GUIDELINES FOR DRINKING-WATER QUALITY

Toxicological review
Although monochloramine has been shown to be mutagenic in some in vitro studies,
it has not been found to be genotoxic in vivo. IARC has classified chloramine in Group
3, and the US EPA has classified monochloramine in group D (not classifiable as to
human carcinogenicity, as there is inadequate human and animal evidence). In the
NTP bioassay in two species, the incidence of mononuclear cell leukaemias in female
F344/N rats was increased, but no other increases in tumour incidence were observed.
IPCS (2000) did not consider that the increase in mononuclear cell leukaemia was
treatment-related.

History of guideline development

The 1958, 1963 and 1971 WHO International Standards for Drinking-water and the
first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, published in 1984, did not
refer to chloramines. The 1993 Guidelines established a health-based guideline value
of 3 mg/litre for monochloramine in drinking-water. Available data were insufficient
for the establishment of guideline values for dichloramine and trichloramine. It was
noted that the odour thresholds for dichloramine and trichloramine are much lower
than that for monochloramine.

Assessment date
The risk assessment was conducted in 2003.

Principal references
IPCS (2000) Disinfectants and disinfectant by-products. Geneva, World Health Orga-
nization, International Programme on Chemical Safety (Environmental Health
Criteria 216).
WHO (2003) Monochloramine in drinking-water. Background document for prepara-
tion of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health Organi-
zation (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/83).

12.90 Monochloroacetic acid

Chlorinated acetic acids are formed from organic material during water chlorination.

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 12. CHEMICAL FACT SHEETS

Guideline value 0.02 mg/litre

Occurrence Present in surface water-derived drinking-water at <2–82 mg/litre
(mean 2.1 mg/litre)
TDI 3.5 mg/kg of body weight, based on a LOAEL of 3.5 mg/kg of body
weight per day from a study in which increased absolute and relative
spleen weights were observed in male rats exposed to
monochloroacetic acid in drinking-water for 2 years, and using an
uncertainty factor of 1000 (100 for inter- and intraspecies variation
and 10 for use of a minimal LOAEL instead of a NOAEL and database
deficiencies, including the lack of a multigeneration reproductive
toxicity study)
Limit of detection 2 mg/litre by GC with ECD; 5 mg/litre by GC/MS
Treatment achievability No information available
Guideline derivation
• allocation to water 20% of TDI
• weight 60-kg adult
• consumption 2 litres/day

Toxicological review
No evidence of carcinogenicity of monochloroacetate was found in 2-year gavage
bioassays with rats and mice. Monochloroacetate has given mixed results in a limited
number of mutagenicity assays and has been negative for clastogenicity in genotoxi-
city studies. IARC has not classified the carcinogenicity of monochloroacetic acid.

History of guideline development

The 1958, 1963 and 1971 WHO International Standards for Drinking-water and the
first edition of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, published in 1984, did not
refer to monochloroacetic acid. The 1993 Guidelines did not establish a guideline
value for monochloroacetic acid, as available toxicity data were considered insuffi-
cient.

Assessment date
The risk assessment was conducted in 2003.

Principal reference
WHO (2003) Monochloroacetic acid in drinking-water. Background document for
preparation of WHO Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Geneva, World Health
Organization (WHO/SDE/WSH/03.04/85).

12.91 Monochlorobenzene
Releases of monochlorobenzene (MCB) to the environment are thought to be mainly
due to volatilization losses associated with its use as a solvent in pesticide formula-
tions, as a degreasing agent and from other industrial applications. MCB has been

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