Introduction to ecology,

ecosystem, biosphere –
components and working
mechanism of ecosystem –
types and courses of
disturbance in ecosystem –
man-made and natural
e.g.:Dereliction of land –
reclamation, conservation and
landscaping of derelict
land.ecologi
SCOPE OF ECOLOGY - AND ITS DISCIPLINES
Scope of Ecology
The behavioral relationship between individuals of a
species
e.g. The study of the queen bee, and how it relates to
the worker bees and the drones.
The organized activity of a species.The activity of the
bee assures the pollination of flowering plants. A bee
hive additionally produces honey which is consumed
by other species, such as bears & the consequences
of the environmental change on the bee activity.
Bees may die out due to environmental changes. The
environment at the same time both affects and is a
consequence of this activity and is thus intertwined
Disciplines of ecology:
with the survival of the species.
Ecology is a broad science which can be subdivided into major and minor subdiscipline.
Behavioral ecology, studies the ecological and evolutionary basis for animal behavior, and
the roles of behavior in enabling animals to adapt to their ecological niches;
Population ecology (or autecology), deals with the dynamics of populations within species,
and the interactions of these populations with environmental factors;
Community ecology (or synecology), studies the interactions between species within an
ecological community;
Landscape ecology, studies the interactions between discrete elements of a landscape;
Ecosystem ecology, studies the flows of energy and matter through ecosystems;
Global ecology, looks at ecological questions at the global level, often asking
macroecological questions.
Animal ecology, Plant ecology, Insect ecology, Arctic ecology (or polar ecology), Tropical
ecology, Desert ecology, Chemical ecology, Ecophysiology, Ecotoxicology, Molecular
ecology, Paleoecology, Human ecology and ecological anthropology social ecology.
ECOLOGY
Finally, ecology has also inspired other non-biological disciplines such as industrial ecology,– Unit
ECOLOGY - CATEGORIES
Broadly, ecology is divided into following
categories:
Physiological ecology, having to do with
the response of single species to
environmental conditions such as
temperature or light;
Population ecology, usually focusing on
the abundance and distribution of
individual species and the factors that
cause such distribution;
Community ecology, having to do with
the number of species found at given
location and their interactions; and
Ecosystems ecology, having to do with
the structure and function of the entire
suite of microbes, plants, and animals,
and their abiotic environment, and how
the parts interact to generate the whole.
This branch of ecology often focuses on
the energy and nutrient flows of
ecosystems, and when this approach is
combined with computer analysis and
simulation we often call it systems
ecology.
Evolutionary ecology, which may
operate at any of these levels but most
commonly at the physiological or
population level, is a rich and dynamic ECOLOGY – Unit
Fundamentals of Ecology
Levels of The Biosphere
Organization • Biosphere - the living
• Living things are part world and all Biotic and
of a whole. The parts in Abiotic Factors that affect
levels of organization life within it.
are:
– 9. The Biosphere Communities
• Community - made up of
– 8. Ecosystems =
populations that interact with
Biomes each other
– 7. Communities – Rabbits and hawks may be
– 6. Populations part of a community.
– 5. Organism – There are many communities in
– 4. Organ Systems a Biome.
– 3. Organs – Communities may be
separated by living or non-living
– 2. Tissues matter (mountain or other
– 1. Cells Populations
boundaries are- common).
• Population a group of
Ecosystems = Biomes
organisms that mate with
• Ecosystem – several types of living things live in
one another and live in the
environment and interact between themselves and
same place at the same
nonliving surroundings
time.
• Biome - global ecosystem located in a specific portion
– A deer or several deer may
of the world.
belong to a population as
– Deserts, oceans, and forests are examples of
long as
ecosystems and Biomes.
it can interact with other
– Biomes are characterized by the quantity of rainfall per
deer in
year.
the same area. ECOLOGY – Unit
Fundamentals of Ecology
Levels of The Biosphere
Organization • Biosphere - the living
• Living things are part world and all Biotic and
of a whole. The parts in Abiotic Factors that affect
levels of organization life within it.
are:
– 9. The Biosphere Communities
• Community - made up of
– 8. Ecosystems =
populations that interact with
Biomes each other
– 7. Communities – Rabbits and hawks may be
– 6. Populations part of a community.
– 5. Organism – There are many communities in
– 4. Organ Systems a Biome.
– 3. Organs – Communities may be
separated by living or non-living
– 2. Tissues matter (mountain or other
– 1. Cells Populations
boundaries are- common).
• Population a group of
Ecosystems = Biomes
organisms that mate with
• Ecosystem – several types of living things live in
one another and live in the
environment and interact between themselves and
same place at the same
nonliving surroundings
time.
• Biome - global ecosystem located in a specific portion
– A deer or several deer may
of the world.
belong to a population as
– Deserts, oceans, and forests are examples of
long as
ecosystems and Biomes.
it can interact with other
– Biomes are characterized by the quantity of rainfall per
deer in
year.
the same area. ECOLOGY – Unit
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION- How to define it?
Organisms
• Organism - a specific species
of plant, animal, bacteria,
fungus or other living thing that
lives in a specific area
– You and I are both organisms.
So too can be said for my pet
Smaller
cat. Than Organisms
• There are two types of organisms
– single cellular or multi-cellular organisms
– multi-cellular organisms have may be
broken
down into the following components:
– Organ systems - a set of organs inside
an organism that carry out a specific
function (digestion, circulation, respiration,
etc.)
– Organ - a set of tissues connected tthat
carry out a specific function for a living
thing (an
Smaller example ofYet
Components an organ may
•include
Tissuesthe heart,
- 2 or morethe lung,
cells theout
carry brain,
a
etc.) function for an organism.
specific
• Cell - the smallest unit of life that has
all the characteristics of living things.
– In multi-cellular organisms there are
several types of cells located in
different parts of the living organism
that carry out specific functions.
ECOLOGY – Unit
Ecological process and Dynamics
Ecology *Ecological systems are studied
• Ecology - study of interactions between biotic at several different levels from
and abiotic factors of organisms in environmental individuals and
systems populations to ecosystems and
– Biotic factors -living things (plants, animals, and biosphere level.
decomposers) * Ecology is a multi-disciplinary
– Abiotic factors - nonliving things (air, water, science, drawing on many
sunlight, and land) other branches of
Ecology is not synonymous with environment, science.
environmentalism, or environmental science. *Applied ecology is the
•Ecology is closely related to physiology, practice of employing
evolutionary
Relationshipsbiology, genetics and ethology. ecological principles and
An understanding
• Symbiosis of how biodiversity affects
- a relationship understanding to solve real
ecological
where two or function is an important focus area in
more organisms world problems.
ecological
depend onstudies.
each other for
resources. E.g. calculating fish
– Resources serve an organism population, measuring
(such as food, shelter, etc.). environmental impact from
Symbiosis construction or logging,
• A relationship between two building a case for the
organisms where one organism conservation of a species, and
benefits while the other is determining the most effective
harmed parasitism. way to protect a species.
• A relationship between two *In a broader sense, ecology
or more organisms in which can also mean:
both organisms benefit - *Natural environment: using the
mutualism. principles and methods of
• A relationship in which one ecology. ECOLOGY – Unit
 C A R RY I N G C A PAC I T Y O F
E C O SY ST E M
•The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is the number
or biomass of different kinds of organisms that the
ecosystem can support.
•That carrying capacity is a function of the number of
people, the amount of resources each person
consumes and the ability of the Itearth to on
depends process
many all
the wastes produced. factors such as

•Nutrient content of the

soil,
•Precipitation
•Temperature and
•Light levels.

ECOLOGY – Unit
E C O LO G I C A L C O LO N I Z AT I O N

•Colonization is the process in biology by which

a species spreads to new areas and refers
to successful immigration where a population
becomes integrated into a community, having
resisted initial local extinction.
•Colonization is the act where life forms move into a
distant area where their kind is sparse or not yet
existing at all and set up new settlements in the area.
Colonization applies to all life forms and is most often
used in reference to insects and humans.

ECOLOGY – Unit
E C O LO G I C A L S U C C E S S I O N
•Ecological succession is the observed process of change
in the species structure of an ecological community over
time. The community begins with relatively few pioneering
plants and animals and develops through increasing
complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as
a climax community.

NEW COLONIZIN SUCCESSIONI

CLIMAX
BARE G STAGE ST STAGE
STAGE
SUBSTRAT ECOLOGY – Unit
 THE ECOSYSTEM AND THEIR FUNCTIONING

ECOSYSTEM - How to define it? Each ecosystem has a self

An ecosystem is a natural unit regulatory mechanism
consisting of all plants, animals and HOMEOSTATIS
micro-organisms (biotic factors)…. The human
organism
…..in an area functioning together consists of
with all the non-living physical trillions of cells
(abiotic) factors of the all working
environment. together for
the
No Plant or animal inhabits in a maintenance
place as single…. of the entire
Balance of Nature:organism
Equilibrium is
They exist as a collection termed as maintained in each ecosystem for
it to function well
COMMUNITY
oIt keeps on changing with
Several similar individuals form a the time and is not static.
Community oFactors that induce change
include the carrying capacity of
No ecosystem is self sustaining the environment and the capacity
for recycling of the waste.
ECOLOGY – Unit
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS – TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC
FOREST ECOSYSTEM is a
terrestrial unit of living
organisms,interacting
among themselves and
with the environment
(soil, climate, water and
light) in which they live.
Types
•Tropical Rain Forest
•Temperate Evergreen,
Deciduous Forest etc…
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM is a
biological community that
contains few trees or
shrubs,dominated by
grasses or grass like plants.It
occupies about 19% of
earth’s surface.
TERRESTRIA Types
L •Tropical and subtropical
TERRESTRIA DESERT ECOSYSTEM exists
L where there is little rainfall
and the climate is extreme
in harshness. It occupies
about 17% of the earth’s
surface.
Types
• Hot and Dry Deserts
•Cold Deserts
•Semi-Arid Deserts etc…
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM is in
thewater bodies.
The two main types of
aquatic ecosystems are:
• Marine ecosystems
• Freshwater
ecosystems.(Lentic, Lotic,
Wetland)
AQUATIC
ECOLOGY – Unit
COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM
For any component if this equilibrium is affected, it destabilizes the whole
equilibrium, since all the components are inter-related

EXCHANGE OF ENERGY AND

oClimate ( MATTERAnd Micro)
Macro
BIOTIC oPhysiography ( Form Of Land)
COMPONENTS
Living Community
oSoil( Edaphic Factors of water, Air,
Ecosystem Nutrients,etc.)
oPlants – Plant Communities
ABIOTIC
oAnimals – Animal Communities
COMPONENTS
Nonliving Physical
Environment oMicrobes – Microbial Communities
ECOLOGY – Unit
ECOSYSTEM -Natural Processes of Ecosystems
Energy enters the biological system as o Energy flow is
light energy, or photons, is transformed Unidirectional
into chemical energy by processes
including photosynthesis and respiration,
and ultimately is converted to heat
energy.
Heat energy is dissipated, once it is lost it
cannot be recycled,without continued
input of solar energy, biological systems
would shut down.
Thus the earth is an open system with
respect
Elementstosuch
energy.
as carbon, nitrogen, or
phosphorus enter living organisms in a
variety of ways. These materials are
transformed biochemically within the
ECOSYSTEM SUSTAIN
bodies of organisms, but sooner or
THROUGH
later, due to excretion or
decomposition, they are returned to an o Ecosystems have energy
flows
inorganic state through the process
called decomposition or mineralization o Ecosystems cycle
materials.
During decomposition these materials
ECOLOGY – Unit
ECOSYSTEM - NUTRIENT CYCLE
Cycling of chemical elements NUTRIENT FLOW IS CYCLIC
required by life between the
living and nonliving parts of the
environment. Some examples of
these chemical elements are
H2O, P, S, N2, O2 and C.

These elements cycle in either a

gas cycle or a sedimentary cycle;
some cycle as both a gas and
sediment.

In a gas cycle elements move

through the atmosphere. Main
reservoirs are the atmosphere
and the ocean.
Eg:Carbon, Nitrogen ,oxygen
cycles
In a sedimentary cycle elements
move from land to water to
The elements are cycled endlessly
between their biotic and abiotic
states within ecosystems. Those
elements whose supply tends to limit
biological activity are
called nutrients.
ECOLOGY – Unit
Trophic levels
The flow of energy is the important factor
TROPHIC LEVELS
that controls what kind of organisms live in
an ecosystem and how many organisms
the ecosystem -can
AUTOTROPHS support.(PRIMARY
PRODUCER
ENERGY SOURCE)

Most life on Earth depends on

photosynthetic organisms, which
capture sunlight and convert it to
chemical energy in organic
molecules called food.

Primary productivity determines the

amount of energy available in an
ecosystem. Special class of consumers called
DETRITIVORES
All other organisms in an Detritivores are organisms which
ecosystemCONSUMERS - obtain their energy from organic
HETEROTROPHS wastes and dead bodies produced
at all trophic levels.
Consumers are those organisms that They are the decomposers of the
consume plants or other organisms to
food chain; helping return their
obtain their energy. nutrients to the Earth. ECOLOGY – Unit
 Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
Organisms are divided into autotrophs and heterotrophs according to
their energy pathways. Autotrophs are those organisms that are able to
make energy-containing organic molecules from inorganic raw
material by using basic energy sources such as sunlight. Plants are the
prime example of autotrophs, using photosynthesis.
All other organisms must make use of food that comes from other
organisms in the form of fats, carbohydrates and proteins. These
organisms which feed on others are called heterotrophs.
Animals that eat other
Detrivores An organism, such as a bacterium,
animals, like carnivores
fungus, or insect, that feeds on dead plant or
and omnivores ..
animal matter.
An omnivore is a
A herbivore is an animal anatomically
kind of animal
and physiologically adapted to eating
that eats either
plant material, for example foliage, for
other animals or
the main component of its diet
plants.
A herbivore is an animal that gets its
energy from eating plants, and only
plants
ENERGY FLOW - FOOD CHAIN AND FOOD WEB
oThe path of energy through the
trophic levels of an ecosystem is called
a food chain
There are two basic types of food chains:
o GRAZING (autotrophs are the primary source
of energy for the initial consumers) and
o DETRITAL (the initial consumers, primarily
bacteria and fungi, use dead organic matter as
their source of energy).
Eg. Pond ecosystem
Eg. Forest ecosystem
In most ecosystems, energy
does not simply follow one
path on one level because
organisms often feed at
many different levels of a
food chain.
This creates a complicated
interconnected group of
food chains called a food
web.
A simplified food web that
illustrates movement of nutrients
is cyclic, whereas the
movement of energy is
unidirectional and noncyclic
ECOLOGY – Unit
ENERGY LOSS - FOOD CHAIN

The sun,original During every transfer of energy in an

source of energy ecosystem, energy is lost as heat.
(100,000 units of
energy) At each trophic level, the energy stored
by the organisms in a level is about 1/10th
Plants capture <1% of of the energy stored by the previous level.
the available light
energy for production This loss of energy limits the number of
(photosynthesis 1,000 trophic levels an ecosystem can support.
units of energy-98%
loss) As a result, there are usually
few organisms at the
Herbivores consume highest level in a food web
about 10% of the and increasingly more
plant biomass organisms as you move
produced (100 units down the energy pyramid
of energy-90% loss) to successively lower
feeding levels.
Carnivores capture ENERGY PYRAMID is used by Ecologists to
and consume about illustrate energy flow at each trophic level .
10-15% of the energy ECOLOGY – Unit
Ecological balance is a term describing how ecosystems are
organized in a state of stability where species coexist with other
species and with their environment.

Ecological Balance
A great example of ecological balance is the predator-prey
relationship between the Canadian lynx and snowshoe hare.
When the snowshoe hare population increases, there is more food
available for the Canadian lynx. Since there is more food available
for the Canadian lynx, its population increases. Since there are
more Canadian lynxes, they eat even more snowshoe hares and
thereby cause the snowshoe hare population to decrease. When
the snowshoe hare population drops, there is less food available
for the Canadian lynx. This reduced food availability causes the
lynx population to eventually drop. This cycle continues over and
over with each species keeping the other species population in
check.
Ecosystem Disturbances

Even if an ecosystem is balanced, it does not mean that no

changes ever occur. A wind storm might roll through wiping
out a swath of trees, a predator might be overhunted, or a
drought might reduce the availability of food resources. These
ecological changes are called disturbances. A disturbance is
any change that causes a disruption in the balance of an
ecosystem.

Another great example of ecological balance is the gray

wolf living near Yellowstone National Park. In the early 1900s
the gray wolf was overhunted to the point of extinction. The
wolf was an important thread keeping the ecosystem
balanced. When this thread was broken, the entire
ecosystem began to unravel.
What is a Natural Disturbance?
A disturbance is any event that causes a disruption to the
current state of an ecosystem. Disturbances can be localized –
only impacting a small patch of land – or they can affect an
entire forest or wetland. The results of a disturbance can be
short-lived or long-term. Sometimes it takes a few months
for an ecosystem to bounce back and other times it can take
decades.
Natural disturbances are caused by forces of nature, including
weather, geology
Types of Natural and biological fluctuations
Disturbances
Fire
Flood
Wind
Disease
Severe Storms
Insect Swarms
Volcanic Activity
Drought
Long term Freezing
Earthquake
What Happens to an Ecosystem After a Natural Disturbance?
After a fire or a flood impacts an ecosystem, there can be
devastation. Plants die, animals are displaced from their former
homes and tracts of land may have no wildlife at all. But these
situations are temporary. If you had a time-lapse camera to watch
the long-term aftermath of a disturbance, you would see a lot of
positives come from a seemingly negative event.
Healthy ecosystems have an amazing ability to bounce back from a
disturbance. Sometimes the ecosystem will go back to its former
structure, with the same plant and animal species. Other times, the
disturbance will create something new by allowing new species to
move in..
For example, imagine a new disease spreading among a particular
mouse species. The disease could greatly reduce the mouse
population or even cause it to go extinct in that area. The
consequences of this disturbance are felt throughout the ecosystem,
because all the predators and prey of the mouse must adapt to the
new conditions. The hawk and snake predators must find new
sources of food, while the grasses the mice fed on will spread to new
areas. Even if the mouse population never rebounds, the ecosystem
will eventually adjust to the new conditions.
Natural Disturbances are Healthy for Ecosystems
Natural disturbances are not a new thing. They have been
around since the beginning of time, shaping ecosystems
and species. Disturbances are bound to happen, and
ecosystems are adapted to an occasional disturbance.
Some ecosystems depend on disturbances. The
threatened longleaf pine ecosystems of the Southeast
depend on fire to control the growth of understory
plants. Without fire, young longleaf seedlings are
outcompeted by other plants and have difficulty reaching
maturity. Similarly, silver maple trees can spread and grow
after a flood, because they are flood-tolerant. When other
trees die, silver maple can grow.
Human Disturbance
Not all disturbances are natural. Human actions have
contributed to a lot of the disturbances we see in
ecosystems today. While natural disturbances happen on
occasion, human disturbances are putting constant
pressure on ecosystems and dramatically impacting
species.
Human disturbances, including clear-cutting, habitat
fragmentation, and pollution, are continuously affecting
ecosystems. The moment the ecosystem begins adjusting to
one stress, another appears. Many ecosystems that we
depend on are not given enough time to adapt to the new
conditions. The natural cycle of disturbances – growth,
dieback and growth – cannot properly function, because
too many disturbances are putting pressure on the
ecosystem at once.
HUMAN INTERVENTION
Human Intervention
• Every ecosystem has a carrying
capacity. It can tolerate a certain
load only
• Sunlight is abundant. Water &
nutrients are supplemented by
irrigation and fertilizers which in
turn absorbs lot of energy.
• Decomposers are not adequate
•Inputs, (fertilizers and irrigations)
keep on adding to the ecosystem
The residue left by the chemical
fertilizers are non-biodegradable.
They become redundant and
could take upto 40 – 60 yrs to
degrade

Eutrophication:
 Excess of fertilizers used on land find their way into
water bodies through surface run-off
 They initiate a sudden increase in aquatic plant
life, like water hyacinths.
On inadequate supply of dissolved oxygen, they
start dying
 This dead organic matter accumulates – pungent
smell emanates, water becomes acidic and its
potability reduces.

ECOLOGY – Unit
DERELICT LAND
DERELICT LAND
Derelict land: land that is damaged or
abandoned and cannot be put to any use
until the damage is required.

LAND THAT CANNOT BE CONSIDERED

DERELICT LAND BY DEFINITION INCLUDE:

• Land that is derelict due to natural

causes e.g. neglected woodland,
farmland, marshes, mudflats, etc.
• Land damaged by development that is
subject to enforceable planning
conditions.
• Land still in industrial or other recognised
use..
• Vacant sites awaiting development.
Small areas of neglected or unsightly
land less than 0.02ha.
WHAT CAUSES DERELICT LAND?

More commonly a result of human activities, although

Sometimes it can be caused by natural disasters. Poor
farming methods and mining are two human activities
that can damage the land
DERELICT LAND –
CAUSES
Farming:
• Fertility of arable land can be lost through poor
farming.
• Over-intensive use of land does not allow it to
replenish its lost nutrients in time.
• Fertility of land decreases over time.
• Land would then not be suitable for cultivation
MINING :
• Vegetation and rocks are usually
removed at the mining site to obtain
Large holes dug into the ground become
filled with rainwater and form dangerous
deep mining pools.
• Water is polluted.
• Mining wastes left behind may also
contain toxic substances that
contaminate the soil and water in the
mining pools.
• Land becomes useless
HOW DO WE RESTORE DERELICT LAND?

• Using fertilizers and irrigation – for land

spoilt by farming practices.
• Restoring derelict land needs a little more
work.
• Waste heaps need to be leveled and
mining pools filled.

• Chemicals can be used to treat

contaminated soils.
• New vegetation can be planted to provide
cover for the soil to prevent topsoil erosion
during the recovery period.
DERELICT LAND USES OF RECLAIMED DERELICT LAND:

Agriculture Industry Housing Recreational facilities (parks) egs.

Sunway Lagoon Park in Malaysia (former tin mine); Little Guilin in
Bukit Batok Singapore
LAND RECLAMATION
INTRODUCTION:-

The term “land reclamation” is used to describe two different

activities.

In the first sense, land reclamation involves modifying wetlands or

waterways to convert them into usable land, usually for the purpose of
development.

Land reclamation can also be a process in which damaged land is

restored to its natural state

LAND RECLAMATION:
Definition:
To recover land that has lost its productivity and to make it usable
again. Land reclamation is also (commonly) used to refer to creating
dry land from an area covered by water (sea, lake, swamp)
The practice of filling in wetlands and waterways to make more land is
ancient.
Humans tend to settle near water, since they need water to survive, and
because waterways can be used as a method of transportation for
people and goods. As human settlements grow, the pressure on the
existing land also grows, and people may start to expand outwards by
filling in the surrounding area. Land reclamation has historically been
accomplished with garbage and other landfill material, making
reclaimed areas highly unstable and prone to developing sinkholes.

Reclaimed land can also be quite expensive, since it is located close to

the water in areas which are appealing to many settlers. People may be
willing to pay a premium for reclaimed land, especially if they used to
live and do business by the shoreline and the land reclamation has
pushed their property inland. In some regions of the world, land
reclamation happened so long ago that people are not aware that they
are living and doing business on land which was created by artificial
means.
Land reclamation is also used to repair environmental
damage.
For example, if a beach becomes severely eroded, beach
nourishment may be used to restore the beach, in a form of
land reclamation which is designed to preserve the existing
natural environment.
Land reclamation is also used in regions which experience
desertification, with the goal of turning arid land into
farmland.
Regions like Southern California were settled after land
reclamation made the land usable, while in parts of Africa
and Asia where the desert is expanding, land reclamation is
used to keep human communities intact.
Environmentalists utilize a version of land reclamation to
repair land which has been subjected to some form of
environmental damage.
.
For example, heavily polluted land may be put on a land
reclamation plan which is designed to remove the pollutants
and promote the re-establishment of native plant and
animal species. Damaged wetlands, including wetlands
which have been filled to make usable land, can also be
reclaimed through a slow environmental remediation
process

WHY DO WE NEED TO RECLAIM LAND?

• Land may be damaged due to natural hazards eg. Fires

• Human activities can also damage the land eg. Poor farming
methods.

• Cases of waterlogged land eg. Swamps and marshes Problem of

land scarcity where it may be difficult to find new land to restore
or improve.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?

• Increases the availability of arable land.

• Expanding the carrying capacity of land.

• A feasible solution to the problem of

overcrowding
• .
• It allows for further growth of a country’s
industries.

• Reclaimed land can be used for a multitude

of purposes
WHAT IS RESTORATION?

The relevant definition of restoration is “the act of restoring to a former

state or position ... or to an unimpaired or perfect condition.”
To restore is “to bring back to the original state... or to a healthy

There is both the implication of returning to an original state and to a

state that is perfect and healthy.

This seems to be the way in which we continue to use the word on both
sides of the Atlantic.
REHABILITATION IS DEFINED AS

“the action of restoring a thing to a previous condition or status.” This

appears rather similar to restoration, but there is little or no implication
of perfection.

Indeed in common usage, something that is rehabilitated is not

expected to be in as original or healthy a state as if it had been
restored.
REMEDIATION IS THE ACT OF REMEDYING.

To remedy is “to rectify, to make good.” Here the emphasis is on

the process rather than on the endpoint reached.

Reclamation is a term used by many practitioners, especially in

Britain but also in North America.

It is defined as “the making of land fit for cultivation

But to reclaim is given as “to bring back to a proper state.”

There is no implication of returning to an original state but rather
to a useful one.
Replacement is, therefore, a possible alternative option.

To replace is “to provide or procure a substitute or equivalent

in place of” (although an alternative meaning is to restore).

Mitigation is a word often used when restoration is considered.

It is important to note that it is nothing to do with restoration.

To mitigate is “to appease... or to moderate the heinousness of

something.” So although mitigation can be an outcome of
restoration it is a separate consideration.

Since the word restoration has been adopted for the title of this
workshop, it will be used as the point of reference, despite its
troublesome perfectionist implications (Francis et al. 1979).
 LAND RECLAMATION AND
RESTORATION OF DERELICT LAND
INTRODUCTION
Abandoned farmland in Arizona is located mainly in the south-central
part of the state, along the Gila River between Phoenix and Yuma and
also in the lower Santa Cruz valley,

an area north of Picacho Peak up to where the Santa Cruz enters the
Gila River.

Figures on the amount of abandoned farmland in the state are not readily
available.

This partly is because abandoned farmland does not represent an

established statistical category, distinct, say, from active farmland or
even virgin desert.

Such lands therefore exist in varied conditions. Some lands are well on
their way to natural recovery.

Other lands are denuded of soil or vegetation and in need of human

intervention before vegetation again can grow. For example, farmland
located in an area with relatively high rainfall and coarse soil may have
growths of desert broom and burrowed within five years. This represents
the beginnings of the recovery process.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF ABANDONED FARMLAND
1. Neglected agricultural lands are prone to extensive wind
erosion, with land literally drying up and blowing away.

Air pollution worsens and contributes to respiratory

illnesses in humans and livestock.

2. Further, resulting dust storms create road hazards causing

traffic accidents.

3. Weeds encroaching on neglected former farmland represent

another environmental liability.

For example, Russian thistle, more commonly known as

tumbleweeds, usually is the first to establish itself and may
dominate the land excluding other plant species. Tumbleweeds
then might spread to neighbouring cultivated fields. Owners of
abandoned farmland may need to spend significant amounts of
money to control and cut weeds to avoid possible litigation.
4. Water flows rapidly over fields denuded of vegetation increasing
land erosion. Such flooding also causes damage to fences and
country roads. Groundwater recharge is reduced in such areas of
rapid runoff.

5. Abandoned farmland often exists in a patchwork or checkerboard

pattern, with uncultivated areas interspersed with natural areas. This
creates habitat fragmentation that isolates species and restricts their
movements and diminishes plant and wildlife diversity.

REVEGETATION STRATEGIES
• The best strategy is to begin revegetation before the land
is abandoned.
• Once land is abandoned conditions generally
deteriorate. Roads are neglected and in disrepair.
• Water pumps likely are removed, and irrigation ditches
may fill with silt and be inoperable.
• Such conditions complicate revegetation and increase its
expense.

• • If revegetation is begun before the land is abandoned,

water is available, and adapted vegetation can be
established to form a productive plant community to
stabilize the site. Soil is less likely to become windborne,
and the growth of tumbleweeds is controlled.
These variables include planting date, field preparation,
irrigation, mulch, and species composition.

• To understand how planting schedules affect vegetation

growth Jackson arranged three plantings of the same seed
mix, in mid-January, late March, and mid-July. The seed
mix was made up of seeds from native vegetation
including mesquite, creosote bush, purple and three kinds
of saltbush
REVEGETATION STRATEGIES
• Since soil moisture also is an important variable affecting plant
growth, irrigation was controlled to determine its effects.

Three irrigation treatments accordingly were worked out.

Six plots received one four-inch irrigation treatment per month for
six months.

Another six plots received less than one acre-foot, and a final six
plots received no irrigation during the same period.

All plots were mulched.

Seeds of native species growing in nearby desert scrub then were

planted to take advantage of the 1991 winter rainy season.

The winter rains were to provide the plentiful rainfall needed for
seedlings to germinate and grow.

The catchments successfully harvested rainwater, and mulch

helped the growing seedlings to survive the dry spring months
EFFECTIVE STRATEGY FOR RESTORING DERELICT DESERT FARMLAND

involves building water catchments, applying a coarse,

woody mulch, and then planting repeatedly a portion of a field,

possibly about every third year, until a year of abundant rainfall
occurs.
• The researchers have successfully identified native trees,
grasses, and shrubs with good potential to establish successfully in
southern Arizona.

They also identified which species are best established during

summer and which in winter.

For example, grasses, trees, as well as jojoba, acacia, and

creosote shrubs establish more successfully when planted prior to
the summer rains.

Saltbushes, on the other hand, establish best if sown prior to the

winter rains.
LAND DEGRADATION DUE TO
MINING IN INDIA
INTRODUCTION

Mining activity exerts a long lasting impact on landscape,

eco-system and sociocultural-economic considerations.

It is noteworthy to mention that the actual land mass

available to man kind is just 30% of total global surface area.

India’s land area is about 2-3% of the global land area,

where as it supports more than 16% of the global population.

This important statistics reveals that the poor per capita land
holding stands at 0.32 hectares, which calls for due attention
to restoration /reclamation of land after mining in order to
utilize the land for useful purpose.

Mining and its subsequent activities have been found to

degrade the land to a significant extent.
Overburden removal from the mine area results in a very
significant loss of rain forest and the rich top soil.

Overburden removal is normally done by the process of

blasting or using excavators, which results in generation of
large volume of waste (soil, debris and other material).

The bigger the scale of the mine, greater is the quantum of

waste generated.

Opencast mines are therefore more pollution intensive as

they generate much higher quantities of waste compared to
the underground mines.

Open-pit mines produce 8 to 10 times as much waste as

underground mines
LAND DEGRADATION The ratio of overburden excavated to the
amount of mineral removed is called the stripping ratio.

For example a stripping ratio of 4:1 means that 4 tonnes of waste rock
are removed to extract one tonne of ore. Lower the ratio, the more
productive the mine.

Stripping ratio varies with the area under mining. The coal mines of Coal
India Limited (CIL) removed about 500 million cubic m (Mcum) of
overburden (OB) to produce 260 mt of coal in 2003-04 at an average
stripping ratio of 1.92 cu m of OB against per tone of coal production.

As demand for coal increases to meet the country’s energy requirement,

the coal companies are digging deeper and deeper and even opting for
lower grades of coal.
The country is even planning for production from 300 m
depths at stripping ratio of 1:15 for D and F grade quality
of coal. If these mines were operational, it would mean
that even if 1 million tonnes of coal were extracted, it
would generate 15 million tonnes of waste material.

This is huge quantity and in a country like India where

land is at premium, it would be very difficult to find
enough land to store this waste
Though most mining wastes, such as overburden, are inert
solid materials, the industry also generates waste that is
toxic in nature.

Some of these toxic are inherently present in the ore, for

example, heavy metals such as mercury, arsenic, lead, zinc,
cadmium, etc.

These heavy metals leach out of the stored waste piles,

contaminating the local environment.

However, some toxic chemicals are also found in waste, as

they are added intentionally during extraction and
processing.
Impact of mining on land environment gets reflected in
land-use pattern of the respective area because the more
the land gets exposed to erosion by loosing its green cover
or by getting disturbed otherwise due to mining
(excavation, overburden dumping etc.) and related
activities,

its water resources gets damaged, soils get contaminated,

part or total of flora and fauna gets lost, air and water gets
polluted and the more damages go on proceeding in
accelerated rates and the cumulative effects push the land
towards degradation. The process works through a cycle
known as land degradation cycle.
The National Academy of Sciences, America has defined three
categories of remedial treatment:

REHABILITATION: The land is returned to a form and productivity in

conformity with a prior land-use plan including a stable ecological
state that does not contribute substantially to environmental
deterioration and is consistent with surrounding aesthetic values.

RECLAMATION: The site is hospitable to organisms that were originally

present or others that approximate the original inhabitants.

RESTORATION: The condition of the site at the time of disturbance is

replicated after the action.
The reclamation process consists of several key features that
must be studied carefully for effective land restoration:

MAPPING, in order to delineate the areas of direct and indirect

environmental degradation with the use of accurate and
appropriate techniques, viz. scaled maps, remote sensing and
aerial photographs etc.
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS for the
strata that is likely to influence restoration, this includes the filed
and laboratory testing of soils and materials to investigate the
parameters that are essential for sustainable restoration. For
example the toxicity of the soil, stability of waste dumps need to
be investigated before reclamation is carried out.

METEOROLOGICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION in

order to collect standard data (temperature, amount of rainfall,
humidity and wind patterns etc.) and to assess their influence on
atmospheric and water pollution.
HYDROLOGICAL CONDITIONS

at a site include the quantity, quality, movement and storage of water

above and below the surface.

Hydrology is determined by upslope and onsite characteristics of

climate, geology, topography, soil and vegetation.

Climate provides the water input to the hydrologic system whereas the
other parameters determine the movement of water into and across
the surface.
TOPOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS
refers to the surface configuration of an area described as rugged,
rolling, gentle or smooth.

The topography surrounding the disturbed sites also influences

reclamation plans and practices.
The reconstructed surface must blend with the undisturbed
landscape so that matter and energy fluxes smoothly travel through
the reclaimed surface.
SOIL CONDITION

including the soil’s water holding capacity controlled by the

combined factors of texture, aggregation, bulk density and
over all depth directly influences plant productivity, leaching
potential and ground water replenishment.

VEGETATIVE CONDITION particularly the quality, quantity and

diversity of vegetation at a site reflect the entire environment
setting in addition to the past and present human activities.
The plant community in area may be native and introduced,
sensitive and tolerant, common and endangered species
TOPOGRAPHIC RECONSTRUCTION:

Most natural landscapes are composed of drainage basins which in

turn consists of hill slopes and stream channels in an orderly
arrangement for effectively conveying water and sediment.
.

Topographic design, therefore should be based upon expected

properties following reclamation rather than predisturbance properties.

Care is also to be taken to minimize erosion and runoff where ground

cover is temporarily removed.

Special flood-control and sediment control measures are necessary to

prevent damage.
REPLACEMENT OF TOPSOIL AND SOIL RECONSTRUCTION:

Revegetation of the reclaimed surfaces require a suitable

growth medium.
In most cases, top soils have the necessary physical, chemical
and biological properties to sustain plant development,
although the use of substitute geologic materials is often
inevitable.

In general top soil layers are higher in organic matter, microbial

activity, and nutrients than underlying subsoil or geologic
material.

Top soils contain significant seed bank that can be used to

great advantage in revegetation.
Stock piling and reuse of top soil almost always facilitates
achievement of reclamation goals.

When spoil or other course-textured materials are revegetated

without top soil covers, moisture stress induced by compaction, high
course-fragment contents, salts, and high surface heat is usually the
primary factor limiting growth.

Therefore as far as practicable the top soil should be stored at a

suitable place with proper precautionary measures so that it could
be utilized during reclamation process.

SOME OF THE BEST PRACTICES INVOLVED IN THE TOPSOIL

MANAGEMENT ARE:

• Scrap the top soil prior to drilling and blasting

• Scrapped topsoil should be used immediately for plantation work,

otherwise it should be stacked in a designated area.

•
Stacked topsoil should be surrounded by proper embankments to
prevent erosion.

• Stacked topsoil should be stabilized further by grasses and bush to

protect from the wind.
REVEGETATION:

Revegetation is a principal goal of reclamation and results in many

desirable secondary water quality and aesthetic benefits.

Revegetation goals are from simple erosion control to the full

restoration of complex native communities.

The approaches and protocols employed, therefore, are specific for

region, site and land use.

The development of a permanent vegetation cover should aim to

establish a plant community that will maintain itself indefinitely without
attention or artificial aid, and support native fauna.

To extract better results, some ecological variables must be

considered while selecting species for plantation.

These are; their capacity to stabilize soil, soil organic matter and
available soil nutrients, and under storey development.
• In the initial stages of revegetation quick growing grasses with
short life cycle, legumes and forage crops are recommended.

It will improve the nutrient and organic matter content in soil.

Plantation of mixed species of economic importance should be done
after 2-3 years of growing grasses.

While selecting suitable species for plantation in mine area, the

following considerations have to be taken into account:

 Planting pollutant tolerant species.

 Plants of fast growing with thick vegetation foliage

 Indigenous/exotic plants species with easy adaptability to the

locality.

 Socio economic requirement of the people of the surrounding

area.