NASARAWA STATE UNIVERSITY, KEFFI

SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

A PAPER PRESENTATION ON SOCIOLINGUISTICS

TOPIC:
ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

BY

OKOYE GRACE OGOCHUKWU NSU/ARTS/MA/089/11/12

COURSE LECTURER

PROF. OKWUDISHU

MARCH, 2012

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 Table of Contents
Abstract 2

1.0.0 Introduction

1.1.0 Ethnography of Communication 2

2.0.0 History, scope and Focus

2.1.1 History of Ethnography of Communication 3

2.1.2 Earliest work using Etnography of communication as a research 4

method

2.1.3 Scope and Focus 4

3.0.0 Ethnography and its facets 5

3.1.0 Ethnography of communication as an academic discipline 5

3.2.0 Ethnography of communication as a research method 6

3.2.1 Methods of gathering ethnographic data 6

3.2.2 Types of ethnographic data 7

4.0.0 Concepts in Ethnography of communication 8

4.1.0 Dell Hymes descriptive network 8

4.1.1 The S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G model 8

4.1.2 Speech code theory 9

4.2.0 The relationship between culture and communication 10

4.3.0 Identification of a communicative event 10

4.4.0 Ethnography of communication and the concept of stereotyping 11

4.5.0 Importance of Ethnography of communication 11

5.0.0 Summary and Conclusion

5.1.0 Summary 12

5.2.0 Conclusion 12

References 13

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Abstract

This paper examines the concept “Ethnography of Communication” and what it entails.
It looks at the evolution of ethnography of communication as an academic discipline
and a method of research. With its unique approach to the study of language, the
discipline proves and establishes that a relationship exists between communication and
culture and shows that the culture of a speech community may be perceived via
language use in specific communicative acts and social settings. As a sub-discipline of
Sociolinguistics, Its approach to language study is totally different form linguistic
theories/approach such as Structuralism and Transformational Grammar.

1.0.0 Introduction

The term ‘‘Ethnography of Communication” is a composite of two terms: ‘Ethnography’

and ‘Communication’. Ethnography is derived from two Greek words: Ethnos
(folk/people) and Grapho (to write). It is the scientific description of the customs of
peoples and cultures. It may also be defined as the qualitative research method and
product whose aim is cultural interpretation. It is a branch of Anthropology (the study
of humanity) that deals with the scientific description of specific human cultures.
According to Wikipedia, it is a qualitative research method aimed to learn and
understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings
guiding the life of a cultural group. In other words, it is the study of individual cultures.
Ethnography has its roots in Anthropology and Socio-linguistics. Ethnography is closely
related to Ethnology (the comparative study of two or more cultures).

Communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” meaning “to share”. It is
simply the activity of conveying information. Communication requires a sender, a
message, and an intended recipient. It can occur across vast distances in time/space
and requires that the communicators share common knowledge. Communication is
complete and effective when the receiver has understood the message of the sender.
Communication may be verbal or non-verbal.

1.1.0 ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION (EOC)

This refers to a method of discourse analysis in Linguistics which draws on the

Anthropological field of Ethnography (Wikipedia.com). According to Deborah Cameron
(2001), it may be viewed as the application of ethnographic methods to the
communication patterns of a group. It is also considered to be a “qualitative” research
method in the field of communication in the sense that it may be used to study the
interactions among members of a specific culture/ speech community.

According to communication scholars Thomas R. Lindolf and Brian C. Taylor (2002) in

their book “Qualitative research methods”, Ethnography of Communication
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conceptualizes communication as a continuous flow of information, rather than a
segmented exchange of messages.

Although cultures communicate in different ways, all forms of communication require a

shared code, communicators who know and use this code, a channel, setting, message
form, topic, and an event created by the transmission of the message (Littlejohn &
Foss, 2005). Phillipsen (1975) explains that “each community has its own cultural values
about speaking and these are linked to judgements of situational appropriateness (pg.
13). This implies that the meaning and interpretation of the presence or absence of
speech in different communities vary. In other to determine the appropriateness of
speech acts in a community, one must understand the local cultural patterns and
norms. This is engendered by the fact that cultural and sub-cultural differences exist in
speech and social context may also affect the value of speech.

Ethnographers observe and record patterns of social and communicative behavior in

relation to a specific situation or setting. This is possible because Ethnography of
Communication provides a systematic investigation of patterns of language usage use in
interaction.

2.0.0 HISTORY, SCOPE AND FOCUS

2.1.1 HISTORY OF ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION (EOC)

For a long time ethnographers and linguists failed to account for an interrelationship of
language and culture. Thus, Social Scientist Dell Hymes called for an approach which
would deal with aspects of communication which were both anthropological and
linguistics. With his publication in 1962, Hymes launched a new discipline that would
account for this relationship.

Ethnography of Communication was originally referred to as “Ethnography of Speaking”

in Dell Hymes’ 1962 paper. It was later redefined in his 1964 paper titled “Introduction:
Toward Ethnographies of Communication” in order to accommodate the verbal and
non-verbal characteristics of communication. However, most EOC researchers tend to
focus upon speaking because it is considered to be the most prominent aspect of
communication.

Ethnography of Communication as a method stems largely from the work of Gerry

Phillipsen, based on the prior work of Dell Hymes who began looking at how groups
used communication specifically. Phillipsen got his doctorate under Hymes and started
applying his approach to the study of speech (Ethnography of Speaking) but later
extended his work to silence and non-verbal communication, hence the broader name:
Ethnography of Communication. Hymes later went on to develop a theory from this
method known as “Speech Codes Theory”.
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A handful of scholars contributed to the development of ethnography of
communication. Among them, Gerry Phillipsen has been most influential. Gerry was
heavily influenced by Basil Bernstein and his works in sociology. Bernstein used the
term “speech code” and argued that people had different ways of speaking which
shapes their understanding of themselves, other people and social life in general. Lisa
Coutu, an ethnographer, helped formulate the second proposition of the Speech Codes
Theory. Another important influence is the work of Anthropologist and Linguist, Dell
Hymes, whose focus was on local speech practices in various cultural and social
situations.

2.1.2 EARLIEST WORK USING ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION AS A

RESEARCH METEHOD

The earliest works using ethnography of communication include:

 Teamsterville study by Pilipsen in the late 1960s – early 1970s: “Teamsterville”

was the nickname given to the area of Chicago being studied due to the
popularity of truck driving as a job for men then. He studied the speech codes of
the men and was able to pin point the style of communication as well as its
importance.
 “Nacirema” (which is American spelled backwards) is a study that was conducted
to contrast the speech of Teamsterville with that of the average American (Miller
2005).

2.1.3 SCOPE AND FOCUS

As with any other science, the Ethnography of Communication has two foci :

Particularistic: directed towards the description and understanding of communicative

behaviour in specific cultural settings.

Generalizing: directed towards the formulation of concepts and theories upon which to
build a global metatheory of human communication.

Philipsen (1989) also identified a three-fold agenda for Ethnography which are:

 To develop a discovery model / descriptive method for understanding distinctive

systems of communicative resources
 Delineating the nature and scope of cultural variation in communicative conduct
 Finding the relationship between culture and communication behavior.

The subject matter and scope of Ethnography of Communication is best illustrated by

answering this question: “What does a speaker need to know to communicate
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appropriately within a particular speech community, and how does he or she learn?“
Such knowledge, together with whatever skills are needed to make use of it is referred
to as Communicative Competence.

Communicative competence is aquired during the process of language aquisition be it

L1 or L2 acquisition via social interaction. Whereas Linguistic Competence refers to a
speakers ability to profuce grammatically correct sentences, Communicative
Competence refers to his ability to select from the totality of grammatically correct
options available to him, forms which appropraiately reflect the social norms governing
behaviour in specific contents (Gumperz 1972)

The focus of the ethnography of communication is the speech community, the way
communication within it is patterned and organized as systems of communicative
events, and the ways in which these interact with all other systems of culture.
Language is best understood when the habits, customs, institutions, philosophy and
culture are known.

3.0.0 ETHNOGRAPHY AND ITS FACETS

3.1.0 ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE

Ethnography of Communication as an academic discipline is a branch of Sociolinguistics

which stems from the fact that a relationship exists between culture and
communication. It was first conceptualized as a branch of Sociolinguistics in the early
1960s. It studies and analyses how language is used in cultural settings. It studies both
verbal and non-verbal communication though the focus is mainly on verbal
communication due to its prominence as a means of communication.

As a discipline partly based in Linguistics, the ethnography of communication

approaches language differently in contrast to linguistic theories such as structuralism
or transformational grammar. This is due to the premise or theory that the meaning of
a particular expression or speech can only be understood in relation to the speech
event or culture in which it is embedded. In this field, communication is viewed as an
uninterrupted flow of information and not an exchange of disconnected, separate
messages. Communication / speech acts rather than specific languages serve as the
frame of reference for analyzing the place and function of language in a particular
society/culture.

3.2.0 ETHOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION AS A RESEARCH METHOD

For ethnographers, the functional perspective of language has priority in descriptive

analysis. This is because language has communicative functions. The general aims of
this research method include:
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  Being able to discern which communication acts /codes are important to different
groups.
 What types of meanings groups apply to different communication events.
 How group members learn these codes.

This is neccesary to provide insight into the culture of particular communities. Such
insight may be used to enhance communication in groups, understand decisions of
group members and distuish between groups.

According to Lindolf and Taylor (2002), ethography of communication studies ‘‘provides

a highly detailed analysis of communication codes, and their moment to moment
functions in various context“.

3.2.1. METHODS OF GATHERING ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA

One core characteristic of ethnogarphy of communication as a research method is

Observation. However, other methods of gathering data exist in this field such as
Introspection, Interviewing, Ethnosemantics and Ethnomethodology/Conversation
Analysis.

OBSERVATON

This may involve varying degrees of participation ranging from strict observation
(observing communication from a distance or from videotapes) to participant
observation (whereby the observer is also participating the communicative situation).
The ethnographer may participate overtly or covertly in peoples lives for a period of
time watching and listenening in order to gather neccessary information.

INTROSPECTION

Introspection is a means for data collection only about one’s own speech community. It
is important not only for data collection but contributes to the need to differentiate
between beliefs, values, and behaviors of languages to explain enculturation (first
culture learning) and foster acculturation (second culture learning or adaptation).

INTERVIEWING

While an interview setting is often formal and contrived, if used properly, it will provide
the necessary information. The most common ethnographic interview is composed of
questions which do not have predetermined response alternatives and are appropriate
for collecting data on virtually every aspect of communication. Examples are: Do the
people who live on Red Mountain/in Green Valley talk in a different way from you? Can
you understand them? What are some examples? Who talks the “best”? Who talks
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“funny”? Why do you think they talk that way?” How do you greet someone who is
older /younger than you? How do you greet a man / woman / servant / employer?
When using this method, your informants must be reliable and questions must be
culturally appropriate.

ETHNOSEMANTICS

It is concerned primarily with discovering how experience is categorized by eliciting

terms in the informants’ language at various levels of abstraction and analyzing their
semantic organization, usually in the form of the componential analysis.

ETHNOMETHODOLOGY AND CONVERSATION ANALYSIS

It is concerned primarily with discovering the underlying processes which speakers of a

language utilize to produce and interpret communicative experiences, including the
unstated assumptions which are shared cultural knowledge and understanding

FOCUS GROUPS INTERVIEWING

This refers to the use of focus groups to study communicative behaviour. Such groups
have to be created and managed. Data from this kind of arrangement is usually verbal
and is limited to discussions in the focus group. The different between this method and
participant observation is that the latter observes communication in a natural setting
while the focus group makes use of an unnatural setting. This method is used where
participant observation cannot be possible.

3.2.2. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHIC DATA

These include:

1. Background information: Including settlement history, sources of population,

history of contact with other groups and notable events affecting language issue
or ethnic relations.
2. Material artifacts: Including architecture, signs and such instruments of
communication as telephones, radios, books, television sets and drums.
3. Social organization: Including a listing of community institutions, identities of
leaders and office holders, the composition of the business and professional
sectors, sources of power and influence, formal and informal organizations,
ethnic and class relations, social stratification, and distribution and association
patterns

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 4. Legal Information: Law and court decisions like what constitutes ‘slander’, what
‘obscenity’ and what is the nature and value of ‘freedom of speech’, or how it is
restricted.
5. Artistic data: Including literary sources (written or oral), song lyrics, drama and
other genres of verbal performance and calligraphy.
6. Common Knowledge
7. Beliefs about language: Including taboos and their consequences, beliefs about
who or what is capable of speech, and who or what may be communicated with
(e.g. God, animals, plant)
8. Data on linguistic code: Including study of existing dictionaries and grammars.

4.0.0 CONCEPTS IN ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

4.1.0 DELL HYMES DESCRIPTIVE FRAMEWORK

Many ethnographers of communication use Dell Hymes‘ descriptive framework to

conduct research and present their findings. This framework (Hymes, 1972) is intended
to be used in looking at naturally occurring speech to discover the rules for speaking
which include: modes of speaking, topics, message forms within particular settings and
activities. This frame work is refered to as the S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G. model.

4.1.1 THE S.P.E.A.K.I.N.G MODEL

The key elements involved in this model are:

Scene: the physical setting where talk occurs, cultural definition of the scene.

Participants: the actors in the scene and their role relationships.

Ends: the purpose(s), outcomes/goals of talk.

Act Sequence: the relationship between what is said and how it is said.

Key: the tone, manner or spirit in which the talk (or silence) occurs.

Instrumentalities: particular channel, language, dialect / speech variety of the talk.

Norms: normative aspect of interpretation: normative aspect of the interpretation of the

talk.

Genre: the cultural category of the talk (e.g insults, compliments, apologies)

4.1.2 SPEECH CODE THEORY

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The theory stems from the extended development of the concept of speech codes
(culturally distinctive codes of communicative conduct) and propositions about them. It
arose as a result of a need explain/capture the relationship between communication
and culture and not just a description of communicative acts alone. These propositions
include:

1. The distinctiveness of speech codes in any given culture.

2. The multiplicity of speech codes (the existence of multiple sppech codes in a
given community.
3. The substance of speech codes: a distinctive psychology, sociology and rhetoric.
4. The meaning of speech codes (how the community assesses speech codes.0
5. The site of speech codes (terms, premises and rules of speech are inextricably
interwoven with speech itself and can be seenfrom the speech of native
speakers)
6. The discursive force of speech codes (impact of speech codes on life).

The Speech codes theory was first published in Philipsen (1997). The theory is
concerned with observing communication through noticing, describing, interpreting and
explaining findings. It therefore provides answers to the following questions:

 How one can learn and report culturally distinctive ways of communicating as
encountered in a given social setting.
 How cultural codes of communicative conduct shape and motivate the way
people communicate with each other and interprete communicative acts.
 How and why culturally distinctive codes of communicative conduct have the
meaning-generating / motivating power they have.

4.2.0 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION

All social units develop a culture over time based shared experiences. These social units
are units that involve communication e.g. friends, relatives, groups, organizations,
societies. Such a culture includes rules, rituals, customs and other characteristics that
give and identity to the social units. The culture is also reflected in language patterns,
timing of events, decision making, social interaction, dress patterns, religious practices,
philosophies about life etc.

Culture and Communication are therefore related in the sense that culture is created,
shaped, learned and transmitted via communication. Culture is also interwoven and
reflected in communication.

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4.3.0 IDENTIFICATION OF A COMMUNICATIVE EVENT

Identification and analysis of a communicative event begins with a description of the

following salient components of communication:

 The genre or type of event

 The topic or referential events
 The purpose or function, both of the event in general and in items of the
interaction goals of individual participants
 The setting, including location, time of the day, season of year and physical
aspects of the situation
 The key or emotional tone of the event
 The participants, including their age, sex, ethnicity, social status or other
relevant categories and their relationship to one another
 The message form, including both vocal and non-vocal channels and the nature
of the code which is used

 The message content or surface level denotative references; what is

communicated about.

 The act sequence or ordering of speech acts, including turn taking

 The rules for interaction or what proprieties should be observed

 The norms of interpretation, including the common knowledge, the relevant

cultural presuppositions or shared understandings.

4.4.0 ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION AND THE CONCEPT OF

STEREOTYPING

Making judgements about people according to linguistic features is a common form of

stereotyping. This is possible because of the highly ‘visible’ nature of the markers in
language which correlate with extra-linguistic categories in a society, such as race, sex,
age, social class, religion, and ethnicity. Social ‘typing’ or categorization forms part of
procedures for coping with the outside world. This typing may also have negative
aspects. Stereotyping stems from an observation of cultural patterns in communicative
acts of a speech community.

4.5.0 IMPORTANCE OF ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION

1. It extends understandings of cultural systems to language by relating language

to: social organisation, role-relationship, values, beliefs and other shared

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 patterns of knowledge and behaviour which are transmitted from generation to
generation in the process of socialization.
2. It shows that studies of language acquisition must not only recognize the innate
capacity of children to learn to speak but must account for how particular ways
of speaking are developed in particular societies in the process of social
interaction.
3. It helps to evaluate the social significance of speech acts and fosters an
understanding of linguistic choices in social situations.
4. It reveals what second language learners must know in order to communicate
appropriately in various contexts in other to avoid communicative
missunderstandings
5. Its approaches and findings are essential for the formulation of a truely adequate
theory of language and linguistic competence and contributes to the study of
universals in language forms and use.
6. It serves as an observational tool for revealing the underlying patterns of culture.

5.0.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1.0 SUMMARY

There are many different languages and each of them is unique with its phonetic,
lexical and grammatical structure. Each language also has its own standards and rules
of speaking. Each Speech community creates it unique specific features like: accent,
dialect and special expressions. Every speech community has some ideas of how the
other speech community behaves and seems.

5.2.0 CONCLUSION

Much of human existence – both individual and corporate – involves communication,

verbal as well as non-verbal. Language and other aspects of communication serve many
purposes; from the gratification of individual desires to the organization of massive
cooperative efforts. It is the task of the ethnography of communication to elucidate
social conventions which guide and constrain the possibilities of communicative action.
In different societies, Ethnography of communication has contributed greatly to the
understanding of cultures, the relationship between culture and communication and
Sociolinguistics in general. As a research model and academic discipline, the importance
of ethnography of communication cannot be over emphasized. In other words, the
concept of ethnography of communication has come to stay.

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communication.".Jul. 2008.

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Faculty of Letters and Humanities. Year. 47 No. 490. www.SID.ir

Saville-Troike Muriel (2003): Ethnography of Communication: An Introduction. Blackwell

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http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication

http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnography_of_communication

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