Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.

4, December 2018

Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles:

From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging
Kishore Naik Mude*
(Solace Power Inc., 1118 Topsail road Mount Pearl, Newfoundland and Labrador, A1N5E7, Canada)
Abstract: Recent fossil fuel shortages and global warming related problems have caused a
substantial shift from internal combustion engine vehicles towards EVs. This paper explores the
thorough review of battery charging infrastructure from wired connection to on-road wireless charging
for an EV. The initial part of the paper deals with the wired charging and its power electronics
infrastructure. The later portion deals with the wireless charging where both static and On-Road types
are discussed. Furthermore, various aspects of wireless power transfer are also discussed. The Market
scenario and future growth prospects are reviewed and presented in last section of the paper.
Keywords: Wired charging, static WPT, on-road WPT.

1 Introduction Wireless charging has been attracting more attention

The increase in price of oil and environmental
issues has resulted in growing interest in clean vehicle
technologies such as EV and Fuel cell EV[1]. As a result,
electric vehicles(EV) are becoming a more attractive
solution than conventional vehicles(CV). EVs are
powered by electric batteries, which need to be
recharged with electricity from the grid. It is clear that
the EVs constitute a clear link between the electricity
and the transport sectors. Moreover, the EVs can provide
a good solution to reduce the environmental impacts of
transportation and energy dependency because they have
low energy consumption and zero emissions[2].
Generally, two types of battery chargers are used:
off-board and on-board battery chargers with uni-
directional and bi-directional power flow. Most of the
battery chargers take a power from the utility grid, for
this reason they often termed as unidirectional battery
chargers(UBCs)[3] . Unidirectional charging reduces
the interconnection issues and battery degradation. On
the other hand, some battery chargers work in both
directions and these are called bidirectional battery
chargers(BBCs)[4]. These chargers support stabilization
of power with proper power conversion. On-board
chargers can be used to charge from the utility outlet at
the workplace or household plug or shopping malls
during the day time. Off-board charging is like a gas
station used for conventional vehicles and thus its
purpose is to charge fast. Compared to off-board
charging, equipment is less for on-board charging.
Charging of an electric vehicle can be performed by
either wired(conductive) charging or wireless(inductive)
charging[5]. Wired charging uses metal contact between
electric vehicle supply equipment(EVSE) and the
charging inlet of the vehicle. Even though wired
charging is popular, problems with messy wires and
safety concerns in wet environment are major drawbacks
of this system. These problems can be overcome by
charging the battery of the vehicle without wires and this
technology is termed as wireless power transfer(WPT).
*Corresponding Author, Email:kishore.308@gmail.com.
because of their advantages compared to the wired
counterpart such as no exposed wires, ease of charging,
and fearless transmission of power in adverse
environmental conditions[6].
Depending on the charging time and power level of
the battery, EV charging is classified into four types
namely mode1, mode 2, mode 3 and mode 4 charging[7-8].
Mode 1 charging is considered as slow charging and
takes overnight. Mode 2 charging is typically described
as semi fast or nominal charging. Both mode1 and mode
2 charging use single phase supply. Mode 1 charging is
generally installed at home, but mode 2 charging is
installed mostly at public places and shopping malls.
Mode 3 and mode 4 are considered as fast charging
which typically use the three-phase supply and can
charge the battery in less than thirty minutes[9] .
Depending on various connections and plug type, they
are classified as Case A, B, C and Type 1,2,3
respectively.
Now a days, the concept of vehicle-to-grid(V2G)
has gained interest due to its ability of to supply stored
energy to the grid[10]. It absorbs energy from the grid to
charge the battery during peak electricity production and
delivers to grid when there is a peak electrical demand.
EVs with BBCs are able to implement V2G concept as
bidirectional power flow capabilities of their battery
chargers. So, BBCs can work in two operating modes,
namely “recharge” mode when they absorb energy and
“generation” mode when they deliver energy to grid.
In recent years, interest in wireless charging
technology is growing for EV charging applications[11].
It consists of two main stages, namely the transmitter
and the receiver, each of them having a coil coupled
to the other one with an air gap between them. By
Faraday’s law of magnetic induction energy will transfer
from the transmitter to receiver. Misalignment of coils,
long charging times and degradation of the battery are
major issues. The difficulties in static wireless charging
can be overcome by on-road charging and charge the
battery while in vehicle is moving which saves the
charging time and degradation problems[12].
On-road EV charging is an emerging technology
 2 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018
where one can charge their EV batteries while vehicle
is on move[13-14]. Apart from their advantages such as
less battery requirements, they suffer a problem of
misalignment and further leads to synchronization
failures[15]. Various loading conditions, frequency mismatch,
misalignment and component tolerance are the main
causes for the synchronization failure.
This paper is organized as follows: Section 2
considers the EV charging infrastructure and section 3
Power supply infrastructures. Section 4 considers and
discusses wireless charging of EVs in static position and
section 5 refers to On-Road wireless charging of and
EVs. Section 6 discusses evaluation and the future scope
and market scenario of battery chargers and section 7
concludes the paper.
2 EV charging infrastructures
2.1 Types of battery charger
Depending on the charging time available, chargers
can be installed in houses, offices, shopping malls and
public places to enable EV owners to charge their EV.
Wired type EV battery chargers have direct connection
to the supply using an extension power cord to plug
from the wall outlet into the EV. It is popular, simple in
design and highly efficient. The wireless battery charger
uses coupling as the mode of energy transfer. Through
inductive chargers, a charging station is used to transfer
high voltage and current directly from the grid into an
inductive paddle or pad with an electro-magnet that acts
as half a transformer. The other half is situated inside the
EV and once full contact is made between the two
magnets, the current is allowed to flow across and into
the battery, charging at a higher rate due to the charging
stations direct power grid connection. The charging
structure for the both chargers shown in Fig.1(a) and 1(b).
(a) Wired charging
(b) Wireless charging
Fig.1 Wired and wireless charging[12]
2.2 Charging infrastructure-modes, cases and types
The success of EVs will be highly dependent on
whether charging stations can be built for easy access.
This is also critical for the potential grid supports that
EVs can provide. The first place considered for charging
stations should be homes and workplaces. Other
potential locations with high populations include gas
stations, shopping centers, restaurants, entertaining places,
highway rest areas, municipal facilities, and schools.
There have been various standards regarding the energy
transfer, connection interface and communication for EV
charging.
Mode 1 charging is the use of a standard AC 110
Volt (for US), 230V (for Europe and most of the world)
and not exceeding 16A household outlet. Electric
vehicles come with on-board charging electronics, as
well as cords and equipment that allow the vehicle user
to plug their car into an outlet in their garage. This is the
cheapest and most convenient home-based charging
method, but it is also the slowest. Charging times vary
greatly from vehicle to vehicle, but generally take
around 7~15 hours for a fully depleted battery to be at
full capacity. For example, if the driver of a Nissan Leaf
– which has about a 100-mile range – drives 30 miles
daily, the battery will only be depleted 30% each day.
Since Mode 1 charging will recover about 4.5 miles of
range per hour, the Nissan Leaf will be back to full
charge after 7 hours. It is generally installed in
household garage. So, it doesn’t require special socket
for the charging the battery in USA, this method of
charging is prohibited as it requires earth connection.
Mode 2 chargers use a 230V or 440V AC mains not
exceeding 32A. It can be charged through charging
stations often located in public places, such as at the
shopping malls, restaurants, city parks, or even workplaces.
Mode 2 charging is generally referred to as “opportunity
charging” because vehicle user usually uses this type of
charging whenever they have the chance. Mode 2
charging takes around 3~8 hours for a full charge and
nominal cost of installation of around $1000 to $2000.
Mode 3 charging is the fastest and most powerful
type of charging available. It typically operates with
three phase 440V supply and require off-board charger,
as a result, it provides a vehicle with a full charge in
minutes instead of hours. These charging stations are
used for EVs as well as large vehicles like electric buses,
and are found in public and commercial areas, airports,
and transportation corridors.
The scenario for Mode 4 charging is a setup where
the AC mains power is converted in the charging station
into d.c. and the plug type ensures that only a matching
EV can be connected. Using DC fast charging allows for
considerable higher currents up to 400A. A Japanese
protocol CHAdeMO is a d.c. fast charging standard
designed for EVs that complies with Mode 4 charging. It
charges in less than 30 minutes and up to 50kW with
communication management protocol. Infrastructure
cost of $30000 to $160000 has been reported[9].
Now, only Teslas can use the Tesla Supercharger
network. Superchargers are installed widely across the
US(and Europe) and can charge an electric car faster
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging
than any other chargers out there. Tesla is quickly
growing the Supercharger network, and this creates
one large competitive advantage for the popular EV
company. At the moment, Tesla Superchargers have a
max power output of 120kW.
Depending on method of charging infrastructure
and connection, cases are classified as three types
namely Case A, B and C. “Case A”: connection of an EV
to the a.c. mains utilizing a cable and a plug permanently
attached to the EV. It is typically used with Modes 1 and
2 charging. “Case B”: connection of an EV to the AC
mains utilizing a detachable cable assembly with a
connector (to be inserted in the EV inlet) and a plug (to
be inserted in the supply outlet). Case B1 corresponds to
the connection to a wall-mounted socket-outlet. Case B2
corresponds to the connection to a charging station. Case
B connection is typically used with Mode 3 charging.
On the other hand, “Case C”: connection of an EV to the
a.c. mains utilizing a cable terminated with a connector
(to be inserted in the EV inlet) permanently attached to a
charging station or a specific supply equipment. Only
Case C is allowed for Mode 4 charging.
Type 1 connector introduced by Yazaki(SAE J1772)
for charging the PEV battery from a single-phase supply.
Type 2 connector introduced by Menneskes(IEC 62961)
for charging the PEV battery from single-phase 230V
and three-phase 400V supply with current up to 63A[9].
Type 3 connector introduced by EV Plug Alliance:
Scame/Schneider(IEC 62196) for charging from single
and three-phase supply equipment. It has a maximum
current of 32A and a safety shutter. There are two
versions: Types 3A and 3C. Type 3A is for charging a
light PEV battery(f.i. motorcycle) from a single-phase
supply with 250V and 16A; Type 3C is for charging
all-PEV battery from single and three-phase supply with
up to 500V and 63A, all of them with control pilot.
"Type 4" – connector for fast d.c. charge(IEC 61851). It
is termed CHAdeMO like Mode 4 charging.
An electric supply equipment(EVSE) consists of
conductors, including the ungrounded, grounded, and
equipment grounding conductors, the electric vehicle
connectors, attachment plugs, and all other fittings,
devices, power outlets, or apparatuses installed
specifically for the purpose of delivering energy from
the premises wiring to the electric vehicle.
The control pilot sits in the charging cable
assembly connecting the in-cable control box or the
fixed part of the charging facilities and the EV earth
through the control circuitry on the vehicle. Functions
that shall be provided by the EVSE or the EVSE and
vehicle system are. ① Verification that the vehicle is
properly connected or not; ② Continuous checking
Fig.2 Schematic of cable and wire types[16]
3
of the continuity of the protective earth conductor;
③ Energization and de-energization of the system.
There are optional functions also provided by EVSE
including selection of the charging rate, determination
of ventilation requirements of the charging area, detection/
adjustment of the real time available load current of the
supply equipment, retaining/releasing of the coupling
and control of bidirectional power flow to and from the
vehicle. EV charging. Fig.3 shows the control function
and how EVSE is operated at different conditions.
3 Power supply infrastructures
In order to charge a vehicle battery while considering
the battery-charging characteristic and power factor
from the grid is seen unity, there are two categories
among many circuit topologies: unidirectional battery
chargers(UBC) and bidirectional battery chargers(BBC).
In the UBC, the set of converters arranged from grid to
battery, all are not active/controlled converters(i.e. made
of diode rectifier) and they are not able to support
bidirectional power flow. Therefore, these kinds of
chargers are less complex and can only fulfill the purpose
of charging the battery. The other type is bidirectional
chargers which have ability to charge the battery as well
as transfer battery power to the grid in certain situations.
The BBCs have active converters with bidirectional
power flow, so these are more complex but also have
more flexibility of power flow. Both UBC and BBC
have circuit arrangement with and without electric
isolation between load and supply side converters. The
isolated battery chargers use a high frequency transformer
that provide galvanic isolation as well voltage-matching
(step up/down) between input and output side. The high
frequency transformer has many other advantages like
low volume, lightweight, low cost, less noise and reduced
core saturation over a line frequency transformer.
(a) Equivalent circuit of control pilot
(b) Timing sequence
Fig.3 Control function of EVSE at different conditions[16]
 4 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018
3.1 Unidirectional battery charger
A typical battery charger performs rectifying and
power-conditioning operations of the power extracted
from grid. The input power of the charger is passed
through a set of power converters, which include AC
to DC(rectifier), DC to AC(inverter), or DC-to-DC
converters (chopper) according to the requirement.
Based on conversion stages, the chargers are again
classified in single stage, two stage and so on. Since
battery chargers for vehicle application work with high
power and they have to follow fast charging strategy and
grid power factor constraints as well, therefore not all
this is possible in single stage. The multiple stages of a
charger consist of rectification of ac power, power factor
correction(PFC), DC to AC (high frequency) conversion,
galvanic isolation, rectification and then DC-DC
conversion to meet charging strategy. A typical schematic
of this process is shown in Fig.4.
The diode rectifier takes AC current from the utility
and provides DC current to the next stage. There is a
capacitor before the second stage of power conversion;
this keeps voltage of dc bus constant. Due to the
constant dc bus voltage, the input ac current of the
rectifier is not completely sinusoidal. The distortion in
input ac current leads to poor power factor at utility. In
order to improve PF at input side, a power factor
correction(PFC) circuitry is introduced between dc bus
and diode rectifier. The PFC is a dc-to-dc converter,
which provides varying voltage conversion ratio to
maintain the shape of input current sinusoidal.
High power chargers for EV batteries need isolation
for safety reasons. The isolation is provided by a HF
transformer, which works with some kHz frequency.
As shown in Fig., the inverter converts DC bus voltage
to high frequency ac supply to feed transformer input.
Another main function of the transformer is to step-down
voltage level, which is suitable for battery; this is not
done by chopper, as it is less efficient. The secondary ac
voltage of the transformer is rectified again with diode
rectifier. In the next and final stage, the rectified dc
voltage is fed to the battery and this is done by a DC
chopper. At the beginning of the charge, the chopper
operates in current control mode; when the battery
voltage approaches its nominal value, the chopper enters
into voltage control mode and completes the charging
process.
3.2 Bidirectional battery charger
The charger as discussed above and shown in Fig.4
cannot allow power flow in reverse direction, because of
uncontrolled diode rectifiers. If converters in all stages
are kept bidirectional converters i.e. full controlled
Fig.4 Schematic of a full functioned unidirectional
battery charger [12]
converters, then the complete charger arrangement
becomes bidirectional. In the first stage, instead of a
diode rectifier, a fully controlled rectifier is then used as
it can perform bidirectional flow as well as the function
of power factor correction. In the same way in the
secondary side of transformer if full controlled converter
is utilized instead of the diode bridge, the dc chopper
can be eliminated as shown in Fig.5.
The first bridge converter in the supply side has full
flexibility to control DC bus voltage and power factor
with desired direction of power flow. Other two bridge
converters connected with a high frequency transformer
performs the main function of this type of chargers. Both
of these converters work with square wave pattern of
voltage and frequency in kHz. There is an inductor L
that works as temporary energy storage and it support
both converter to operate with soft switching. A good
design of converters and their components can ensure
much less switching losses and in this way, good
efficiency is achieved. Because there are two controlled
converters or active bridge across the HF transformer,
this topology is called dual active bridge(DAB) battery
charger.
The DAB technology was initially proposed in
early 90’s when semiconductor devices were not well
developed. Again, this is more popular today for
on-board battery chargers for EVs but there are still
some issues that are seeking more research interest.
One of the problems with DAB is circulating current in
the transformer. When the voltage amplitudes of primary
and secondary do not match according to turn’s ratio,
very small circulating current is flown, and this leads to
more losses and heat in the transformer and converters.
This problem can be fixed using an appropriate phase
shift scheme in primary side or secondary side or both
sides of the converters. Some examples of phase shift
are single phase shift(SPS) where a certain phase shift is
given between primary and secondary voltage, then
extended phase shift(EPS) where one additional internal
phase shift is given between 2 legs of one converter, one
is dual phase shift(DPS) where an equal internal phase
shift is given in both converters. There is a unified
scheme of phase shift that is called triple phase
shift(TPS) where both primary and secondary voltages
have a phase shift with both converters have unequal
internal phase shift.
Another big problem is range of soft switching of
both converters with varying load condition. Actually,
DAB has good efficiency at full load with a wide
voltage conversion ratio, but the soft switching range
decreases as load current decreases. Therefore, under
light load condition, various resonant techniques are
used as a solution to improve the range of soft switching.
The DAB combination is designed using some additional
Fig.5 Schematic of a bidirectional battery charger[12]
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging
passive components (inductor, capacitor) such that it has
simple construction, lightweight, smooth, easy and
robust control, wide soft switching range and less
sensitivity with parameter variation.
3.3 Integrated chargers
As charging and traction are not simultaneous in
EVs, except during the regenerative braking, the
so-called integrated chargers are also applicable. They
use the electric drive system components also during
charging. This leads to a significant reduction in volume,
weight, and cost. This integration also allows galvanic
isolation, but both the power electronics and the control
circuit of the integrated charger have to take care of the
reconfiguration of the electric drive systems. The aspects
that need further research are charger isolation, charging
voltage control, unwanted magneto motive force
developed in the motor during charging, power factor
operation, and harmonic content in the current from the
grid, efficiency, and hardware/software complexity.
4 Static wireless power transfer
4.1 WPT: definition, structure and principle of
operation
Wireless power transfer systems(WPTSs) are
systems able to supply a load with the electric energy
absorbed from the grid without requiring any wired
connection between load and grid. Due to enormous
advantages compared to the wired charging, they are
particularly attractive for EV applications
The arrangement of a WPTS is sketched in Fig.6.
Transmitter coil is buried in the road and the receiver
coil is located on-board the EV. When the vehicle is
properly parked over the transmitter coil, the two coils
are coupled and energy can be transferred from the grid
to the battery, which acts as the load of the system.
By the Faradays law of magnetism, the emf will induce
in the secondary coil, which further charges battery
through power conditioning system. The elements in
WPT system includes ① Utility grid with power
conversion system; ② Magnetic coupling system in
transmitter and receiver; ③ Power conditioning system
to charge the battery[17].
The technologies encompassed with the WPTS are
electric[18], magnetic[19] and electromagnetic fields[20].
These technologies broadly classified based on
underlying mechanism, transmission range and power
rating. Based on power transfer distance these are
classified into near field and far field. Laser, Microwave
and RF are considered as far-field methods. Inductive,
capacitive technologies consider as a near field. Even
Fig.6 Schematic of WPT system[17]
5
though far field transfers large distances, they suffer
from tradeoff between frequency and efficiency.
Inductive technology, adopted in the so-called inductive
or resonant coupling WPTSs, is most convenient for
medium- and high-power equipment because it transfers
a much higher energy per unit of volume than the
electric-field technology, and does it with much higher
efficiency than the electromagnetic-field technology.
Simplified WPTS represents magnetic WPTS consist of
inductive WPTS and resonant WPTS.
4.2 Aspects of WPT
Present day WPT system for an EV, mainly focus
on the following aspects; ① Physics of WPT system;
② Efficiency maximization techniques; ③ Coil coupling;
④ Power supply requirement; ⑤ Safety and shielding
issues; ⑥ Communication requirements. Therefore, this
paper proceeds further with detailed explanation of each
of the aspects. The detailed analysis is described as
follows
4.2.1 Physics of WPT system
Critical issues of the WPT system lie in understanding
of the physics, as it gives an overview of coupling
system design which plays a crucial role in development
of WPT system Different/various parameters.
(1) Inductive parameters.
One of the key factors that define the performance
of WPTS is the coupling coefficient of the coils. It
depends on the size and the shape of the coils and on the
distance between them. The magnetic flux density is
calculated between the two coils with a distance z
0 2R 2
B nI 
(1)
4
R  2
z2 2
Where R is the radius of the coil and A is its cross-
section. The last expression of B in (1) holds when the
distance from the coil is much longer than the coil radius.
If the magnetic induction magnitude is assumed constant
across the coil cross-section, the self-inductance of the
coil is
0
L  n2 R (2)
2
where n is no. of turns. The mutual inductance between
two equal coils set coaxially at a distance d, much longer
than R, is
 R 4
M  kL  n 2 0 3 (3)
2 d
Figure of merit (FOM) is another important aspect in
the wireless power transfer and [67] give the power loss
in the WPT

2
(kQ) 2

1  1  (kQ) 2  (3a)
The graphical figure for the Eq.(3a) shown in
Fig.7(b) which shows it is only dependent on the two
basic parameters of the WPT: The coupling factor k,
 6 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018
(c) Frequency vs Q
Fig.7 The relationship between parameters of the WPT [67]
between the receiver and transmitter coil and the system
quality factor Q. Moreover, from the equation, it can say
that the general FOM is product of k and Q.
(2) Near field and far field.
Near fields[21-22] can be seen as the reactive field
surrounding any electrically charged object. In the static
case, these fields are simply the electro-static fields,
while in the non-static case they form time varying
electric and magnetic fields, which are out of phase
close to the object (closer than λ) and can be used to
induce current in near-by objects. In contrast to the
far-field waves, near-fields represent zero energy flow
according to the Pointing vector due to the 90-degree
phase difference between the electric and magnetic
fields[23]. This gives nearfields an advantage in efficiency,
as they do not radiate energy away from the source
(3) Loosely coupled and tightly coupled.
If all the flux links the secondary, then k is 1 and if
none of the flux links the secondary k is 0 i.e. 0≤k≤1.
Based on the values of k the magnetically coupled
system can be classified into two categories, namely
tightly coupled systems and loosely coupled systems.
In tightly coupled systems, such as transformer and
induction motor, the primary is placed in proximity of
secondary and flux is shaped by placing windings on the
core of high magnetic permeability. Therefore, they have
mutual inductance greater than the leakage inductance.
Because of tight coupling, k usually lies between 95% to
98% for the transformer and approximately 92% for the
induction motor[24].
In the case of using magnetically coupled system
for powering EVs, a large air gap is required to allow for
inconsistency in the road surface and better clearance
between the road and vehicle. Because of this large air
gap, the leakage flux is very high, and the coefficient of
coupling is from 1% to 3% only. Such applications are
classified under loosely coupled systems and poor
coupling in loosely coupled systems leads to poor
transfer of power. To improve coupling and compensate
leakage inductance, capacitive compensation in primary
and secondary windings is required.
If the conductor is composed of one or more
concentric circular elements, then the center portion of
the conductor will be enveloped by a greater magnetic
flux than those on the outside. Consequently, the
self-induced back EMF will be greater towards the
center of the conductor, thus causing the current density
to be less at the center than at the conductor surface.
This extra concentration at the surface is known as skin
effect, and results in an increase in the effective
resistance of the conductor. The skin depth, δ, is defined
as the depth at which the current density falls to 1/e,
(about 0.37), of the current density at the surface. This is
given by
2
 (4)

where ρ is the resistivity of the material and is related to
the conductivity as 1/σ, μ is the permeability of the
material and ω is angular frequency of the electrical
solicitation.
4.2.2 Efficiency maximization techniques
It can be observed that quality factor and coupling
coefficient plays a major role in determine the efficiency
of WPT system that maximizing efficiency techniques
such as. ① Use of ferrite disks[25]; ② Compensation
techniques by placing a capacitor[26-27]; ③ Power
electronics control[28]. The detailed realization of above
methods is explaining in following sections.
In an inductive WPT, without secondary resonant
capacitors, the Power transfer to the load cannot be
sufficient unless the input voltage is large. The reason is
that the impedance of the receiver coil is quite large and
therefore is responsible for a significant current drop in
the load resistance. The best way is to increase the input
voltage so that the power transferred to the load is
sufficient, but this solution is not optimal because it
requires higher current amplitudes in the primary coil,
which in turn generates greater Joule losses. This may
lead to dramatic results in terms of efficiency and Joule
losses. Compensation topologies can be classified
depending on reactive structures into single-resonant
(SRT) and multi-resonant types(MRTs). The single-
resonant structures shown in Fig.8(a) associate a
capacitor to each coil whereas multi-resonant Fig.8(b),
Fig.8(c) topologies employ multiple reactive components
in the transmitter and/or the receiver side. The two
compensation capacitances CT and CR for the main
topologies give two degrees of freedom in the system. In
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging 7

addition to their simplicity, there exists a wider study on
the single-resonant structures so that some design
guidelines have already been identified in [29].
Among the three categories, TWERT is a promising
topology because with SRT required reactive power
compensation and complex methodologies with THERT.
The efficiency is well explained in the Table 1, and the
comparison of various parameters for the TERT is
tabulated in Table 2.
4.2.3 Coil-coupling
(1) Sizing issues.
Coil coupling is heart of the WPT system design.
(2) Coil impact parameters.
Coil parameters such as geometry that includes
diameter, no. of turns and coil material are important
evaluating parameters of the design process. Coil
geometry of WPT influenced by coil material and
optimizing coil material can improve the system
performance. Copper Litz wire is commonly used in
most of the systems and multi-layer, multi-turn tubular
coils have been adopted for improving the transmission
efficiency, with a study of the skin effect.
The method of approach for coil design must
constrained to following points:
● The inductance and power capability must meet the

Prior to design of the coupling system, one must have category requirements, including the working frequency
clear idea of the behavior of coil impact parameters such and transferring power.
as coil design, core design, and coil alignment. The ● The mechanical dimension must fit to the target

impact parameters are influenced by such as coil application, including the coil area and thickness.
material, dimensions of the coil, core, and misalignment. ● The coil must provide the electromagnetic shielding

Careful study of these parameters are useful for the best for the associated electronic device, such as the
coupling system design. mobile phone.
● Durable construction.

There is generally a trade-off between coil size,

performance, and cost. Coil size and cost are inversely
related smaller coils give a better performance, but at a
higher cost. Coil structures can also influence the
performance of the system. Spiral coil, flat coil, square
(a) Single element resonant topology(SERT) coil, circular and DD coils have different performances
according to the studies in [30].
As an example, for the mentioned dimensions of 15
turns and with round wire cross section, inductive
parameters of different shaped coils are built as shown
in Fig.9. The turn distance in all the coils is kept 7mm
(b) Two element resonant topology(TERT) (center to center). The values of inductive parameters
simulated by COMSOL are mentioned in Table 3 for
these spiral coils.
(3) Cored coupling.
To enable higher coupling coefficient and to direct
the magnetic flux lines in proper direction, ferrite cores
are used. Ferrite cores are utilized because of their
(c) Three element resonant topology(THERT)
properties of high magnetic permeability, useful in
Fig.8 Example of different types of directing the flux, and low electrical conductivity that
resonant compensation topologies
mitigates the magnetic losses under high-frequency flux
Table 1 Efficiencies of different topologies[29]
cycles. Different ferrite core structures are illustrated in
literature, for example, in [30], cores having the I, C and
Topology Efficiency (%)
E sections shown in Fig.9, have been examined.
Series-series 94.6
Series-parallel 94.6 Table 3 Inductive parameters of different types of coils
Parallel-series 87.5
Shapes
Parallel-parallel 82 Paramters
LCC-series 94.2 Square Hexagonal Circular D-D shape
LCC-parallel 94.3 Self-inductance L/µH 86.0290 58.8241 73.672 53.449
LCC-LLC 93.5 Mutual inductance M/µH 17.1589 8.8950 12.199 9.5461
Coupling coefficient k 0.1995 0.1512 0.1656 0.1786
Table 2 Comparison of topologies[26]
Characteristics SS SP PS PP
Efficiency High High Low Low
Power supply sizing factor High Low Low Low
Receiving coil sizing factor Low High High Low
Per unit load current High Low Low High
Load dependency No Yes Yes Yes
Circuit impedance Min. Min. Max. Max.
Fig.9 Core structures(I, C and E) [30]
 8 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018
The difference between the coupling coefficient for
coreless and cored coupling for the varying the no. of
turns is examined. For the fixed distance of 0.15m, the
coupling coefficient of cored coupling is 75% more than
the coreless case[31].
(4) Coil misalignment.
Clearly, coil orientation (alignment) is one of the
major issues for EV charging application. Because of the
tolerance in the vehicle-parking maneuver, the receiver
coil may be not perfectly aligned with the transmitter
coil during charging. This leads to a coupling coefficient
lower than the nominal one with a consequent decrease
of the efficiency in the power transfer. For EV charging
applications, as with the tolerance in the vehicle-parking
maneuver, the receiver coil may be not perfectly aligned
with the transmitter coil during charging. This leads to a
coupling coefficient lower than the nominal one with a
consequent decrease of the efficiency in the power
transfer
Fig.10(a), (b) and (c). Shows the coupling coefficient
behavior of the 4-coil systems for coil distance, lateral
misalignment and angular misalignment conditions.
(a) Distance
(b) Lateral misalignment
(c) Angular misalignment for the 4-coil system[32]
Fig.10 Coupling coefficient for the
Fig.11 shows the behavior of coupling coefficient
vs coupling coefficient. Which shows the coupling
coefficient decreases with increase in misalignment
scenario handled by the various researchers mainly by
power electronics control circuitry and with compensation
topologies Compensation circuits are placed in the
primary and secondary side to improve power transfer,
efficiency, voltage regulation, controllability etc[33].
4.2.4 Power supply requirements
(1) Frequency selection.
For effective wireless power transfer a high
frequency alternating current is necessary. This frequency
is in the order of 10kHz to 100kHz, which is much
higher than the 50Hz of the electrical grid. The desired
frequency is achieved by combining a rectifier with an
inverter. In order to keep losses at a minimum soft
switching was preferred (today WBG devices), where
the transistors of the inverter only switches on or off
when the current is zero. The specification on the
operating frequency follows from the recent resolution
of the SAE International J2954 Task Force for WPT that
fixed at 85kHz the nominal frequency of operation of
the WPT systems for light-duty plug-in vehicles[34].
(2) Power converter.
At first on the primary side, Power Electronic
System (PES) converters having utility frequency i.e. 50
or 60Hz which is converted to high frequency AC
(greater than 20kHz). Either a single stage or two stage
can do this. In single stage, power conversion is done
directly from low frequency AC to high frequency AC
using AC-AC cycloconverters while, two stage can be
done by initially converting AC to DC and then DC to
AC conversion performed by high frequency inverter.
The DC-AC converters are commonly used to
generate a high frequency current on the primary side of
a WPT system. Practically, there are two approaches to
achieve high frequency current generation: linear
amplifiers or switch mode power converters. In the
former case, the semiconductor devices are operated in a
linear region. Even though the development of different
classes of linear electronics amplifiers provides various
improvements, the nature of high power loss in linear
region limits a linear amplifier to low power
applications, where power efficient is not so important.
Comparing to linear amplifiers, switch mode power
converters can achieve high efficiency by fully on/off
control. Therefore, switch mode power converters are
widely used to generate high frequency track currents
for medium or large WPT applications, where the power
efficiency is one of the major concerns.
Fig.11 Coupling coefficient vs misalignment [31]
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging
Numerous switch mode power converters are
currently being deployed to generate high frequency
track currents for WPT systems. The input power source
for a switch mode high frequency power converter can
be either a DC or directly from AC mains. Thus, the
switch mode power converter for a WPT system can
be commonly classified further into two categories
according to the type of their input sources. They
are DC-AC inverters and direct AC-AC converters.
Practically, because a direct DC source is not ubiquitous
for accessing to generate high frequency currents, at
present most of the power converters used for WPT
systems are two stage AC-DC-AC converters. To obtain
a constant DC power source, a front-end AC-DC
rectifier is needed. In addition, energy storage elements
are necessary to link the rectification circuits and the
DC-AC inverter to buffer the difference between the
instantaneous input and output power within a two-stage
converter. In order to meet the requirements of
international standards and improve efficiency, many
methods are applied to the AC-DC conversion stage,
such as synchronous rectifiers, filters, power factor
correction circuits, etc. Once a stable DC power is
obtained, a second stage DC-AC inverter is required for
the high frequency track current generation.
A PWM hard switching technology is commonly
used in the design of power converters. Using such a
switching technique, the on and off transients of the
switches may take place at non-zero voltage or current
instants leading to a hard switching operation. In
addition, during the on and off switching transients, the
semiconductors have to withstand high voltage and
current simultaneously resulting in high switching losses
and stress. Passive inductive or capacitive components
can be used as snubbers of semiconductor switches to
reduce the switching dv/dt and di/dt. Any variation of
the dead time caused by the switching control.
The inverter is a full bridge inverter shown in
Fig.12, based on an existing Phase shift full bridge
inverter, where the phase shift is driven to be as close to
100% as possible. This inverter is designed for a higher
voltage and power level but approximately the same
load current.
The term phase shifted full bridge relates to a
control scheme where both legs are separately driven to
a duty ratio very close to 50% and then phase shifted
against each other than the 180 degrees shift between the
two legs’ waveforms there is also a delay between the
turn off of one transistor and the turn on of the other one
Fig.12 Full bridge inverter
9
in the same leg. Primarily this ensures that the full
bridge does not suffer from current shoot through, where
it otherwise would have issues at time periods where
both the upper and the lower transistor in the same leg
are open, i.e. the supply is short circuited. The main
point about phase-shifted control in comparison with
using conventional pulse width modulation(PWM)
waveforms is the possibility to not only control the duty
cycle but also add some degree of control of the
switching losses.
(3) Losses in converter.
Loss analysis is very important for any power
electronics system. Due to the increasing use of power
electronics in a wide range of applications, power loss
measurement with high accuracy is of great importance
in the design process to assess system performance and
to optimize design characteristics. To measure the total
loss of the system it is necessary to have the idea of
losses of individual devices of the system.
Losses in the converter have two types, namely the
conduction losses and switching losses. When switching
the inverter at the resonance frequency, resonant
switching takes place i.e., ZCS and ZVS can be
accomplished thereby reducing the switching losses
during the switching on and/or switching off. This also
makes it possible to operate the converter at high
switching frequencies when compared to hard switching
PWM converters.
The other losses associated with the converter are
the conduction losses that are dependent on the type of
switches used. In case of SiC MOSFETs, the conduction
losses are dependent on the current flowing through the
switch and the on state drain to source resistance.
Researchers have approached the system analysis aspect
of WPT[35], studied the effect of multiple receivers on
the transmitter and how the system can be better tuned
by optimizing the load variations.
(4) Control techniques of converter.
There are various techniques used to control the
output power and frequency of the system which
includes fixed frequency and variable frequency.
Different control methodologies such as voltage control,
duty cycle control, frequency control and phase shift
control. The advantages and disadvantages of different
techniques are tabled in Table 4.
The main issues regarding type of converters are
how they affect the various performance parameters.
Various literature[36-37] deals with uncontrolled rectifier
with power factor correction circuits[38-39] and the other
Table 4 Comparison of different control schemes
Control Scheme Advantages Disadvantages
Simple, good current Poor efficiency due to two
Voltage control waveform on complex conversion stages, more
current distribution components
Duty cycle Simple to design without Serious current harmonics
control front end power converter and floating
Non-linearity, not able to
Frequency Applicable to high power,
maintain operating frequency
control simple to design
under resonant condition
Relatively complex but
No front end converter,
Phase shift manageable control scheme.
so high efficiency and
control Can only applicable to full
low EMI
bridge inverter
 10 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018

hand uses the controlled rectifier. The previous one
mostly used topology for its simplicity with less control
mechanism rather than latter ones requiring the complex
control mechanism[40-42].
In the receiver side, the transmitted power is
converted to DC by using the AC-DC converter, which
may be controlled, or uncontrolled[43]. DC-DC chopper
can do the regulation of power level according to battery
specification and the ripple content can be decreased by
inserting a capacitor across the load[44-47].
The control mechanism and regulation of converters
are important aspects in WIPTS. The control method of
a wireless charging system is an important topic closely
related to power electronics converters[48-49]. Many
control methods have been developed in stationary
charging systems as well as dynamic charging systems.
In the stationary charging applications[50-51], the control
methods are designed to achieve high system efficiency,
desired outputs, and bidirectional power transfer between
grid and battery packs[52-53]. On the other hand, for
dynamic WIPTS applications, control and regulation
have been developed to solve the synchronization and
misalignment problems[54-55].
4.2.5 Safety and shielding issues
The design of the magnetic field distribution is also
a significant factor in a WPT system, particularly in a
high-power transfer system. As a magnetic flux of more
than thousands of mill tesla from the current of
thousands of amperes is generated between the transmitter
and receiver coils, even 0.1% of leakage from the main
flux can be hundreds of milli tesla, which is several
times larger than the magnetic flux regulation suggested
by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing
Radiation Protection [55]. Therefore, it is essential to
control the leakage magnetic flux for WPT applications
the shielding will be mainly added under transmitter and
above the receiver is important for the safe operation of
WPT. Without shielding, following problems may occur:
① The magnetic field may interfere with the device or
field, and so the net magnetic field in the vicinity of the
loop is reduced. Fig.13 shows the behavior of magnetic
flux density for three cases i.e. without shield, with
ferrite shield and with both ferrite and aluminum
shielding.
4.2.6 Communication and standards
In terms of communications and standards for
wireless power transfer, relev ant work in development
includes IEC 61980-2 SAE[57] between Plug-in Electric
Vehicles and the Utility Grid. Communications for
wireless charging will use DSRC(Dedicated Short
Range Communications). This is a coordinated effort
between US DOT, SAE DSRC Committee as well as the
SAE Communications Committee, and will open up
numerous opportunities for electric vehicles. The firms
working in different part of world and their technological
relevance is summarized in Table 6.
5 On-road WPT (ORWPT)
From the vehicle viewpoint, ORWPT enables
infrastructure where EVs can be charged continuously
while in motion, However, employment of such system
is reliant on the infrastructure development, which in
turn is limited by its cost. The schematic diagram of
ORWPT is shown in Fig.14. In addition, the amount of
(a) Without shielding

other objects; ② May cause battery heating and ③ It

may circulate current in metallic parts.
There are two basic methods for shielding against
low to medium frequency magnetic sources, which
includes diversion of the magnetic flux with high-
permeability materials[56] and the generation of opposing
flux via Faraday’s law. Assuming the external medium
is free space with μ =μ0 and the shield is constructed of
a ferromagnetic material having μr >>1, the magnetic
field will tend to concentrate in the low-reluctance
(b) Shielding with Ferrite
ferromagnetic path, and as such will be diverted from
affecting the free space region. To achieve this effect,
the ferrite plate has to be thick enough; otherwise, the
leakage flux into free space is considerable. An
alternative to the mentioned above is the field
distribution when an aluminum sheet is attached to the
ferrite plate. According to Faraday’s law, a current
circulates in the aluminum sheet and associated
magnetic flux is generated.
The induced magnetic flux is of a polarity or (c) Shielding with ferrite and aluminum
direction as to counteract the original incident magnetic Fig.13 Magnetic field distribution
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging
Fig.14 Schematic of IM-WPT system
energy gained through WPT depends on the power level
of the system[58-60], vehicle speed and duration that vehicle
travel. In general, ORWPT track can be categorized into
two types; elongated track and segmented track[61]. The
first type consists of a substantially long transmitter
track connected to a power source. Segmented track has
multiple coils connected to high frequency power
sources as shown in Fig.15. The single transmitter track
can be few meters to several tens of meters long.
However, this type of design suffers from several
drawbacks. Firstly, the electromagnetic field emitted
within the uncoupled region has to be suppressed to
eliminate harmful exposure. Secondly, the compensation
capacitor has to be distributed along the track to
compensate large inductance. This brings additional
constraints in construction. Thirdly, coupling coefficient
is low because of the smaller transmitter region covered
by the receiver resulting lower efficiency. On the other
hand, segmented track eliminates issues raised by single
transmitter track such as field exposure and requirement
for distributed compensation while lowering coupling
issues. However, it introduces the design challenges
such as synchronization between track and pickup. In
addition, separation between transmitter coils needs to
be carefully optimized by placement of the segmented
coils on track. However, coils cannot be kept too close
to each other due to two reasons. Firstly, negative
mutual inductance between adjacent transmitter coils is
significant generating negative current stress. Secondly,
design cost will be increased with many transmitters in a
given length of the track. On the other hand, designing
the Power supply such as HFI for each segmented track
is not a feasible solution. In addition, integrating the
control of overall mechanism with synchronization
poses major design challenges.
(b) Segmented track
Fig.15 Elongated and Segmented track [65]
11
It is necessary to track the receiver position and
switch the appropriate power source as the load moves
along the array. In addition, separation between
transmitter coils needs to be carefully optimized. When
coils are placed too apart, efficiency reduces steeply and
when the receiver moves away from the transmitter and
power transfer will not be continuous. However, coils
cannot be kept too close to each other due to two reasons.
Firstly, negative mutual inductance to all between
adjacent transmitter coils are significant generating
negative[62].
Apart from charging issues, the ORWPT requires
controlling and design of driving cycles of the vehicle,
charging lane length and its performance over a range of
the driving cycles. In [63], researchers are considered
three driving cycles (UDDS, HWFET and VAIL2NREL)
and the three type of vehicles (compact car, large car and
SUV). Several power levels for the charging station
were tested (up to 60 kWh); the results are the optimal
length of the charging lanes, location in the drive cycle
and battery size. It was concluded that when minimum
track length is the only optimization criterion the track
length becomes very short. Therefore, it is beneficial
to size the batteries to easily meet the peak power
requirements.
Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
(KAIST) proposed online electric vehicle(OLEV) which
passed through many generations and they used various
types of ferrite cores like U-type, E-type and I-type and
coreless. Present generation uses coreless for transmitter
and receiver. Supply lines are twisted to each other and
creates alternating poles in the track. This phenomenon
reduces leakage inductance and unwanted EMF. In
the pick side, there is a couple of coils which covers
consecutive poles to make the magnetic path complete.
The main point of this arrangement is narrow width
transmitting track and wide pickup[64-65]. The transmitting
poles produce magnetic field which is spread in a wide
area towards the pickup. The deployment is shown in the
Table 5.
Another solution for OR WPT found in research is
based on field containment by source-receiver interaction.
There are many coils are distributed along the road and
supplied by a single inverter. These coils have high
self-inductance and the supply frequency is high, so only
a small amount of current flows in these coils in normal
conditions due to high uncompensated reactance.
Another situation when a pickup coil appears in vicinity
of a transmitting coil, the reactance of secondary coil is
reflected into primary side. This reflected reactance
can be adjusted by compensation of secondary circuit
Table 5 Various generations of OLEV[62]
Generation
Parameters
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G 6G(in progress)
Core type E U W I Ultra-slim-S coreless
Efficiency (%) 80 72 83 74 72 N/A
Distance/cm 1 17 20 20 20 10~ 20
Power/pickup/kW 3 6 15 27 22 3.3
EMF generated/mG 10 51 53 ＜10 ＜10 N/A
 12 Chinese Journal of Electrical Engineering, Vol.4, No.4, December 2018

and this also can compensate primary side reactance.
When a pickup coil is coupled with a primary coil and
compensates its reactance, current in the primary coil
increases. The increased current in coupled coils
creates a strong magnetic field and power transfer
happens.
Compensation using the reactance of other coil is
an attractive solution to eliminate switching and sensing
arrangement when vehicle passes through a particular
part of the track. In other words, it doesn’t require
receiver position tracking system. Moreover, since the
magnetic field generated by a primary coil is much less
when no pickup is coupled, unwanted EMF remains
inherently under control. The receiver coil circuit is
designed such a way that transmitting coil reactance can
be compensated completely. The receiver is tuned based
on the operating frequency of primary supply and it
reflects resistive and reactive impedances back to the
primary. Only resistive component is reflected when its
series compensation, and in parallel compensation case
the reflected impedance is
Vr 0 M 2
Zr   (Q  j ) (4)
Is L2
Nevertheless, the reflected reactance results in
higher power supply VA rating, and therefore, increased
inverter current, without contributing the real power to
the load. This is considered as the disadvantage of the
parallel-compensated receiver. Therefore, some different
series-parallel combinations are preferred to achieve
more power transfer and better efficiency.
loose cords or potential for electrocution or tripping; no
adverse human safety or health impacts (as long as
emissions of and exposures to magnetic and electric
fields and radiation comply with applicable guidelines,
standards and regulations).
Fig.16 shows the Market scenario of the Wireless
Power Transfer industry. The graph reveals that, by end
of 2020, the market will increase enormously and for
the applications of the electric vehicle, the growing rate
is increasing about 6%~10% every year. In 2017,
Mercedes-Benz(Germany) is expected to launch the
luxurious hybrid-powered sedan car(probably from
S-Class series) that is enabled with the wireless charging
technology. BMW AG(Germany) is also on the list of
future wireless charging car manufacturers. Toshiba
Corporation also had a trail run for 45-seaters electric
bus for wireless charging. The contactless charger based
on the magnetic resonance technology is designed in
association with the Waseda University.
Europe, being one of the early adopters of this
technology, is expected to grow at a high rate. Europe is
the automotive hub, and the developments in the
European market, especially in electric vehicles and
wearable electronics, are expected to boost the growth of
the wireless power transmission market in this region.
The European Green Vehicles Initiative Association
(EGVI), a Europe-based company, has undertaken

6 Evaluation, future prospective of wireless

charging
Recent reviews of WPT technologies and their
transportation applications are optimistic about their (a) Market scenario by application
prospects for deployment and growth. A promising
strategy for competing WPT technology providers is to
enter into partnerships with bus or LRV manufacturers
in order to demonstrate in service operations, their
commercial reliability, cost-effectiveness, and market
niche viability. From this WPT review of emerging and
existing transit applications in the U.S. and worldwide,
it is evident that there are multiple candidate WPT
technologies for transit applications in various stages of
technology maturity: from development to prototype
test/evaluation, to some in-service deployment.
Progress in WPT products standardization and the (b) Market scenario by the continent
harmonization of international WPT standards will
broaden market access to competing EVSE and on-board
products for electric light duty and heavy-duty vehicle
applications, including public bus and rail transit as a
market niche. WPT developers and technology providers
claim multiple core benefits for EV owners and electric
transit operators and users that are yet to be proven in an
operational environment, including convenient choice of
fast (On-Road) or slow (in station or depot), battery
recharging with one infrastructure system; automatic
trigger of charging high power transfer potentially in all (c) Cost returns of WPT (In-Motion)
weather, without corrosion or exposed terminals; no Fig.16 Market scenario of the WPT industry[66]
 K. N. Mude: Battery Charging Method for Electric Vehicles: From Wired to On-Road Wireless Charging 13

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15
Kishore Naik Mude received his B.Tech.
degree in Electrical Engineering from Sri
Venkateshwara University, Tirupati, India,
in 2008, and his M.Tech. degree in Electrical
Engineering from the Motilal Nehru National
Institute of Technology, Allahabad, India, in
2010. From 2010 to 2011, he was a Lecturer
at Amity University, Noida, India. He graduated
his Ph.D degree in Electrical Engineering
from University of Padova, Italy, in March
2015. Presently he is working as senior electrical researcher with
solace power, Canada. Prior to this he was working with Systec
R&D, Porto, Portugal and he also served as an Asst. Professor in
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Bengaluru campus,
India. He received Prestigious European fellowship CARIPARO
sponsored by Italian Bank, for three years of his doctoral study. He
was invited for talk on Wireless Battery chargers in various
organizations in India and abroad. His current area of research
includes, Wireless Power Transfer, Battery chargers. He organized
and chaired special sessions in the area of Wireless Power
Transfer.