
3." Use the Thinking Map to analyse and evaluate arguments;
4." Apply tests to evaluate the validity and acceptability of claims; and
5." Identify assumptions and evaluate inferences in an argument.
X" INTRODUCTION
Many a time we face situations where someone tries to convince us of a
viewpoint in the hope that we would accept it. This is often known as "arguing a
case" or "presenting an argument". Sometimes, the reasoning is simple to
understand but at other times it can be rather difficult. Likewise, when we
present a case, at certain times it can be easy for the other person to understand it
and at other times it can be difficult. We will explain the method to identify what
reasoning is being presented when someone is arguing a case and how to present
reasoning in a clear manner ourselves.
There are basic critical thinking skills we must practise if we want to excel at
critical thinking in real circumstances. You cannot assess a case presented in
support of some belief or decision unless you are very clear on what the case is.
While language has an important role in conveying such information for the
purpose of this discourse, however, we are interested in how language is used in
reasoning. Reasoning is the process of making inferences from the information
given.
The following passages are provided to see if you can tell which contain
reasoning and which do not.
Scenario 1
James burst out of Customs, diamonds and expensive watches falling from his
bag as he ran. As he reached the taxi stand, customers were sitting in all of the
waiting taxis. James ran towards the nearest taxi and leaped into it as it was
beginning to move. He pointed a gun at the driver and said, „Downtown!‰ The
taxi turned towards the motorway. (Morton, 1988)
The above passage is simply a descriptive passage, and it does not provide
reasons for a conclusion, although we naturally make several inferences as we
read it.
Scenario 2
Scenario 2 provides reasons for the conclusion that certain problems can only be
addressed by international action.
Scenario 3
The 19th century English theologian and biologist Gosse (1810 – 1888) (Figure
3.1) had a problem. He was a devout Christian who accepted the Creation story
as set out in the Bible, but he was also a practising scientist. He was well aware
that the geological and fossil studies by other scientists seemed to show that the
Earth was very old, perhaps millions of years old. How could he resolve this
conflict?
Scenario 3 does not provide reasons for a conclusion. It only describes a possible
„solution‰ to a problem but there is no reasoning.
Thus, it is evident that at certain times, we use language to describe some state of
affairs, and at other times, we use it to reason and arrive at a conclusion. There
are also times when we use language to ridicule, insult or offend. Most articles in
newspapers report events but the leading articles and letters to the editor will
often contain reasoning in support of a conclusion. As for novels, they rarely
contain much reasoning. Textbooks, on the other hand, often seek both to pass on
information and to present the authorsÊ arguments. Finally, parliamentary
debates many a time contain reasoning as well as verbal abuse.
"That test was unfair. I studied for days, reading the material four times,
underlining important details and then studying them. After doing all
these I should obtain a good grade. That test was unfair."
From this note, it is clear that Peter argues that "the test was unfair" and this is
basically his conclusion. Notice that the conclusion in this example has been
provided at the beginning of a piece of reasoning and it comes again at the end of
the note, perhaps to strongly stress the complaint. You may also think that
PeterÊs conclusion is that the teacher should look again at the test or at Peter's
answers, or that Peter's answers should be regarded favourably by the teacher or
by any other teacher competent in this field. The main allegation is that
something should be done to rectify a mistake, and in this situation, it goes
beyond what is actually said. Thus, you might say that this is his conclusion. At
times, people do not express, or do not completely express, their conclusions.
Peter provided several reasons for his conclusion when he said, "I studied for
days, reading the material four times, underlining important details and then
studying them." These are his reasons for coming up with the conclusion that the
test was unfair.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
2." We need to make rail travel more attractive to travellers. There are
so many cars on the road that the environment and human safety
are under threat. Rail travel should be made cheaper. Everyone
wants the roads to be less crowded but they still want the
convenience of being able to travel by road themselves. People will
not abandon the car in favour of the train without some new
incentive.
(a)" What is the conclusion of the argument?
(b)" What is the author trying to persuade us of?
(c)" What reasons are given in support of the conclusion?
(d)" Is anything assumed (that is, implicit but not actually stated)?
However, it is not necessary that the utilisation of such phrases always indicate
the occurrence of a conclusion to an argument, just that it often does and that,
taken in concurrence with the context, such language often provides you with an
important clue about the structure of the reasoning. These phrases are commonly
called "conclusion indicators" because they signal the presence of a conclusion,
for which reasons have been presented.
In addition, there are also words or phrases that are commonly utilised to signal
the presence of reasons, and are usually known as "reason indicators". Among
the common reason indicators used are:
•" because •" the reasons are
•" since •" firstly
•" for •" secondly
•" follows from the fact that
SELF-CHECK 3.2
1." In the following examples, identify which words and phrases are
"argument indicators". Also, identify the sentences that indicate
reasons and its corresponding conclusions:
The butler was in the pantry. In that case, he couldn't have shot
the master, who was in his study. Hence, the butler couldn't
have done it.
2." In the passage below, state which of the words marked in bold are
reason indicators and which are conclusion indicators, and then
state which sentences are reasons and which are conclusions.
Finally, state the reasons you think are presented by the author in
support of the corresponding conclusions.
The key to effective critical thinking is asking the right questions. We now
present a basic model or "thinking map" – a tool that can help us evaluate
reasoning as seen in Table 3.1. Basically, the thinking map is a list of key
questions you should ask when analysing an argument – be it your own or
someone else's.
Analysis
1. What is/are the main conclusion(s)?
(May be stated or unstated; may be in the forms of recommendations, or explanations
and so on. The presence of conclusion indicator words such as "therefore" may help.)
[Aim: It helps in organising your thinking about a piece of reasoning if you know
what the author is trying to persuade and/or convince you of]
2. What are the reasons (data, evidence, etc) and their structure?
3. What is assumed (that is, implicit or taken for granted, perhaps in the context)?
4. Clarify the meaning (by the terms, claims or arguments) which needs it.
Evaluation
5. Are the reasons acceptable to you?
(These include explicit reasons and unstated assumptions – these may also involve
evaluating factual claims, definitions and value judgments and judging the
credibility of the source.)
(a) Does the reasoning support its conclusion(s)?
(For example, is the supporting argument strong as "beyond reasonable doubt"
or weak)?
(b) Are there other relevant considerations/arguments which strengthen or
weaken the case?
(You may already know these or may have to construct them)
[Aim: Also called critico-creative thinking, which requires us to consider any other
relevant ideas we know or can think up which will help us to arrive at a good
judgment for the case in hand].
6. What is your overall evaluation based on what you have obtained above?
The first set of questions is based on analysis. You cannot respond reasonably to
an argument without understanding it. Thus, the above given analytical
questions help you to understand what is being stated and argued. This is
followed by the evaluative questions, which will assist you in deciding whether
or not you should be convinced of the argument.
The Thinking Map should be used not only when you are considering other
peopleÊs reasoning but also when you are constructing your own. If you have a
good case, you should be able to organise it so that your readers or listeners will
be able to clearly understand what you are trying to state in terms of how you
carry it out. It helps to use the "language of reasoning" in order to make your
conclusion and reasoning clear and unambiguous.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Three times RM9 is RM27. The waiter took RM2. This adds up to
RM29. What happened to the remaining RM1?
2." For the following passages, use the thinking map to help you
analyse the argument (noting any important assumptions) and
write a brief evaluative response:
Big art exhibitions, which collect paintings from all over the
world, are bad for the paintings. Whenever they are transported,
there is a danger of accidents and resultant damage or
destruction, and it cannot be good to subject paintings to the
changes of pressure and humidity that even carefully controlled
travel is likely to bring.
To set the context for our present work, let us look at an example, and use it to
explain the questions to be asked, and how they work:
First, we have to decide whether it is true that "most prospective parents would
prefer to have sons." Based on general knowledge, this claim may be true in some
societies and cultures across the world, for instance in India and China, but it
may be untrue in others. To find out, we need to carry out our research or look
for survey information on this matter to ascertain this statement.
The question that follows is: "Does this reasoning support its conclusion?" If it is
true that "most prospective parents would prefer to have sons," then does it not
follow that if people can choose the sex of their child, it is likely that there will
eventually be more males than females in the population? If people prefer boys
and can get boys, does it not seem very likely that more boys than girls will be
born? It is definitely hard to see anything wrong with that inference of
correlation.
The next reason is, "This could produce serious social problems," and the
question is whether this claim is acceptable or not. It is not very easy to judge this
reason because it actually depends on whether there is a small or big surplus of
boys in society. Following this, the next question is, "Do the preceding claims
support the conclusion that we should prohibit the use of techniques which
enable people to choose the sex of their children?" Well, if allowing these
techniques to be used does produce a surplus of boys, which will in turn produce
serious social problems, maybe we should ban them.
However, there is another question that we should ask: "Are there other relevant
considerations or arguments in regards to this statement?" This is the point when
thinking about an issue requires us to be critical, creative and to think out-of-the-
box to arrive at the acceptance of an argument or claim.
To summarise the above, once you are reasonably clear about what an author is
saying and what his reasons and conclusions are, you are in a position to
evaluate the reasoning.
ACTIVITY 3.1
(v)" How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs and opinions?
Sometimes, the reason you are reflecting upon "fits well" with other beliefs
you have and sometimes it does not.
SELF-CHECK 3.4
The huge Norwegian company called Norsk Hydro wants to grow more
fish in the sea by spreading fertilisers over the ocean. The company,
which is the worldÊs biggest producer of fertilisers, believes that this will
grow more marine algae, which in turn will encourage the expansion of
fish stocks. Marine scientists from Sweden and Canada who reviewed
the plan at the request of the Norwegian Research Council say it is
unlikely to work. They say it ignores basic principles of marine ecology
and could do irreversible damage.
In this section, we will go through the criteria required to judge the credibility of
sources of claims. Among the criteria that we should pay close attention to are:
(i)" The sourceÊs reputation for reliability;
(ii)" Whether the source has a vested interest;
(iii)" Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from independent
sources;
(iv)" Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
(v)" The nature of the claim itself; and
(vi)" Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make.
To check the credibility of sources of claims, let us look into each question in
Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Five Criteria Required to Judge the Credibility of Sources of Claims
In summary, we can categorise the above mentioned criteria into five sections
which contain questions pertaining to the:
(i)" Person/source whose credibility we intend to judge;
(ii)" Circumstances/contexts in which the claim is made that affect its
credibility;
(iii)" Justification the source offers or can offer in support of the claim which
affects its credibility;
(iv)" Nature of the claim which influences its credibility; and
(v)" Whether there is corroboration/validation from other sources.
SELF-CHECK 3.5
You are listening to a court case in which Jason, who collided with
another car, is accused of driving at twice the speed limit in the city and
with three times the legal limit of alcohol in his blood. Jason denies the
charges but the doctor who attended to him tells the court that Jason
smelled very strongly of alcohol and blood tests showed alcohol in his
blood at three times the legal limit. Who is credible and why?"
ACTIVITY 3.2
In the above example, the inference is the move from "some people have solved
their own unemployment problem" to "all the unemployed could do the same."
However, reasons and inferences have to be evaluated rather differently. In most
circumstances, it is important to judge whether the reasons provided in some
argument are true or otherwise acceptable. On the other hand, to judge whether
the inference based upon those reasons are justified or not is a totally different
thing.
Women's brains are on average smaller than men's, therefore women are
less intelligent than men.
Most people, when asked, say that they are unsure of why the brains of women
are smaller than those of men but they are very sure that the conclusion
presented is not true. Although the reason is true, there is no connection between
brain size and intelligence, so the reason does not support the conclusion.
The first response points to the fact that we expect to be able to see some
reasonably established connection between reason and conclusion if one is to
justify the other – a link we can perceive and accept in the light of everything else
we believe.
The second says that if the reason is true but there are reasons for thinking the
conclusion could be false, it cannot be a good inference. However, since the
second response has received more support in the history of thinking about
inferences, that is the one we will choose here. Thus, the fundamental idea is that
the reason(s) do not make you accept the conclusion, and if you can think of
other ways in which the reasons can be proven to be true and the conclusion false
concurrently, then the inference is false. The test to apply when judging an
inference is:
Could the reason(s) be true (or otherwise acceptable) and the conclusion
false (or otherwise unacceptable) at the same time?
If the answer to the above question is "No," then the inference, which is the
progress from reasons to conclusion, is a brilliant idea and forces you accept the
conclusion if the reasons are true. On the other hand, if the answer is "Yes," then
the inference fails, or is not justified.
In the example above, we face a situation where the reason is true but the
inference from reason to conclusion is unjustified. In other words, the inference is
unjustified because the reason could be true and the conclusion untrue at the
same time. Thus, it is clear that the attempt to decide whether an inference is
justified is very different from the tests you should apply when trying to decide
whether reasons are accepted.
If you have memorised the key points of this book, you will do well in the
critical thinking examination, and you have memorised them so you will
do well in the exam.
In the above example, the reasons are true, thus, the conclusion must also be true,
and this makes it a good inference. However, the reason which says that you
only have to memorise the facts in order to do well in the examination is
definitely false. Thus, this argument fails to justify its conclusion not because it
makes a poor inference, but due to the fact that at least one of the reasons on
which it is based is not true.
SELF-CHECK 3.6
Apply the test we have just explained to decide whether the inferences
you identified in the passages given below are justified.
(a)" The job of a driving instructor is challenging and rewarding. One
has great freedom in working for oneself and it is unnecessary to
have passed any "A" levels. Therefore, a suitable job for anyone
without "A" levels is that of a driving instructor.
*d+" If the world's climate is getting warmer, we would find that some
of the ice at both the North and South Pole would melt at an
unusually high rate. If the ice is melting, we would see its effect in
raising the level of the sea. There is evidence that this level is
increasing, so the world's climate must be getting warmer."
Next, we would like to introduce the "deductively valid" concept, the highest
standard of all for judging inference. Can you think of any way the reason(s)
could be true and the conclusion false? If the answer to that question is "No,"
then the inference is deductively valid, and if the answer is "Yes," then the
inference is not deductively valid.
SELF-CHECK 3.7
Anyone who reads the above passage would quickly assume that if a
"challenging and rewarding occupation with freedom to work for yourself"
appeals to you, then to be a driving instructor you require little more than to
"have no A levels." This is called an implicit (hidden or unspoken) assumption.
The inference made here is rather weak because the reasons could be true but the
conclusion false, judging by any reasonable standard. Many a time, it is not so
easy to tell what is being assumed and in these circumstances, we proceed to
elicit assumptions or assumptions that are drawn out, especially when the
quality of the inference is important. Thus, the general strategy is that we should
assign to arguments and explanations those assumptions which:
(i)" Seem likely in the context; or
(ii)" Make sense of what is said; or
(iii)" Seem necessary to make the reasoning as strong as possible (if true).
•" The language of reasoning uses various types of words and phrases, known
as „conclusion indicators‰, that indicate a conclusion is being made by the
particular claim.
−" What is the overall evaluation when the analysis of an argument is being
carried out.
•" The six steps involved in judging acceptability of a claim skillfully are:
−" How certain is the claim;
−" Does the context of the claim influence its acceptability;
−" Does the claim require the decision of an expert;
−" Is the claim widely known or believed;
−" How well does the claim fit with our other beliefs; and
−" Is the claim made by a credible source.
•" In judging the credibility of a source skillfully, the main criteria that require
close attention include the sourceÊs reputation for reliability:
−" Whether the source has a vested interest;
−" Whether there is corroboration or validation of the claim from
independent sources;
−" Whether the source has the relevant expertise or training;
−" The nature of the claim itself; and
−" Whether the source can provide credible reasons for the claim they make.
•" When we argue on a certain case, conclusions are inferred from the reasons.
•" For an argument to succeed in justifying its conclusion its reasons must be
true or otherwise acceptable and the inferences which are then drawn from
those reasons must be good ones.
"
Acceptability of claim Inferences
Acceptability of reasons Reasoning
Credibility of sources Thinking map
Deductive validity
1." If the world's climate was getting warmer, we would find that some of the
ice at both the North and South Pole would be melting at an unusually high
rate. If the ice was melting, we would see its effect in the raising of the level
of the sea. There is evidence that this level is increasing, so the world's
climate must be getting warmer. Do you think that this argument contains
an implicit assumption?
Moore, B. N., & Parker, R. (2005). Critical thinking. (8th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
4 of Problem
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"
"
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Solving
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" LEARNING OUTCOMES
" By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
"
" 1." Explain what is meant by strategic development in problem solving;
" 2." Describe representational development in problem solving;
"
3." Explain the use of external representations as tools for problem
"
solving;
"
" 4." Describe the role of language and planning in problem solving;
"
5." Identify the various specialised representations employed in
"
problem solving;
"
" 6." Explain the role of interaction in problem solving;
" 7." Describe the importance of self-monitoring in problem solving; and
"
" 8." Compare and contrast problem-solving abilities between children
" and adolescents.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
Georgie (a two-year old) wants to throw rocks out of the kitchen window. The
lawnmower is outside. Dad says that Georgie canÊt throw rocks out of the
window because he might "break the lawnmower with the rocks. Georgie says
„I've got an idea.‰ He goes outside, brings in some green peaches that he had
been playing with, and says: „They wonÊt break the lawnmower‰.
(Waters, 1989, p. 7)
One of the most promising evidence for representation of goals in the first six
months of life is illustrated in the experiment carried out by Rovee-Collier (1987).
In her experiment (Figure 4.1), infants learned very quickly that the act of kicking
made the mobile (attached to their leg by a string) move in different ways.
Various ways of evaluating the infantsÊ thinking abilities included varying the
characteristics of the mobile as well as the setting in which the mobile was
presented, and the amount of time between the sessions.
problem solving (Papousek & Papousek, 1987). This is in line with the findings of
Rogoff et al. (1992) where infants exhibited strategies to obtain the help of adults
in manipulating objects in ways that would have been impossible for the infants
themselves to do. Infants have the ability to use simple forms of means-end
analysis in the second half of the first year as reported by Wilats (1989).
Inhelder & Piaget (1958) employed the balance scale model as a means of
examining formal operation reasoning (Figure 4.2). One reason for the
widespread interest in balance scales is the simple, hierarchically related
sequence of rules through which children of different ages progress on the task
(Siegler, 1976), summarised in Table 4.2.
"
"
Figure 4.2: The balance scale – the problem shown is a distance problem, with equal
numbers of weights placed at different distances from the fulcrum.
Source: Inhelder & Piaget, 1958
Table 4.2: Rules Employed by Children at Different Ages on the Balancing of the Scale
Rule Description
No rule used The majority of the 3-year-olds do not employ any systematic rule;
they either guess or switch frequently among alternative approaches.
I A few 3-year-olds and more 4-year-olds employ a partially systematic
approach (Richard & Siegler, 1981).
More advanced 4-year-olds and a majority of 5-year-olds employ a
consistently systematic approach (Siegler, 1976).
II Most 8 or 9-year-old children employ more sophisticated rules that
take into account of the weight on each side as well as the distance
from the fulcrum (Siegler, 1976).
III An approach whereby only the distance is considered when the weight
on both the sides is equal.
IV An approach whereby understanding of the relative weight and
distance of both the weights from the fulcrum has been achieved.
"
In 1992, Trudge instructed children to work:
(a)" alone;
(b)" with a partner who initially used a same rule; and
(c)" with a partner who initially used a different rule.
He concluded that:
(a)" In the absence of feedback, pairs of beginners do not usually move to a
more advanced level.
(b)" In the absence of feedback, the only children who make progress are
beginners that are paired with relative experts.
(c)" When one partner is more expert than the other one, the highest rule
achieved is that of the more advanced partner.
(Miller & Brownel, 1975; Mugny & Doise, 1978; Mackie, 1983; Russell et al.,
1990; Radziszewska, 1993).
A majority of the studies involving collaborative problem solving did not furnish
children with feedback on the correct answer. Generally, feedback provides a
basis for choosing among alternative perspectives and also provides an attractive
method for children to adopt an approach without seeming to „give in‰ to the
child or children who generated it. Ellis et al. (1993) worked on the beneficial
effects of collaboration in combination with feedback that stressed on childrenÊs
Thus, students who worked with a partner and received feedback, performed
best. This translates to the fact that feedback may be critical both for the
generation of good ideas and their adoption. Ellis et al. (1993) also reported that
children who worked with a partner who employed the correct rule on both
occasions were expected to adopt the correct rule on their own during the post-
test as compared to those with a partner who used the correct rule only at a later
opportunity (67% versus 15%). This is due to the fact that partners who
employed the correct rules on both instances exhibited higher convincing
arguments for it; whereas children who used the correct rule only during the
later occasion and also debated in favour of it, however appeared less expressive
and convincing in motivating the less expert partner to adopt it. This indicates
that feedback is not compulsory for beginners to adopt a new, superior approach
to solving mathematical problems. In addition, it also points out that either
external evidence of the validity of the better approach (provided by feedback) or
convincing arguments (made by children who employed the correct rule on both
occasions) appear important for good strategies to constantly win out.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Carry out a search in the internet on the ability of infants to employ
simple forms of means-ends analysis in the second half of the first
year. Briefly explain this phenomenon.
life. In addition, improved language ability, both expressive and receptive, also
contributes to the development of problem solving in this particular age group. It
is a rather surprising fact indeed that infants are able to alert their caretakers
regarding the problems they are facing and hope to solve, but the language skills
of toddlers provide them the opportunity to accurately indicate what they want
to achieve and why exactly they are unable to complete it themselves.
As they come closer to completing their first year of life, children show the ability
to walk or crawl to rooms or places that they cannot see at the beginning of their
journey, in order to get hold of toys or things that they are not able to see at the
beginning (Benson et al., 1989). Subsequently, by 18 months, they start taking
steps that help them maintain representations that otherwise may become
inaccessible. Allowing toddlers to remember goal-directed actions modelled by
adults or peers is one part of how increasing representation skills contribute to
development of problem solving (Meltzoff, 1985; Hannah & Meltzoff, 1993).
Furthermore, increasingly specific and durable representations permit toddlers to
take on the path to specific goals within an activity, rather than focusing on the
activity as a whole. It was found that positive affective reactions such as smiles
and abrupt movement of hands and arms to accomplishment of the tasks
increased with age. It appears that part of development of problem solving in the
range of one and three years of age include representing specific goals more
prominently in memory, and following the goals more single-mindedly.
the two spaces and overall size of both spaces had profound effects on the
childrenÊs performance. Thus similarity may affect accessibility whereby the
probability that childrenÊs representation of one space will provide access to their
representation of the other space. Hence, toddlers can use scale models as tools
for solving problems, but have an affinity to confuse the representation as an
object in its own right with its role as symbol of another situation.
"
SELF-CHECK 4.1
"
Figure 4.3: Structural correspondences in the water/heat flow analogy
Adapted from: Gentner, 1989
"
Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations that are
acquired in the first two years of the childÊs life, specialised representations are
acquired much later in life. In addition, the acquisition of specialised
representations has a tendency to be less universal and more variable in timing
than acquisition of the broadly used ones. Speech, mental imagery and spatial
representations observed in all children are the results of the interaction between
biological maturation and general experience. On the other hand, the ability of a
child to learn how to write; to draw maps and diagrams; to understand graphs
and number lines; to use conventional measurement devices; and to perform
controlled scientific experiments are dependent upon the childÊs particular
experiences.
"
Maps are one important specialised and often used representation. The functions
of maps include:
• A method of representing the locations and boundaries of political entities
such as cities, states and nations, or road systems.
• A representation of unperceivable aspects of the universe in perceivable
form.
(Liben & Downs, 1989).
SELF-CHECK 4.2
A group of children were instructed to give two turtles identical
amounts of food. They divided the food by giving one piece to one
turtle, the next piece to the other turtle, and so on. Discuss the strategy
that was employed by the children in fulfilling the objective of the
experiment. As an adult, how will you guide the children in
improvising on the strategy employed?
"
According to Brown et al. (1989), the main difference between school and „real-
world‰ problems is the frequent difficulty in school in identifying what exactly
the problem is. Children often reinterpret problems in ways that make sense to
them rather than solving the problem as originally presented. When children
were presented with a hypothesis that seemed intuitively unlikely, they
circumvented the suggestion that they test the hypothesis and instead produced
a more intuitively likely hypothesis and concentrated on collecting confirmatory
evidence for it. On the other hand, adults tested the hypothesis that was
suggested, regardless of its initial plausibility, and usually discovered that the
seemingly unlikely hypothesis was in actual fact correct. Hence, part of
development of problem solving among older children involves accepting goals
set by the social environment when the task calls for it (Klahr et al., 1993).
"
ACTIVITY 4.2
4.1.3 Self-Regulation
The ability of children in effectively regulating their thinking activities becomes
increasingly central to their problem solving as they attain both increasing
numbers of strategies and representational capacities. One of the key self-
regulatory processes is planning, as it can be employed in many different
circumstances to prevent potentially costly errors. The Tower of Hanoi puzzle
was invented by the French mathematician Edouard Lucas in 1883 where a child
is presented with a tower of five disks, initially stacked in increasing size on one
of three pegs. The main objective is to transfer the entire tower to one of the other
pegs (the rightmost one in Figure 4.4), moving only one disk at a time, never a
larger one onto a smaller and using the minimum number of steps as possible.
Knowing which first move is correct, nevertheless, demands working through
the problem from starting to the end. Hence, solving such a problem in a
continuous manner requires planning the entire sequence of events before
carrying out any of them.
"
Figure 4.4: The Tower of Hanoi
Source: http://www.labspaces.net
Most of the problem solving activities carried out by children in their day-to-day
lives take place with adults, rather than on their own. In these circumstances,
adults frequently plan the activities in such a way that remove the burden of
planning from the children, thus benefiting them. The term used to describe what
has been carried out by an adult to facilitate problem solving among children is
called „scaffolding‰ which involves the utilisation of specific strategies focused at
simultaneously allowing children to participate, maintaining their interest and at
the same time increasing their competence. (Wood et al., 1976). In general, adults
usually carry out the most crucial and difficult part of the tasks such as dividing
the tasks into sub-goals, coming up with the plans for achieving them and
keeping track of the success of different strategies whereas children are allowed
to carry out the parts of the task they can complete successfully (Wertsch, 1978).
As the child exhibits increasing skill on the particular task, the adult slowly lets
go until the child is carrying out the task independently both the actions and the
self-regulatory aspects of the task. Studies carried out have indicated that
scaffolding is both an all-encompassing activity in the daily environment and
that it assists children to learn planning and other self-regulative skills. Adults
frequently provide preschoolers with scaffolded instruction and modify the type
of instruction given according to the competence of the learner (Wertsch et al.,
1980; Rogoff et al., 1984; Gauvain, 1992). Moss (1992) found that parents,
particularly mothers, provide scaffolding where he observed three strategies:
(a)" A mother instructs the child with strategies it would not otherwise know
and not able to actually manage unaided for some time.
(b)" A mother encourages the child to keep using useful strategies that the child
has demonstrated.
(c)" A mother persuades the child to not implement strategies they consider
developmentally immature.
In addition, Conner et al. (1997) found that fathers are as good as mothers at
scaffolding. They also found that children that have received scaffolding show
longer-term improvements in skills as well as immediate improvements.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
When faced with several strategies in solving a problem, children use conscious,
explicit, metacognitive knowledge about problems they are presented, available
strategies and their own cognitive capacities (Flavell& Wellman, 1977).
Generally, strategies that worked in the past are also selected. As children grow
up, they become increasingly skilled at monitoring their plans and adjusting
them according to the circumstances (Gardner & Rogoff, 1990). In contrast,
younger children do not modify their plans according to the different
instructions. However, several researchers have reported the failure of school age
children to plan various tasks such as writing (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987)
route planning (Gauvain & Rogoff, 1989), instructing other children (Ellis &
Rogoff, 1986) and referential communication (Cosgrove & Patterson, 1977).
Planning has both its advantages and disadvantages, as shown Table 4.3.
"
Table 4.3: Advantages and disadvantages of planning in problem solving
Advantages Disadvantages
Making accurate and direct solutions Time consuming and tedious.
possible.
Allows problem to be solved in a Does not directly bring goal attainment.
systematic manner.
"
Interaction with adults is one of the main factors that results in planning among
children. Hudson & Fivush (1991) found that children were more likely to plan
when they worked together with an adult as compared to when they worked on
their own. In addition, the experience of planning with adults also results in
more sophisticated planning when they later solve problems by themselves
(Radziszewska & Rogoff, 1988; Gauvain, 1992). On the other hand, experience
with peers and older children was found to be not as effective as experience with
adults. This may be due to the fact that adults discuss the strategies with the
younger children than peers, reminding them frequently about the goals of the
task and monitoring their progress more closely. Furthermore, adults are more
sensitive in modifying the type of help they provide according to the
requirement of the child. (Rogoff et., 1984; Gauvain, 1992).
Blaye et al. (1991) reported that children working in pairs fared better in solving
problems as compared to peers who worked on their own, and performed better
"
Skilled problem solvers usually practise several self-monitoring activities
including questioning and elaborating their own knowledge, evaluating their
degree of understanding, and thinking of counter-examples and possible
generalisations (Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Reciprocal teaching is a successful
example of this type of involvement and it emphasises four strategic activities
namely summarising, clarifying, questioning and anticipating future questions
(Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Brown & Palincsar, 1989).
"
SELF-CHECK 4.5
1. Discuss the rules employed by children of different ages on the
balancing of the scale.
2. State one benefit of feedback in collaborative problem solving.
3. Identify the factors which contribute to the success of mental
model.
4. State the functions of maps as a specialised representation.
5. What do you understand by the term „scaffolding‰?
6. Identify the advantages and disadvantages of planning in
problem solving.
•" Most of the studies involving collaborative problem solving have not
furnished children with feedback on the correct answers.
•" The progress in problem solving among children after the first year arises
from the improved ability to internally represent goals, actions, objects and
events.
•" The ability to solve problems improves as children become able to express
themselves using language in various circumstances and events.
•" Unlike the language, mental imagery and spatial representations that are
acquired in the first two years of the childrenÊs life, specialised
representations are acquired much later in life.
•" Maps are one important specialised and often used representation.
•" The main difference between school and „real-world‰ problems is the
frequent difficulty in school in identifying what exactly the problem is.
•" In solving their problems, children use conscious, explicit and metacognitive
knowledge about the problem as well as available strategies and their own
cognitive capacities.
•" Effective planning requires the ability to formulate actions in advance, as well
as skill at monitoring and modifying plans; as circumstances and goals
require.
Benson, J. B., Arehart, D.M., Jennings, T., Boley, S., & Kearns, L. (1989). Infant
crawling: Expectations, action-plans and goals. Paper presented at the
biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, Kansas
City, MO.
Berk, L. E., & Garvin, R. A. (1984). Development of private speech among low-
income Appalachian children. Developmental Psychology, 20: 271-286.
Blaye, A., Light, P., Joiner, R., & Sheldon, S. (1991). Collaboration as a facilitator
of planning and problem solving on a computer based task. British Journal of
Developmental Psychology, 9: 471-483.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture
of learning. Educational Researcher, 18:32-42.
Conner, D. B., Knight, D. K., & Cross, D. R. (1997). Mothers and fathers
scaffolding of their two-year-olds during problem-solving and literacy
interactions. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 323-338.
Ellis, S., Klahr, D., & Siegler, R. S. (1993). Effects of feedback and collaboration on
changes in children's use of mathematical rules. Paper presented at the
meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans.
Flavell, J. H. & Wellman, H. (1977). Metamemory. In R.V. Kail & J.W. Hagen
(Eds.), Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition (pp 3-33).
Hilsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Gentner, D., & Stevens, A. L. (Eds.). (1983). Mental models. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Inhelder, B. & Piaget, J. (1958). The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood
to Adolescence. Basic Books, Inc. Publishers. (Trans. by A. Parsons and S.
Milgram).
Klahr, D., Fay, A., & Dunbar, K. (1993). Heuristics for scientific experimentation:
A development study. Cognitive Psychology, 5: 111-146.
Luria, A. R. (1961). The role of speech in the regulation of normal and abnormal
behavior. London: Pergamon.
Perlmutter, M., Behrend, S. D., Kuo, F. & Muler, A. (1989). Social influences on
childrenÊs problem solving. Developmental Psychology, 25: 744-754.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1956). The childÊs conception of space (F.J. Langdon &
J.L. Lunzer, Trans.) New York: Norton.
Rogoff, B., Mistry, J., Radzisewska, B. & Germond, J. (1992). InfantsÊ instrumental
social interaction with adults. In S. Feinman (Ed.), Social referencing and the
social construction of reality in infancy (pp. 323-348). New York: Plenum.
Russell J., Mills, I. & Reiff-Musgrove, P. (1990). The role of symmetrical and
asymmetrical social conflict in cognitive change. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology, 49: 58-78.
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). Thinking and problem solving. (2nd ed.). London, UK:
Elsevier.
Wellman, H.M. (1990). The childÊs theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
"
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define thinking;
2. Explain the different thinking styles;
3. Distinguish key elements between a good and poor thinker;
4. Describe the importance of thinking;
5. Compare the two phases in the thinking process; and
6. Describe the functions and roles of the right and left brain.
INTRODUCTION
William James (1842-1910), often referred to as the father of American
psychology, once stated that, "A great many people think they are thinking when
they are merely rearranging their prejudices." According to him, the fact that
there is mental activity taking place in the minds of individuals does not mean
that they are thinking. In his book, entitled "You Were Born Rich," Bob Proctor
(1997) wrote, "Thinking is the highest function of which a human being is
capable." He added that many people link thinking to simple mind activities like
refreshing of the faculty of memory, playing old movies and remembering events
in the past. Obviously, this is not what Rodin's great work of art portrays.
One of the main reasons why people do not think more or in depth is because
they are so busy with other things that they do not have time to conceive,
cogitate and consider. Human beings today are so used to being entertained and
bombarded with so much information that they hardly have any time to reflect
on even just a fraction of their thoughts.
„Rarely do we find men who willingly engage in hard, solid thinking. There
is an almost universal quest for easy answers and half-baked solutions.
Nothing pains some people more than having to think.‰
(Martin Luther King)
It should be understood that the greatest value of reading is not the information
but rather what we think and how we process this information while reading,
which makes the choice of reading material an important factor to take into
account. A person should understand that the main objective of reading is not to
fill the mind with information but to arouse the mind to think and ponder. A
reader should pause from time to time to contemplate and reflect on what has
been read. This will help in stimulating the thinking process, as well as in
applying what has been read in everyday life. Clarity is power, and it emerges
from thinking.
Human beings do not just need to think but should think carefully about the
choices and direction of their lives. Time is the most precious resource that
individuals have and it is believed that the life of a person is the sum total of
what he does with that time. Hence, it would be definitely worth it to spend
more of our time in constructive and in-depth thought processes.
Figure 5.1: The activity of the human's mind becomes thinking only when it is directed
Source: http://www.sonic.net
SELF-CHECK 5.1
Do you agree with the statement above? To answer this, ask yourself
whether a mental activity can be purposeful, directed and controlled,
and yet be carried out subconsciously.
There are as many different purposes of thinking as there are of travelling. Many
times, we may be on a relaxing drive through a scenic road without any
particular destination in mind. In the same way, we may travel in different
conditions and with different degrees of competence. Although we may be
travelling in darkness or light, slowly or fast, in the correct or wrong path, as
long as we are navigating in our minds, we are thinking.
However, this does not suggest that thinking must always be carried out in a
conscious state of mind. Evidence shows that the sub-conscious or non-conscious
Ruggiero, V. (2008) has formally defined thinking as ‰any mental activity that
helps formulate or solve a problem, make a decision or fulfil a desire to
understand.‰
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Among the most important mental activities included in the thinking process are:
Careful observation
Remembering
Wondering
Inquiring
Imagining
Evaluating
Judging
Interpreting
Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking. The most
popular view (currently regarded as unimportant) is that thinking is completely
verbal. This theory suggests that individuals arrange words in their minds or
silently whisper to themselves when they think. However, if this is true, then
Albert Einstein could not be considered a thinker, as his thinking comprised
mostly images rather than words. Many current authorities believe that the form
of thought that occurs in the minds of individuals is usually verbal, although it
may not be necessarily so. These experts feel that just as an idea can be expressed
in mathematical symbols or diagrams besides words, individuals may also
conceive thoughts in the same ways.
Factual knowledge is something that is already known, while in most cases, the
solutions are not only unknown to the individual facing the problem but are also
brand new and specifically designed to fit a particular issue. Thus, it can be
concluded that having factual knowledge does not mean that a person is
guaranteed of being able to solve the problem. Many of us may regard ourselves
as "walking encyclopaedias" but when the time comes, we may not be able to
The importance of having the ability to think well can only be appreciated when
an individual is faced with various situations in his life where the circumstances
require skills like analysing, solving problems and making the correct decisions.
For instance, these include deciding and evaluating on aspects such as:
What degree to pursue in University;
How to invest wisely;
How to handle children in certain situations;
How to work with difficult bosses;
What to do when parents are incapable of taking care of themselves; and
Which political candidate to vote for in the elections.
Today, individuals with skills in problem solving, issue analysis and decision
making have a better chance at employment and are regarded as assets within
the organisation they are working for. In the past, most of the thinking was
carried out by executives and other employees had only to execute the tasks
assigned to them. Now, however, employees with thinking power who are
capable of generating ideas for the improvement of the organisation are greatly
valued by their employers.
will survive and less likely become victims of downsizing. Even if they are
retrenched, they will be able to find other employment.
ACTIVITY 5.1
As far as the thinking process is concerned, the human mind has two distinct
phases, namely, the production phase and the judgement phase (Figure 5.3).
Expertise in thinking requires the mastery of all approaches suitable to each
phase, and the skill to move back and forth between them.
Figure 5.3: The thinking process of the human mind has two distinct phases
It is believed that good thinkers are capable of producing more and better ideas
compared to poor thinkers. This is because good thinkers are more innovative,
which enables them to produce more ideas. Moreover, good thinkers tend to
view a problem from different angles before choosing an appropriate one and
consider many different approaches to a problem. They are able to generate
many ideas before making a decision. Better still, they are also more prepared to
take intellectual risks, are more adventurous and imaginative.
On the other hand, poor thinkers view a problem from a limited number of
standpoints, hastily adopt the first approach their minds perceive as a solution,
make hurried judgements and rarely think of more ideas. Most of the time, they
make decisions that would be expected.
At this phase, good thinkers are very careful and analytical. They assess their
first impressions, make important distinctions and support their conclusions
based on facts instead of emotions and feelings. Since they are aware of their
limitations and predispositions, they re-check the logic of their thinking and the
workability of their solutions. They refine their ideas by identifying any
imperfection and complication, and predict any negative response that may arise
from their decision.
Conversely, poor thinkers are known to make judgements too fast without
thinking critically and to make decisions based on emotions and feelings rather
than on evidence. They are also unaware of their limitations and predispositions,
thus creating a possibility that there may be several flaws in their thought
processes.
All thinkers have their own share of confusions, mental blocks and failures.
However, good thinkers have mastered ways to face their frustrations while poor
thinkers have the habit of mourning over their situation and allowing failure to
make them feel incapable and incompetent.
Table 5.1 lists the various differences observed between good and poor thinkers.
Good thinkers are willing to think and may even find thinking enjoyable.
They can carry out searches when necessary and suspend judgement. They
value rationality, believing that thinking is useful for solving problems,
reaching decisions, and making judgements. Poor thinkers, in contrast, need
certainty, avoid thinking, must reach closure quickly, and rely too heavily on
intuition.
Adapted from Kjos, B.(1995)
Many people believe that good thinkers are born rather than made. However,
this is not entirely factual for several reasons. Many a time, we come across
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 5 THINKING SKILLS
people who have better thinking abilities than others. However, an individual
can improve his or her thinking capability within a period of time. Thinking
effectively is a skill that anyone can develop progressively if guided and trained
accordingly.
In order to be a good thinker, you do not need a high IQ. In fact, it was proven by
E. Paul Torrance that 70% of creative people actually have an IQ score of below
135 (as quoted in Mackall, D. D. (1998)).
ACTIVITY 5.2
Do you agree or disagree with the statement, ‰Good thinkers are born
rather than made„? Justify your argument.
People trying to increase their thinking skills face the problem of changing their
old ways and mindset. However, if an individual has a burning desire to
improve himself and is eager to apply the knowledge he has so far obtained,
thinking becomes interesting and achievable. We must understand that nothing
is impossible in life.
ACTIVITY 5.3
ACTIVITY 5.4
Surf the web and find out as much as you can about the human brainÊs
anatomy. Discuss your findings with your classmates.
This led to the idea that there are individuals who are "left-brained" and those
who are „right-brained." So far, the data obtained suggest that no individuals use
only one side of the brain at a particular time and the presence of corpus
callosum reinforces the fact that there is a significant integration between these
two hemispheres.
Figure 5.5: It is generally accepted that the dominant functions of the right hemisphere
include imaginative and intuitive features while the left hemisphere relates to
organisational and analytical skills.
Source: http://theswash.com/tag/monarchy/
Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain are capable of reasoning out
a problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be dominant
compared to the other. In solving a particular problem, the left brain uses the
analytical approach whereas the right brain uses the holistic or global approach.
A left brain user, who is also known as a successive processor, tends to learn in a
step-by-step sequential manner beginning with details and arriving at a
conceptual understanding of a skill. In contrast, a right brain user (a
simultaneous processor) tends to master a skill starting with the general concept
and then moving on to the details.
ACTIVITY 5.5
Consider the activities (sports, hobbies etc) that you enjoy doing. List
the thinking processes required of you to carry out these activities.
From that, explore which side of your brain is more dominant.
(To confirm your answer, try the quiz at this website address:
http://web-us.com/brain/braindominance.htm).
ACTIVITY 5.6
1. State the functions of the right and left hemispheres of the human
brain.
2. Compare and contrast the approaches employed by right and left
brain users in solving a problem.
3. Are you a left or right brain user?
Several attempts have been made to describe the nature of thinking, and the
most popular view that is currently regarded unimportant is that thinking is
completely verbal.
The thinking process has two distinct phases; production and judgement.
Overall, good thinkers have mastered how to face their frustrations whereas
poor thinkers mourn their situation and allow failure to make them feel
incapable and incompetent.
Medical scientists believe that both sides of the brain could reason out a
problem but by employing different strategies, one side may be the dominant
one compared to the other.
In solving a problem, the left brain uses the analytical approach whereas the
right brain uses the holistic or global approach.
2. Read the following dialogue carefully. Then decide whether what is stated
(or implied) makes sense. Explain your reasoning thoroughly.
John : Do you think the masses really have any power in the Unites
States today?
Bill : That depends on what groups you include in "the masses." Would
you include professional people ă doctors, lawyers, teachers⁄⁄?
John : Teachers? They don't make that much money.
Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your professional
and personal life. Kindle Edition.
Paul, R. W. & Elder, L. (2007). Critical thinking: Tools for taking charge of your
professional and personal life. USA: Pearson Education, Inc.
6 Creative
"
"
"
"
"
"
Thinking
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Define critical thinking, creative thinking and lateral thinking;
2." Explain the characteristics of critical and creative thinking;
3." Give examples of critical and creative thinking respectively;
4." Describe the barriers of critical thinking;
5." Identify the application of creative thinking in problem solving;
6." Describe the six techniques of lateral thinking; and
7." Describe right and left brain crossover.
X" INTRODUCTION
There are two basic thinking skills (Figure 6.1).
"
The second skill focuses on exploring ideas, generating new possibilities, looking
for flexibility in answers and developing leads worthy of elaboration. This
thinking skill is called creative thinking.
Both critical and creative thinking skills are essential for solving problems and
acquiring knowledge.
In this topic, we will explore both thinking skills, examine their characteristics
and see how they are applied in solving problems in the real world.
ACTIVITY 6.1
(a) Clarity
The first step involved before assessing an argument or claim of a person is
to understand clearly what he or she is saying. However, many a time this
can be rather challenging because people often fail to express themselves
clearly and articulately. This may be due to several reasons which can
include laziness, carelessness or lack of assertive skill. There are also
instances where this may be due to a misguided effort to appear smart,
intelligent or profound. Thus, by paying close attention to language, we can
save ourselves from unnecessary miscommunications and
disappointments. Wittgenstein (2001) once remarked, „Everything that can
be said can be said clearly.‰
Besides searching for clarity of language, critical thinkers also look for
maximum clearness of thought. As motivational writers constantly remind
us to accomplish our personal goals in life, we require a clear conception of
our goals and priorities, a realistic grip of our abilities and a clear
understanding of the problems and opportunities we encounter. However,
such self-understanding can only be accomplished if we value and practise
clarity of thought. Charles Larmore (The National Post, July 29, 2000) once
expressed that „clarity is not mere embellishment of the intellect; it is the
very heart of intellectual virtue.‰
(b) Precision
Some of the best examples of critical thinking are seen in detective stories
such as those of Sherlock Holmes, the immortal creation of British writer Sir
Arthur Conan Doyle. An important element of these stories is precision:
through careful observation, Holmes is able to find clues that are
overlooked by others. A process of logical inference follows, by which he is
able to use the available clues to solve the mystery.
"
(c) Accuracy
A well-known tagline on input-output systems states, „Garbage in, garbage
out.‰ The human mind works on the same concept. A person can be
considered very intelligent but if he or she makes a decision based on false
information, it is very likely that the decision would be a bad one. Critical
thinkers not only value truth but also have an obsession for accurate and
timely information. They try hard to make decisions that are as informed as
possible.
To quote Socrates (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011): „An unexamined life is
not worth living if an individual stops learning, growing and inquiring.‰
SELF-CHECK 6.1
In scientific measurements, the difference between „precision‰ and
„accuracy‰ is well articulated. How would you differentiate between
these two terms in regard of critical thinking?
(d) Relevance
The moment we find ourselves in a situation where the environment and
people are boring, we begin to appreciate the importance of staying
focused on relevant ideas and information. Many a debater has successfully
used the technique of raising irrelevant issues to distract the attention of his
or her audience and opponents. The famous Abraham Lincoln, when he
was a lawyer, used jokes and stories to gain the favour of the jury and his
opposing counsel often complained to the judge that Lincoln's stories were
irrelevant and distracting to the jury.
As Plato (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011) once said, „No tedious and
irrelevant discussion can be allowed; what is said should be pertinent.‰
This clearly indicates that relevance is indeed an important factor in critical
thinking.
(e) Consistency
Logic tells us that if a person holds inconsistent beliefs, then at least one of
those beliefs must be untrue. Critical thinkers value truth, thus, they are
always on the lookout for inconsistencies, both in their own thoughts and in
the arguments and assertions of others.
Many a time people realise that when their words conflict with their
actions, they are labelled as hypocrites. However, such examples are not
especially interesting from the critical thinking point of view. More
interesting are situations in which people do not realise that their words
conflict with their deeds. What is important in such situations is that
human beings often exhibit a remarkable capacity for self-deception. As the
saying of Morpheus goes, „There is a difference between knowing the path
and walking the path‰ (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011)."
Critical thinking helps us from being caught in the trap of logical and
practical inconsistencies. Practical inconsistency may be unconscious but it
is borne out through our actions and critical thinking helps us realise that.
As for logical inconsistency, Socrates had already recognised that
unconscious logical inconsistency is far more frequent than most
individuals suspect. With critical thinking, this can be identified and
avoided altogether.
(g) Completeness
Most of the time, we opt for shallow and superficial thinking rather than
deep and complete thinking. We are often embroiled in superficial
discussions: condemning slipshod criminal investigations, hasty jury
deliberations, superficial news stories, unclear driving directions and
incorrect medical diagnoses. Thinking is better when it is in depth rather
than shallow, and thorough rather than superficial. Hsun Tzu (as cited in
Bassham et al., 2011) once stated, „It is only when there is completeness and
exhaustiveness that there is scholarship.‰
(h) Fairness
The final characteristic of critical thinking is fairness which includes being
open-minded, impartial and free of bias and preconceptions. However, this
is rather difficult to accomplish. According to H.G. Wells, „It is not much
"
good thinking of a thing unless you think it out‰ (as cited in Bassham et al.,
2011).
In a critical thinking course, among the skills learned by students that can
greatly increase their classroom abilities are:
•" Understanding the arguments and beliefs of others;
•" Assessing those arguments and beliefs critically; and
•" Developing and defending their own well-supported arguments and
beliefs.
John J. Mearsheimer once said, „We don't want you to just accept the
conventional wisdom on a particular subject. Indeed, your first instinct
should be to question it‰ (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011).
"
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Critical thinking can free mankind from the unexamined postulations and biases
of our upbringing and society.
Howard Kahane (as cited in Bassham et al., 2011) once remarked that „citizens
who think for themselves, rather than uncritically ingesting what their leaders
tell them, are the absolutely necessary ingredient of a society that is to remain
truly free.‰
ACTIVITY 6.2
Their efforts helped to improve our understanding of creativity and solved the
many misconceptions that for so long went unchallenged. Replacing those false
impressions with facts is a vital step in developing one's creative potential. The
facts that follow are among the most important ones:
•" „Doing your own thing‰ is not necessarily a mark of creativity
•" Creativity does not require special intellectual talent or high IQ
•" The use of drugs hinders creativity
•" Creativity is an expression of mental health
"
Figure 6.2: Creative thinking involves thinking outside of the box which can be difficult
at times
"
(a)" Dynamism
In its simplest sense, dynamism implies the notion of change – change in
response to, and possibly ahead of, circumstances or information. It implies
an active interaction, as opposed to passive acquiescence.
Isaac Newton (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p.6) once wrote, „I do not know
what I may appear to the world; but to myself, I seem to have been only
like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then
finding ⁄ a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary whilst the
great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.‰
Einstein (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 6) speculated one step further: he saw
such playfulness as „the essential feature in productive thought.‰ One of
the most important contributions of playfulness among creative people is
that it provides these individuals with a richer and more varied collection
of ideas than an average person enjoys.
(b)" Daringness
Thinking is an adventure for creative people. This is because they are free
from preconceived ideas and prejudiced views. Furthermore, creative
individuals are less prone to accepting existing views, wider in their
perspectives and less likely to agree with those around them. Creative
people can come up with bold ideas. They are willing to try out ideas that
are not accepted by others and also experiment with possibilities that are
disliked by others. This trait was shared by Galileo, Columbus, Edison and
the Wright brothers. These individuals were more willing to embrace new
creative ideas than their contemporaries.
However, after three and a half years, the prisoner escaped again during
the night. The prison officers found the bars cut in exactly the same manner
as in the previous escape. However, he was never recaptured, and the way
he escaped remained an unsolved puzzle.
In fact, he had lied about using material from the machine shop the first
time. He had been much more resourceful than that. He had used woollen
strings from his socks, moistened them with spit, and rubbed them in dirt
on his cell floor.
(d)" Diligence
William Gordon (as cited in Ruggiero, 2009 p. 7) once said, „All problems
present themselves to the mind as threats of failure.‰ Only individuals who
are not frightened by the prospects of failure and have an unwavering
desire to succeed no matter what the effort required, have the opportunity
to succeed‰.
"
(e)" Independence
Every time we think of a new idea, we separate ourselves from other
people. The mere expression of the idea increases this separation ten-fold.
For most people, especially those who obtain their power from
communicating with others and those who depend on others for their
identity, such separation is frightening. Sad to say, such people do not feel
comfortable entertaining and expressing new ideas. This is due to their fear
of rejection.
Understanding and knowing these five characteristics can help you build
up your creative abilities if you are willing to make the effort to develop
them. However, if you already have them, it will help you to improve and
SELF-CHECK 6.3
List five important traits of creative individuals and explain each one
of them in your own words.
The most important methods to apply creativity to problems and issues include:
•" Taking an innovative and new approach;
•" Devising or changing a process or system;
•" Coming up with a new product or service;
•" Searching for new uses for existing things;
•" Improvising on existing things; and
•" Discovering or redefining a concept.
Now, let us read about each of the methods together with their example to fully
understand them.
"
Other brilliant examples are the procedures devised in the past one or two
decades to investigate the health of a foetus. Procedures such as
amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling involve the extraction of
amniotic fluid, while ultrasound imaging involves the bouncing of sound
waves off the foetus to form an image.
Scientists found new ways to use the largest surplus crop in the United
States, which was corn. For example, corn was used in making de-icing
ACTIVITY 6.3
1." „The more formal education a person has, the more he is able to
analyse, but the less he is able to improvise.‰
Discuss this statement in the context of critical and creative thinking.
"
Technique Description
1." Alternatives/Concept Employing concepts to come up with new ideas.
Extraction
2." Focus Changing or sharpening on your focus to improve your
creative effort.
3." Challenge Thinking beyond the accepted ways of operating.
4." Random entry Employing unrelated input to widen the horizon of
thinking.
5." Harvesting Choosing of the most suitable early ideas and moulding
them into usable approaches.
6." Treatment of ideas Expanding ideas in order to incorporate them into any
particular situations or organisations.
SELF-CHECK 6.4
The crossover of right and left brain crossover produces a sound, rational and
logical decision that gives you satisfaction. The right hemisphere of the brain is
responsible for intuitive, subjective and holistic thinking. Thus an individual who
uses only the right brain may end up making a decision that lacks the logical and
objective reasoning. On the other hand, the left brain is in charge of logical,
analytical, rational and objective reasoning. Hence, a left brain user who works
with facts, data and logic without the feeling component in making decisions
usually fail to notice the importance of using their emotions. These individuals
believe that facts, data and logic are not only superior than emotions when
making a particular decision but also always produce better decisions. Feelings
are an important component of the human existence. It is essential that you
embrace and accept feelings during a decision making process in order to ensure
that you will feel satisfied with the final decision that you have made.
Alan Bean [Figure 6.4(a)] and Florence Nightingale [Figure 6.4(b)] are among the
individuals who have achieved a lot in their lives with a strong right and left
brain crossover. Alan Bean was a Navy test pilot, and the fourth man to set his
foot on the moon. His job required strong left brain to utilise logical, analytical,
rational and objective reasoning. Upon his resignation from NASA, Alan Bean
"
became a full time artist who painted ApolloÊs human adventure that is both
visionary and historic; a task that requires a strong right brain to employ
intuitive, subjective and holistic thinking. Florence Nightingale, a nurse by
profession, exhibited the use of both her right and left brain. She proved the
importance of sanitary conditions in healing the sick and wounded patients. She
employed her left brain for this while her nurturing qualities demonstrated the
powers of her right brain.
"
(a) (b)
Figure 6.4: Alan Bean (a) and Florence Nightingale (b) both demonstrated strong right
and left brain crossover attributes.
Sources: http://www.talentbookingusa.com/speakers/alan-bean.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale
SELF-CHECK 6.5
2." In your opinion, does our current education system place higher
importance on the right or left brain? Suggest ways and steps that
can be taken to improve this situation.
•" Critical thinking is a general term given to a wide range of cognitive skills and
intellectual characters required to effectively identify, analyse and evaluate
arguments and truth claims; to uncover and overcome personal prejudices and
biases; to devise and present convincing reasons in support of conclusions; and
to come up with reasonable, intelligent decisions about what to believe and what
to do. It is disciplined thinking controlled by clear intellectual benchmarks that
have proven their values over the course of human history.
•" The most important ways to apply creativity to problems and issues are:
taking an innovative approach; formulating a process or system; devising a
new product or service; finding new uses for existing things; improvising on
existing things; and inventing or redefining a concept.
•" The crossover of right and left brain produces a sound, rational and logical
decision as both hemispheres of the brain are responsible for different
functions and approaches in a decision making process.
Acquilescence Diligence
Brain Crossover Dynamism
Completeness Fairness
Creative Thinking Lateral Thinking
Critical Thinking Logical Correctness
Daringness Resourcefulness
"
1." How many uses can you think of for an old pair of socks, stockings or
panty hose? Be sure to guard against setting unconscious restrictions on
your thinking and to resist the temptation to settle for too few ideas.
2." To what extent has your education prepared you to think clearly, precisely,
accurately, logically and so forth? Have you known a person who strongly
modelled the critical thinking standards discussed in this topic? If so, how
did he or she do that?
3." Think of the most unpleasant task you ever had to do. Use your creativity
to make it more pleasant. Use the knowledge that you have gained from
this topic to answer this question.
4." A woman lives on the tenth floor of a block of flats. Every morning she
takes the lift down to the ground floor and goes to work. In the evening,
she gets into the lift, and, if there is someone else in the lift she goes back to
her floor directly. Otherwise, she goes to the eighth floor and walks up two
flights of stairs to her flat. How do you explain this using the concept of
lateral thinking?
5." Categorise the characteristics listed according to the right and left side of
the brain.
"
Uses feeling Philosophy & Acknowledges Appreciates Believes
religion
„Big picture‰ Oriented Words and Symbols and Knowing
language images
Risk taking Safe Uses logic Facts rule Fantasy
based
Imagination Reality based Detail oriented Practical Can
rules comprehend
"
Bassham, G. (2000). Critical thinking: A student introduction. Chapter 1:
Introduction to Critical Thinking, pp 7. East Tennessee State University-
ETSU. (2006). Seven Step Decision-Making Model. Retrieved from:
http://www.etsu.edu/acadvantage/acadv/decision.htm
Bassham, G., Irwin, W., Nardone, H. & Wallace, J. M. (2011). Critical thinking – A
studentÊs introduction (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
Harrison, A. F., & Bramson, R. M. (2002). The art of thinking. New York: The
Berkley Publishing Group.
Kahane, H. & Cavender, N. (2006). Logic and contemporary rhetoric: The use of
reason in everyday life (10th ed.). USA: Thomson Learning.
Meador, K. S. (1997). Creative thinking and problem solving for young learners.
Colorado: Teacher Ideas Press.
"
Tonjes, M. J., & Zintz, M. V. (1987). Teaching reading, thinking, study skills in
content classrooms. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
Wittgenstein, L. (2001). Verfall und Ende des öffentlichen Lebens. Die Tyrannei
Der Intimität, (12th ed.), Frankfurt/M.: Fischer.
7 Solving
"
"
"
"
"
"
Strategies
"
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
"
" By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
" 1." Describe how problem solving can be conceptualised;
"
2." Describe the problem decomposition or subgoaling approach in
"
problem solving;
"
" 3." Explain the working backwards and hill climbing approach in
" problem solving;
" 4." Describe the means-end analysis and forward chaining strategies in
" problem solving ;
"
" 5." Describe the other problem-solving methods such as use of analogy,
" specialisation and generalisation; and
" 6." Explain the use of extreme cases method for problem solving.
"
"
X" INTRODUCTION
In Topic 1, we have seen two different guidelines in solving a problem (refer sub-
topic 1.4). These guidelines are based on existing concepts. We will explore other
forms of conceptualisation before looking at a number of strategies in problem
solving. These strategies are meant for the most important step in the problem-
solving process; and concerns your action plan. This is an interesting topic that
can be very useful in your personal life as well.
ACTIVITY 7.1
"
Figure 7.2: Hierarchy and decomposition of a problem into sub-problems
Adapted from: http://ccs.njit.edu/fadi/public/books/dissert.htm
ACTIVITY 7.2
There are several ways to do problem decompositions, the most well-
known probably being recursive decomposition, data decomposition,
functional decomposition, exploratory decomposition and speculative
decomposition. Carry out an Internet search and briefly explain the
various strategies.
In addition, one can work backwards not only from the final goal but also from
an intermediate goal state, especially in circumstances where there is a way to
identify these intermediate states.
"
Figure 7.3: Working backwards strategy in problem solving
Adapted from: http://www.1000ventures. com/business_guide/
crosscuttings/problem_solving_workback.html
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Joe forgot to check how much money he began the day with. During the
day, he spent $8.00 on breakfast, withdrew $40.00 from the ATM, got his
dry cleaning for $12.00, and bought 5 shirts for $22.00 a piece (plus 8%
sales tax). At the end of the day, he had $100.00, how much did he start
the day with? Use the working backwards strategy to solve this problem.
"
Figure 7.4: Hill climbing strategy
"
SELF-CHECK 7.2
You are required to use the hill climbing strategy in the river crossing
problem. There are a number of predators and prey on one side of the
river and there is a boat with a limited capacity. The goal state is to
have everyone on the opposite side of the river. Explain how you will
employ this strategy. You must be able to identify the initial state, the
goal and the fact that the boat used has a limited capacity for
transporting individuals. Will the „downhill‰ step be necessary in
solving this problem?
One can be stranded if one sticks too obsessively to the rule of not taking a step
that decreases the disparity between the current state and the goal. According to
Anderson (1993), means-end analysis is a natural component of the thinking
machinery for both human beings as well as primates. Means-end analysis is
vital to solve daily problems such as getting the right train connection. Basically,
first of all, you have to figure out where you catch the first train and where you
want to arrive. Then you have to look for possible changes just in case you do not
get a direct connection. Finally, you have to figure out what are the most suitable
times of departure and arrival, on which platforms you leave and arrive and
make it all fit together.
ACTIVITY 7.3
"
Figure 7.5: Forward chaining strategy
Source: http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~mmk/Teaching/AI/l2.html
This strategy is usually used by experts and not beginners who are more inclined
to employ strategies such as means-end analysis and working backwards (Larkin
et al., 1980a, 1980b). This is due to the fact that experts have the ability to
categorise problems in terms of basic principles and their knowledge of strategies
that work for specific problem types that makes this possible. However, when
individuals were provided with more practice with problems of a particular type,
they were inclined to change spontaneously from a means-end strategy that they
were using to the forward-chaining strategy.
Six people are in an elevator. Can you demonstrate that it must be the case that
either at least three of them are mutual acquaintances or at least three are
complete strangers to one another?
[Adapted from: Poundstone (1990)]
"
Figure 7.6: Poundstone's graphical analogue
Poundstone uses a graphical analogue (Figure 7.6) to solve the above problem
that may look logically difficult at a first glance. According to his analogy, let the
six people in the elevator be represented by six different dots on a piece of paper.
These dots can be located in any fashion, except that no three of them should be
on the same line. Allow a solid line between any two dots to symbolise
acquaintance between the people represented by those dots, and let a dashed line
indicate that the individuals are strangers. Using this system, a solid triangle
represents three mutual acquaintances whereas a dashed triangle symbolises a
trio of strangers. The main question at this instance is, using either a solid or
dashed line between any given pairs of dots, is it possible to connect every dot
with every other dot in such a fashion that no solid triangles and no dashed
triangles appear in the result? Basically, this particular problem is indeed similar
to the elevator problem and that the solution to one will automatically reveal the
solution to the other.
Thus, it can be clearly observed that the dot-connecting problem is much easier
to solve than the elevator problem, and this is the main principal of this strategy
where the former is a helpful analogue of the latter. The main disadvantage in
using this strategy lies in the fact that identification of an analogue to the
problem one wishes to solve in certain cases may seem to be analogous in the
correct way(s) but in actual fact it is not.
SELF-CHECK 7.3
SELF-CHECK 7.4
"
The comparison of the two lever situations shown in Figure 7.7 explains this
point. Generally, students based on their intuition, very well know that it will be
much simpler to lift the load in Case A as compared to Case B. Hence, it can be
concluded that as the distance from the load to the fulcrum decreases, the force
required to carry the load will also decrease.
"
Figure 7.7: Extreme cases providing data points
Source: Zietsman and Clement, 1997
It is believed that the extreme case can furnish one of the „data points‰ required
to deduce the more general direction of change relation. This function should be
more useful in mastering the basic ideas in science, in which such relations are
often present. In addition, it can be debated that such relations also give an
intuitive foundation for the understanding of mathematical relations in science.
ACTIVITY 7.4
Dave goes to a museum and meets a lovely lady. Wasting no time, Dave
asks the lady for her phone number. He copies the number down. But
on the walk home, the paper flies from Dave's pocket, blowing the
phone number, along with his hopes, into the East River. Dave ponders
his situation on the train ride home and manages to remember all seven
digits (4, 3, 7, 8, 2, 6, 5) of the woman's phone number. However, he
does not remember the sequence of the numbers. Dave is determined
to sit in front of the phone all night if necessary to contact this lovely
lady. How many telephone numbers must Dave dial?
"
Besides the strategies presented in this topic, there are various other strategies
that have been developed for problem solving. However, the ones mentioned
here are among those that have received the most amount of attention. Various
writers have emphasised on the importance of a particular strategy but none of
them have proposed that one specific strategy is sufficient to ensure successful
problem solving. In certain cases, it would be more beneficial if one could
employ a combination of strategies in problem solving. The following are
examples of combinations that complement one another:
SELF-CHECK 7.5
1." State the risks that may be faced in the problem decomposition or
subgoaling approach.
2." Define the working backwards approach in problem solving.
3." What is the main disadvantage of the hill climbing approach?
4." Identify the two main actions that can be taken to reduce the
distance between the current state and goal in the means-end
analysis method.
5." State the main disadvantage of the considering analogous problem
approach.
6." Define the terms „specialisation‰ and generalisation‰ in problem
solving.
•" The more widely applicable a particular strategy, the less field dependent the
strategy is.
•" Working backwards involves solving a problem from the goal to the initial
state.
•" In considering analogous problems, the problem may be naturally easier due
to the fact that the problem solver may have solved a similar problem in the
past.
Bransford, J. D., & Stein, B. S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guider for
improving thinking, learning and creativity. New York: Freeman.
Larkin, J. H., McDermott, J., Simon, D. P., & Simon, H. A. (1980a). Expert and
novice performance in solving physics problems. Science, 208: 1335-1342.
Mason, J., Burton, L. & Stacey, K. (1985). Thinking mathematically. Menlo Park,
CA: Addison-Wesley Publishers.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Eaglewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice hall.
Pólya, G. (1957). How to solve it: A new aspect of mathematical method. Garden
City, NY: Doubleday.
Zietsman, A., & Clement, J. (1997). The role of extreme case reasoning in
instruction for conceptual change. The Journal of the Learning Sciences 6(1):
61-89. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
"
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
"
"
X" INTRODUCTION
In this section, we will look at a set of tools often used to aid the process of
problem solving. These tools will help you understand complicated and difficult
situations. Without these tools, some problems might seem overwhelming and
complex. If used properly, these tools can help to break down problems into
manageable components and aid in the development of suitable solutions. We
will start with the simplest and probably most common tool used which is
brainstorming, and gradually move on to more complex tools such as
benchmarking, cause and effect diagrams, flow charts, SWOT analysis and
prioritisation matrix.
8.1 BRAINSTORMING
(a) What is brainstorming?
Brainstorming is a lively technique that helps a group to generate as many
ideas as possible in a short time. We actually use brainstorming in an
informal manner in many situations in our everyday life. Let's say you are
with a group of friends and are trying to decide where to go for a meal. You
might engage in a very rudimentary form of brainstorming whereby
everyone gives suggestions of where to eat and the one most of you agree
upon is chosen.
"
(iv) Generate ideas. This is the brainstorming portion of the session. The
team members shall pitch in ideas and possible solutions while you
jot down all of them on a flip chart.
(v) Discuss the ideas. Once the list is completed, confer with your team
to:
•" Explain the meaning of some ideas,
•" Combine ideas with the same meaning, and
•" Remove the ideas that are totally out from the topic.
(vi) Come to a consensus. As you discuss with others in the team, there
will be differing opinions about ideas and issues raised. Nevertheless,
make sure that the team agrees on what ideas are to be accepted from
the brainstorming session. Allow yourselves 5-15 minutes. Finally, the
idea that most of you agree on will be the best solution to your
problem.
ACTIVITY 8.1
In brainstorming sessions, there is always a tendency to dismiss
seemingly „poor‰ ideas, even though there may be a conscious attempt
not to do so.
Think of rules that you can implement to discourage this from
happening during brainstorming sessions (e.g. idea-stoppers must stay
back to clean up the meeting room). You may even want to brainstorm
for ideas on this!
8.2 BENCHMARKING
(a) What is it?
Benchmarking is the process of measuring and comparing an organisation's
internal processes with those of another organisation that has outstanding
practices in order to study ways to improve those processes. It is a
technique used to develop new ideas for improvement by identifying,
understanding, and adapting the selected processes.
"
"
Figure 8.1: Main components of a Fishbone Diagram
"
"
Figure 8.2: An example of a complex fishbone diagram. Note the number of causes or
factors that can be included in such a diagram and how the diagram can help in
identifying the cause of a problem
SELF-CHECK 8.1
Problem: More schoolchildren are patronising cybercafés after school.
Use the fishbone diagram to identify the root causes of the problem. In
Figure 8.2, the causal factors are categorised under the 4 M's
(Manpower, Machines, Methods, Materials). Other major categories
typically used are:
• The 4 P's (Place, Procedure, People, Policies)
• The 4 S's (Surroundings, Suppliers, Systems, Skills)
You may use one of the four categories above, combine them in any
fashion or make up your own. The categories are not cast in stone; they
are to help you organise your ideas.
"
"
Figure 8.3: The component parts of a typical flow chart
"
Figure 8.4: A simple flow chart illustrating a process and identifying how it proceeds.
Note the use of the shapes
SELF-CHECK 8.2
Process: How to make three different cups of coffee: (i) With no milk or
sugar (ii) With milk and sugar (iii) With milk but no sugar.
"
SWOT analysis enables you to uncover opportunities that you may have
been unaware of and helps you to prepare to face any threats or dangers
that may lie ahead.
SWOT analysis can be used in many different contexts but is most effective
when used as a tool in a situation where there is competition from others.
This includes not only the business environment but also activities such as
sports (especially team sports like football). See Figure 8.5 for further
understanding about SWOT analysis.
"
Figure 8.5: Illustration of SWOT analysis, leading to a full analysis of the entire situation
ACTIVITY 8.2
Find out more about SWOT analysis at the following website and
discuss with your coursemates:
http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm
"
Total
Problems Frequency Importance Feasibility
Points
1. No appointments for the 5 0 0 5
afternoon
2. Delays in registration 6 1 5 12
3. Incomplete laboratory analysis 9 11 6 26
4. Insufficient care in dentistry 10 12 8 30
5. Not enough doctors 6 0 5 11
6. Not enough materials for the 3 0 0 3
lab
7. Broken down ambulance 0 3 0 3
8. Segregation of patients 7 12 11 30
9. Long waiting time 7 14 15 36
10. Disrespect of patients 4 6 10 20
"
ACTIVITY 8.3
Feel free to explore the Web for other problem-solving tools. Some interesting
tools that you might want to look up include:
(a) Appreciation (more at http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_
01.htm);
(b) Drill Down (more at http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/new
TMC_02.htm); and
(c) Systems Diagrams (more at http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/new
TMC_04.htm).
•" Problem-solving tools range from simple commonly used techniques like
flow diagrams to specific techniques like SWOT analysis.
•" These tools are used to conduct a rigorous analysis of problems to help you
look at as many factors as possible in a structured and methodical way.
"
•" Problem-solving tools can be divided into two categories. The first set
comprises general tools that can be used to resolve any situation. These
include: brainstorming; benchmarking; cause and effect diagrams; and flow
charts.
•" The second set of tools is applied to specific situations. These include: SWOT
analysis; forecasting with spreadsheets; and risk analysis.
•" Cause and Effect Diagrams help you to think through the causes of a problem
thoroughly. This approach combines brainstorming with the use of a concept
map. Cause and Effect Diagrams are also called Fishbone Diagrams and
Ishikawa Diagrams.
•" Flow charts are diagrams showing how steps in a process fit together. This
makes them useful tools for communicating how processes work and for
clearly documenting how a particular job is done.
•" A Prioritisation Matrix is a useful technique you can use with your team
members to achieve consensus about an issue. The Matrix helps you to rank
problems or issues (usually generated through brainstorming) by a particular
criterion that is important to you.
1." Problem-solving tools can be divided into two categories. What are these
categories? Give some examples of tools in each category.
2." Before you can solve a problem and before you can select the most suitable
tool to solve the problem, you need to plan the solution. Why is it
important to plan the problem-solving process?
3." What is brainstorming and how often is it used?
4." For brainstorming to work effectively, some rules must be followed. What
are these rules?
5." Cause and Effect Diagrams help you to think through the causes of a
problem thoroughly. This approach combines brainstorming with the use
of a concept map. Their major benefit is that they push you to consider all
possible causes of the problem, rather than just the ones that are most
obvious. These are called Fishbone Diagrams and Ishikawa Diagrams. How
are these diagrams constructed? Briefly describe the steps involved and
draw a diagram to depict it.
6." What are flow charts? Can you develop a simple flow chart to show any
basic process of your choice?
7." What is SWOT analysis?
8." A Prioritisation Matrix is a useful technique you can use with your team
members to achieve consensus on an issue. How does it work in prioritising
issues that need to be addressed?
9 Making
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Define decision making;
2." List the different kinds of decisions and the factors that influence the
decision-making process;
3." Describe the Four Quadrants of the Brain Theory and how it relates
to our ability to make decisions;
4." Examine the evidence-driven decision making cycle; and
5." Discuss the different approaches to decision making.
X" INTRODUCTION
Good decision making is an essential skill for personal and career success and is
also particularly useful for effective leadership. We are required to make
decisions daily and if we can learn to make timely and well-considered decisions,
then we can often lead ourselves or our team to success. However, if we make
poor decisions, we inevitably risk failure.
You will also be introduced to the concept of decision stream, as well as the role
of risk. Our discussion will conclude in Topic 10 where you will be introduced to
some decision-making tools.
You will notice that these definitions share in common the finality of the decision
event. Decisions are often made at the culmination of debates, events, contests
and so on. In our case, decisions are made at the end of the problem-solving
cycle. Decision making can thus be regarded as a problem-solving activity which
is terminated when a satisfactory solution is found.
With the above in mind, two standard definitions of decision making that can be
accepted are as follows:
"
(a) Decisions „whether‰ are basic: yes/no, either/or and neither/nor decisions
that must be made when we come to the selection between two alternatives.
This includes basic decisions we make daily such as, "Should I go to the
movies?" and "Should I buy a car?"
(b) Decisions „which‰ are decisions involving a choice of one or more options
from a selection of possibilities.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Biases also influence our ability to make decisions. These biases constantly
contribute to our decision-making processes and often distort our decision-
making and judgemental processes. Biases can lead to falsified perceptions and
judgements which can seriously undermine the effectiveness of sound decision
making.
"
Behaviourist Isabel Briggs Myers cites some of the more common sources of bias
in our decision-making processes:
•" Selective search for evidence: Tendency to gather facts that support certain
conclusions.
•" Premature termination of search for evidence: Tendency to accept the first
alternative.
•" Inertia: Unwillingness to change thought patterns.
•" Choice-supportive bias: Tendency to distort our memories.
•" Recency: Tendency to trust more recent information.
•" Repetition bias: Bias to believe information that we hear most often.
•" Group think: Tendency to conform to patterns held by others.
•" Source credibility bias: Tendency to be biased towards people we know.
Now let us look at theories where decision making is affected by our thinking
processes:
(a)" Ambiguity Effect: We prefer to choose an option of a favourable probability
over an unknown one.
(b)" Bias Blind Spot: We do not compensate enough for our own bias whereby
we consider ourselves as being rather unbiased compared to others.
(c)" Elaboration Likelihood Model: We either think logically and consciously or
we allow superficial characteristics that persuade our decisions.
(d)" Heuristic-Systematic Persuasion Model: We either impulsively or logically
interpret arguments.
(e)" Hyperbolic discounting: We want immediate rewards, choosing benefits for
the now or short-term over the future.
(f)" Information Bias: Searching for facts even when they are irrelevant and
redundant when making decision.
(g)" Information Processing Theory: Persuasion requires attention and
comparison with previous views; and focuses on external stimuli.
(h)" Source Credibility: Who we are more likely to trust.
(i)" Unconscious Thought Theory: Allowing our unconscious to do the
thinking.
ACTIVITY 9.2
"
"
Figure 9.1: The Four Quadrant Model of the Brain, also called Ned Herrmann's Whole
Brain Model
Adapted from: Models of the Brain: Theories of Brain Organisation by Charles Cave
The HBDI has proven quite useful in corporate business culture, fostering
communication between people with different mental preferences. When these
differences in workers are brought together, misunderstandings are decreased
and teamwork is enhanced. A synergy takes place and a much fuller potential in
the workplace is realised.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Suppose you want to buy a new car. List your reasons for choosing that
particular car, and not some other car. Based on the reasons for your
decision, identify your thinking type according to the HBDI model.
"
Though these mechanisms for making decisions are effective, they do not allow
us to make optimal decisions and during the worst of times can result in us
making a very bad decision. As much as possible, a proper decision-making
process should be followed whenever possible.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Consider your decision to take the course you are now studying. List
the factors that influenced your decision. If you were given the chance
to do it all over again, write down the steps you would now take to
arrive at your decision this time. See if both decisions are the same.
This cycle comprises a sequence of steps that must be followed to produce well-
made and effective decisions (Figure 9.2).
"
The process can be seen as a cycle as illustrated in Figures 9.3 and 9.4. Note that
in Figure 9.4, the trigger box and the subsequent steps including the exploration
and collection of data and the subsequent analysis, lead to intervention and
culmination in evaluation and reflection.
"
Figure 9.3: The evidence-driven decision-making cycle
"
Figure 9.4: An example of an actual evidence-driven decision-making cycle used to
decide when and how to improve teaching procedures to increase the number of students
who achieve required grades
"
ACTIVITY 9.5
SELF-CHECK 9.1
I think most of us would find Menu 1 extremely easy to use and Menu 4
absolutely impossible to use. WouldnÊt you agree?
"
The third point is particularly important to consider when you are making
decisions that affect a lot of people. For a decision to be implemented, it is vital
that those who implement it or those on whom it will affect, accept the decision
both on an emotional and an intellectual level. A decision that is excellent on
paper may be completely impractical for a number of social reasons. It is because
of this reason that governments often make decisions that appear to be less than
perfect when viewed from our individual perspectives. Remember, a
government often has to please millions of people and what may appear to be
obvious and straightforward to them may not always be acceptable to all.
9.11 RISK
Risk is an important component of decision making because the outcome of a
decision inevitably involves some uncertainty. Do not seek to completely avoid
risk when making your decisions because if you do, you are likely to eliminate
any radical but potentially excellent options. Rather, aim to minimise risk as
much as possible while continuing to make decisions based on correct and logical
steps. Generally, before you jump into a dangerous and reckless situation, there
are a few points to remember regarding risk-taking:
• Decide whether the risk is necessary or desirable.
• Risk for the right reasons and when you are calm and thoughtful.
• Have a goal.
• Determine the possible loss as well as the gain.
• When possible, take one risk at a time.
• Use imaging or role-playing to work through the various possibilities.
• Use a plan.
• Act decisively.
• Do not expect complete success.
ACTIVITY 9.6
Does having insurance mitigate risk? How does being insured for a
particular risk affect decision making associated with that risk? Discuss.
"
•" Decision making is the process of sufficiently reducing uncertainty and doubt
about alternatives to allow a reasonable choice to be made from among them.
•" There are three basic kinds of decisions – decisions whether, decisions which
and contingent decisions.
•" Biases constantly creep into our decision-making processes. Some of the more
common sources of bias in our decision-making processes include selective
search for evidence, premature termination of search for evidence, inertia,
recency and repetition bias.
•" Some cognitive theorists believe that the human brain is divided into four
thinking-style quadrants – Analytical/Logical (Upper Left); Organisational
(Lower Left); Emotional/Interpersonal (Lower Right); and Conceptual/
Imaginative (Upper Right). Learning which quadrant is dominant in your
brain is vital to the decision-making process.
•" Many decision makers tend to seek more information than required to make
a good decision. This leads to a delay in decision making.
•" The quality of a decision is not related to its outcome: a good decision is a
logical one based on the available information and reflecting the preferences
of the decision maker.
•" All decisions involve a certain amount of risk. This risk must be considered
and managed whenever possible.
"
Bellamy, L., Evans, D. L., Linder, D. E., McNeill, B. W., & Raupp, G. (1994). Team
training workbook. Arizona State University. Retrieved from
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teamwkbk. pdf.
Beyth-Marom, R., Fischhoff, B., Jacobs-Quadrel, M., & Furby, L. (1991). Teaching
decision making to adolescents: A critical review. In J. Baron & R.V. Brown
(Eds.), Teaching Decision Making to Adolescents, (pp. 19-60). Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Swinton, L. (n.a.). Kurt Lewin's force field analysis: Decision making made easy.
Von Winterfeldt, D., & Edwards, W. (1986). Decision analysis and behavioral
research. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Topic
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X Strategies and
10
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"
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Tools for
"
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Making the
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Final Decision
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Explain the different approaches to decision making;
2." Identify the decision-making strategies and the role of risk in the
decision-making process;
3." Describe the different forms of group decision making; and
4." Explain how to use decision-making tools or techniques in the
decision-making process.
X" INTRODUCTION
In our own personal lives, we will most often be the ones to make the final
decision about the issues and choices that we face. In teams, organisations or
businesses where there are several individuals involved in day-to-day
operations, decision making can be done at either one of the two following levels:
(a)" Authoritarian
In authoritarian decision making, the leader or authority figure makes the
final decision based on his or her judgement or after discussion with his
colleagues and co-workers. The leader must then explain the decision to the
rest of the team involved and see it through from acceptance to
implementation and evaluation.
(b)" Group
In group decision making, several people constituting a group share their
input in making the final decision. They can reach this decision by
exchanging ideas and analyses and eventually, agreeing on details of
implementation and follow-up.
Group decision making can be reached through at least two types of decision-
making processes:
(a) Free discussion: A problem is openly and freely discussed within a group
and a variety of approaches to solve the problem are sought;
"
Johnson & Johnson (2000) describe seven methods that a group can use to make
effective decisions. These can be summarised as follows:
(i)" Decision made by authority without group discussion;
(ii)" Decision by expert;
(iii)" Decision by averaging individuals' opinions;
(iv)" Decision made by authority after group discussion;
(v)" Decision by minority;
(vi)" Decision by majority vote; and
(vii)" Decision by consensus.
Though each of the methods above has specific strengths and weaknesses, the
last method, decision by consensus, is often the most effective method and the
method that yields the best results over the long term. As such, if you are ever in
a position to guide or regulate a group decision-making process, try to steer it
into a direction whereby your final decision will be made by group consensus.
SELF-CHECK 10.1
1." There are two major approaches to decision making. These are
authoritarian decision making and group decision making.
Compare these two approaches. Which of the two, in your opinion,
is better? Why do you think so?
2." We have discussed four decision-making strategies. Briefly explain
each strategy and compare them.
3." We have looked at five ways to make a decision. Can you list and
briefly explain each of them?
4." We have also discussed seven methods that can be used in group
decision making. Can you recall all of them? Which method would
you most likely use if you were in a group that needed to make a
decision? Elaborate on your choice.
"
ACTIVITY 10.1
1." Explore
http://www.foundationcoalition.org/home/keycomponents/team
s/decision2.html and make a note of the advantages and
disadvantages (called Strengths and Weaknesses in the tables shown
in the Web page) of each of these seven methods of group decision
making. Note the most appropriate time for using each of the
methods. Using that information, discuss with your coursemates
examples of real-life situations where any of the methods can be
used for best results and where some of the methods above would
prove to be particularly ineffective.
2." Making the right decision is often a matter of life and death for
soldiers in battle. Choose three methods of group decision making
that can be used in a battle situation. Explain why you think the
methods work.
3." Think of a recent decision made by a group of which you are a member
(e.g. family, department, tutorial group, sports team, fan club). List the
strengths and weaknesses of the methods used in making that decision.
Was the decision made the best possible decision?
"
Table 10.1: Grid Analysis Showing Weighted Assessment of How Each Type of Car
Satisfies Each Factor
SUV/4x4 0 15 2 4 3 4 28
Family Car 8 10 1 6 0 0 25
Station Wagon 8 15 3 6 0 4 36
Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_03.htm
ACTIVITY 10.2
Figure 10.1 shows what a simple decision tree would look like. To draw a
decision tree, follow these steps:
(a)" Represent your decision with a simple square on the left of a sheet of paper;
(b)" Draw lines leading to the right from this square to illustrate each possible
decision;
(c)" At the end of each line, consider the result of the decision. If the decision
leads to a clear outcome, make this the end of the line. If the decision leads
to an unclear outcome, show this by drawing a circle. If another decision
needs to be made, show this by drawing another square; and
(d)" Continue this process until you have all your outcomes clearly illustrated.
"
Figure 10.1: Example of a decision tree
Decision trees can get extremely complicated and can even include calculated
values for each node. Visit this website for more information and examples on
how to build an effective decision tree: http://www.time-management-
guide.com/decision-tree.html
"
(e)" Assign a positive or negative score to each of your points, then add up the
score to show which action should be taken, if any.
Easier to see friends (+5) More pollution (-3) Meet more people? (+2)
Easier to get to places Less space (-3) Hard to get own work done?
(+3) (-4)
No countryside (-2)
Source: http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_05.htm
ACTIVITY 10.3
There are several other decision-making tools that we have not discussed. These
include Pareto Analysis, Paired Comparison Analysis, Force Field Analysis, Six
Thinking Hats Technique and Cost/Benefit Analysis. You can explore these
techniques by searching for information on the Internet. Some of these
techniques, like Cost Benefit Analysis, are very specific to business scenarios
while others, like the Six Thinking Hats Technique, may be useful in making
individual decisions.
Use the Web pages below as a starting point for getting more information on
these techniques:
(i)" Pareto Analysis
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_01.htm
ACTIVITY 10.4
Recall the time you made the decision to take up the course you are
now studying. Use the decision-making tools given in this section to
view your decision from different perspectives. Would your decision
have been different if you had applied these tools then?
"
•" You can never be absolutely sure that you have made the correct decision
since the consequences of that decision will only occur in the future. Make the
decision and do not worry about it.
•" Use the O. A. R. approach in decision making. Look at O (Objectives) you are
seeking to attain, A (Alternatives) that are available to you and R (Risks) of
the alternative you are considering.
•" Remember that not making a decision is a decision not to take action.
•" Trust yourself to make a decision and then to be able to field the
consequences appropriately.
•" Do not waste your time making decisions that do not have to be made.
•" Determine alternative courses of action before gathering data.
•" If you make an individual decision in lieu of a group decision, be aware that
there may be less commitment forthcoming from those affected.
•" Your decision-making process should always include an implementation
plan.
•" You should move forward once a decision is made. The consequences of that
decision have already been set in motion, so do not look back or regret it. It
was the right move then. What should be the right move now?
•" Make a mental picture of how you would implement your decision and
imagine the outcomes.
•" You can get commitment from your staff, in addition to fresh ideas, if you
rope them in your brainstorming sessions.
•" Do not take too long to deliberate, agonise and mull over your decision. Just
make it, and carry it through.
•" After a decision is made, leave the „what ifs‰ behind and commit yourself to
your action plan.
•" There are two types of group decision-making sessions, namely, free
discussion in which the problem is put on the table for the group to talk
about; and developmental discussion or structured discussion where a
problem is broken into steps and smaller parts with specific goals.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
198 X TOPIC 10 STRATEGIES AND TOOLS FOR MAKING THE FINAL DECISION
"
"
•" There are several strategies used for choosing from among several decisions –
Optimising, Satisficing, Maximax and Maximin.
•" There are many ways to make a final decision, to decide on a solution or
come to agreement. Some of the most popular ways of making the decision
include consensus, compromise, majority vote, decision by leader and
arbitration.
•" Many types of group decision-making models can be used. These include
decision made by authority without group discussion, decision by an expert,
decision by averaging individuals' opinions, decision made by authority after
group discussion, decision by minority, decision by majority vote and
decision by consensus. Decision by consensus may be the most useful tool
and has positive long-standing results regarding team decision making.
•" There are several tools or techniques that can be used to help you come to an
appropriate decision. These tools help you to map out the likely
consequences of decisions, work out the importance of individual factors, and
choose the best course of action to take. Examples of such decision-making
tools include:
−" Force Field Analysis: Analysing the pressures for and against change;
−" Six Thinking Hats: Looking at a decision from all points of view; and
"
Bellamy, L., Evans, D. L., Linder, D. E., McNeill, B. W., & Raupp, G. (1994).
Team training workbook. Arizona State University. Retrieved from
http://www.eas.asu.edu/~asufc/teaminginfo/teamwkbk.pdf.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2000). Group theory and group skills (7th ed.).
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Swinton, L. (n.a.). Kurt Lewin's force field analysis: Decision making made easy.
Retrieved from http://trans4mind.com/counterpoint/swinton4.s html
OR
Thank you.