Revision 01 - Pushbuttons, Switches and Switches

Digital Inputs are triggered by switches, there are two functions for switches. The first of these is its
use by operators to send information at the control circuit input, and the second function is its use in
moving parts that produce signal feedback to the control circuit. Pushbuttons - There are many
types of switches to describe. The most common switches are pushbuttons, which have a wide range
of applications.

The figure below shows an example of a buttonhole. There are two types of buttonhole, the pulsed
and the retentive. The pulsed pushbutton is activated when the button is pressed and is disabled when
the button is released.
The return of the pushbutton is accomplished by using an internal spring. The retentive pushbutton
activates when the button is pressed, and remains active even if the button is released. To disable this
type of buttonhole, the button must be pressed a second time. A variation on the retentive pushbutton
is the turn-to-unlock emergency buttons.

Switch contacts can be of two types. One is the normally open (NO) and the other the normally closed
(NC). When a pushbutton is in the off position, the NO contacts are open (not conducting) and the
NC contacts are closed (conducting).
The figure shows the electrical diagram for a normally closed contact and for a normally open contact.
Depending on the manufacturer, the pushbuttons may have up to nine auxiliary contacts. The types
of the contacts are defined according to the designer. The pushbuttons can be used for various
functions (also defined by the designer), among which we can start, stop, reset, emergency and others.

Selector Switches Used with PLC

Selector keys are also known as rotary keys. They use the NO or NC contacts for their representation,
identical to the pushbuttons, they have the same functionality.
There are selector switches that work with two, three or more positions. There are no electrical
interconnections between the contacts of the different positions. If interconnections are required, the
designer shall provide for such interconnections.
Limit switches are installed on machines in positions that are not normally accessible by the operator
during machine operation. In this way, the limit switches are activated by the moving parts of the
machine.
Usually, limit switches are mechanical devices. However, we can now find devices that are powered
by light or heat, such as door openers for supermarkets and malls and light barriers. Limit switches
can also be found with NO or NC contacts.
There are several types of limit switches that cover almost every kind of application imaginable.

Revision 02 - Indicator Lamps

All panels have indicator lamps that have the function of alerting the operator when there is power
on the panel, or when the machine is on, or any other indication that may be required, depending on
the design.
The figure shows the representation of indicator lamps by means of a circular object. Currently, we
find LED-based light indicators that have a very long service life, reducing the need for replacement
almost to zero.
Existing colors vary directly on the led. We can also use a white led and then the colored lenses, with
the necessary color and indication. In most cases, red lamps are reserved for critical status indications
as well as general power, fault or connected equipment. Green is used to indicate safe or off
colors. The yellow color indicates important but safe situation as well as low level alarm or machine
waiting. Other colors are defined by the designer, or according to the standardization that each
company adopts for indications.
Another feature to be used with lamps is the flashing, and may have its pulse width defined in

Revision 03 - Interface Relays

Initially, control systems consisted mainly of relays and switches.

The relay is a core electromechanical device with a coil and contacts.
When the relay is energized, an electric current passes through the coil, in which the magnetic field
moves a rod inside the core, changing the state of the contacts.
There are relays that are mounted with two pairs of contacts, and when the relay is not energized
the upper pair is closed; When the coil is energized, the bottom pair is closed.
Contact action is a result of relay energization and de-energization. The upper contacts are NC
contacts, because without power in the coil they are closed. The bottom contacts are the NO
contacts, because without power they are open contacts. That is, the contacts are always referred to
according to the state of the de-energized coil.
Each symbol represented in the electrical diagram has an identifier to be used in the Ladder
program. The coil identifier is called the coil of relay, followed by a number, for example CR1,
CR453, etc. When a contact is identified as a CR, it is automatically associated with its relay.
Each relay has a unique ID, and the number of relays that can be used in a schedule is directly
linked to the PLC's memory size.

Inteface Relays

Auxiliary relay interfaces are used for protection of both PLC inputs and outputs, so any unforeseen
events may damage the relay first rather than the much more expensive PLC output.

Using as an example a sensor, the sensor's NO output would trigger the PLC input, but between the
PLC and the sensor an auxiliary relay will be added to protect the PLC input in this case the relay
may only have one NO contact. or 1 Reversible.
The same applies to the output of the PLC, where a relay can be used as an interface for inductive
and / or electromagnetic load drives, power contactors, solenoid valves, electromagnets, etc. The
interface relays are designed to receive 24 V dc supplied by the PLC to operate contactor coils that
work with 220 volts.
The interface relay coil is controlled by the PLC while the normal open relay contact ensures
contactor activation. Coil switching gives rise to overvoltages that have adverse effects on electronic
devices, usually the interface relays are equipped with a diode surge suppressor in antiparallel to the
relay coil.
Interface relays have a low power consumption in the context of electronic systems. Linking
overvoltage limiters extends the life of coupling relays.

Revision 04 - Timing Relays

Timer Relays
It is possible to build a relay with a timer device that delays the coil activation. This type of relay is
known as time delay relay (TDR).
The representation of the timed relay on the electrical diagram is identical to the relay, but leads
internally, or near the coil, the TDR or TR denotation. There are two types of time relays: one of
them is known as TON, and the other as TOF. Let's see the difference between the two. TON (on
delay) relay - This is used on a circuit where the coil is to be activated after a certain time (set by
the operator). At this very moment, all coil contacts, which are NC type, begin to open, and NO type
contacts close, until the energizing conditions are deactivated.

When this event occurs, the timed relay will turn off and its time setting will normalize to zero the
count value. This timer is very useful when we need to delay the activation of some equipment, such
as when we start a motor from a machine. In this case, we often need some equipment to be shut
down for a short time until the engine reaches its working speed.
TOF (Off Delay) Relay - This is used when we need to leave a device on for a while, even after the
activation condition is turned off.
As an application example we can mention a cooling system in which the ventilation needs to be
activated even after the machine has been turned off.

Revision 05- Industrial Inductive Sensors

Inductive Proximity Sensors Inductive

sensors are electronic equipment capable of detecting the approach of metal parts, components,
machine elements, etc., in place of traditional limit switches. Detection occurs without physical
contact between the sensor and the actuator, extending sensor life by not having moving parts
subject to mechanical wear.

The principle of operation is based on the generation of a high frequency electromagnetic field,
which is developed by a resonant coil installed on the sensor face. The coil is part of an oscillating
circuit that in normal condition (deactivated) generates a sinusoidal signal.
When a metal approaches the field, it by surface currents (Foulcault) absorbs the energy of the
field, decreasing the amplitude of the signal generated in the oscillator.
The amplitude variation of this signal is converted to a continuous variation that, when compared to
a default value, starts to act at the output stage. The sensor consists of a coil on a ferrite core, an
oscillator, a trigger signal level detector and an output circuit.

The inductive sensor works by the principle of electromagnetic induction. It works similar to the
primary and secondary windings of a transformer. The sensor has an oscillator and a coil; together
produce a weak magnetic field.
When an object enters the field, small currents are induced on the surface of the object. Because of
interference with the magnetic field, energy is extracted from the sensor oscillator circuit,
decreasing the amplitude of the oscillation and causing a voltage drop (voltage). The sensor
detection circuit senses the oscillator circuit voltage drop and responds by changing the sensor
state.

The active surface of an inductive proximity selector is the surface where the high frequency
electromagnetic field emerges. A standard target is a 1 mm thick mild steel square with side lengths
equivalent to the active surface diameter or 3X the distance from the commutation nominal value,
whichever is greater.
The operational sensing distance also varies with the type of metal, ie it is specified for iron or steel
and needs to be multiplied by a reduction factor.

The Correction Factor is used to determine range when you want to detect materials other than
standard carbon steel. The composition of the target has a great effect on the range of inductive
proximity sensors.
The main advantages of inductive detection are the good resistance to industrial environments; has
no physical contact with the object; It is a static device with no moving parts inside; longer service
life, regardless of number of maneuvers and high speed.
The main application is the detection of metallic objects, since the emitted field is
electromagnetic. The next figure illustrates an application of inductive proximity sensors used in
lathe.
Sensors with discrete outputs have transistor outputs, which can be either NPN or PNP.
In relay output sensors the outputs are not electronic but mechanical. The relay has normally open
(NO) and normally closed (NF) contracts, which gives us independence as to load voltage. The
main advantage over electronics is that it can work with higher currents. To make the electrical
connection of the sensors we have to observe the electrical wiring diagrams, identifying the wire
colors before installing the sensor, especially preventing the sensor output from being connected to
the mains, which would cause its destruction.
Filament lamps should not be used with the sensors as the cold filament resistance causes a peak
current that can damage the sensor. Inductive loads such as contactors and relays must be well
specified because the link or cut current may damage the sensor.

Revision 06- Industrial Capacitive Sensors

Capacitive Proximity Sensors Capacitive Proximity

Sensors are electronic equipment capable of detecting the presence or proximity of organic
materials, plastics, powders, liquids, wood, paper, metals, etc.
The principle of operation is based on the generation of an electric field, developed by a capacitor
controlled oscillator. The capacitor is formed by two metal plates, charged with opposite electric
charges, mounted on the sensor face, in order to project the electric field out of the sensor, thus
forming a capacitor that has as air dielectric.

When a material approaches the sensor face, ie the electric field, the dielectric of the medium
changes, also changing the dielectric of the front capacitor of the sensor. Since the sensor oscillator
is controlled by the front capacitor, as we approach a material, the capacitance also changes,
causing a change in the oscillator circuit.
This variation is converted to a continuous signal, which compared to a default value, starts to act at
the output stage. The table indicates the dielectric of the main materials for comparison purposes; A
practical test is always indicated to determine the effective sensing distance to the actuator used.

Capacitive sensors can detect metallic and non-metallic objects as well as products inside non-
metallic containers. These sensors are commonly used in the food industry and to check fluid and
solid levels within tanks.
Capacitive sensors are more sensitive to temperature and humidity fluctuation than are inductive
sensors.
With capacitive sensors we can detect some materials inside others, such as liquids inside bottles,
reservoirs with transparent displays, powders inside packages, etc.

Revision 07- Industrial Photoelectric Sensors

Photoelectric Proximity Sensors Photoelectric

sensors, also known as optical sensors, manipulate light to detect the presence of the trigger, which
in most applications is the product itself. They are based on the transmission and reception of
infrared light (invisible to humans), which can be reflected or interrupted by an object to be
detected.

The photoelectric ones are composed by two basic circuits: one responsible for the emission of the
light beam, called transmitter, and another responsible for the reception of the light beam, called
receiver. The transmitter sends the light beam through a photodiode, which emits flashes of high
power and short duration to prevent the receiver from confusing the light emitted by the transmitter
with the ambient lighting.

Barrier Photoelectric Sensor

The receiver is composed of a light sensitive phototransistor, which together with a filter tuned to the
same pulse rate as the transmitter's flashes, makes the receiver understand only the light coming from
the transmitter.

In the Barrier System the transmitter and receiver are in separate units and must be arranged facing
each other so that the receiver can constantly receive light from the transmitter. Output activation
will occur when the object to be detected interrupts the light beam.

Diffusion Photoelectric Sensor

In the Diffusion System (Photosensor) the transmitter and receiver are mounted on the same
unit. Since the activation of the output occurs when the object to be detected enters the sensitivity
region and reflects to the receiver the beam of light emitted by the transmitter.
For photosensor models there are several factors that influence the value of the operational sensing
distance (Sa), explained by the light reflection laws of physics.
Sa = 0.81. Sn. F (color, material, roughness, others)

We present tables that exemplify the reduction factors as a function of the color and material of the
object to be detected. In cases where there is a need for exact determination of the reduction factor,
a practical test should be performed, as other factors may influence the sensing distance, such as
roughness, hue, color, dimensions, etc. We also remember that the factors are cumulative, as for
example: cardboard (0.5) black (0.5) generates a factor of 0.25.

The Reflective System presents the transmitter and receiver in a single unit. The light beam reaches
the receiver only after being reflected by a prismatic mirror, and the output will trigger when the
object to be detected interrupts this beam.

Reflective Photoelectric Sensor

The nominal sensor distance (Sn) for the reflective system is specified as the maximum distance
between the sensor and the prismatic mirror and can be mounted at a shorter distance. The mirror
allows the reflected light beam to the receiver to be parallel to the beam transmitted by the transmitter
due to the 45 ° inclined surfaces, which is not the case when light is reflected directly from an object
where light scatters at various angles. The sensing distance for the reflective models is a function of
the size (reflection area) and the type of prismatic mirror used.

Revision 08- Industrial Ultrasonic Sensors

Ultrasonic sensors work by emitting and receiving high frequency audible signals inaudible to
man. Ultrasonic transducers feature piezoelectric crystals that have a resonance at a desired
frequency, and convert electrical energy to acoustic energy and vice versa.

The principle of operation of ultrasonic sensors is based on the emission of a high frequency sound
wave, and the measurement of the time taken to receive the echo produced when this wave collides
with an object capable of reflecting the sound.
They emit ultrasonic pulses cyclically. When an object reflects these pulses, the resulting echo is
received and converted into an electrical signal. The detection of the incident echo depends on its
intensity and on the distance between the object and the ultrasonic sensor. Ultrasonic sensors work
by measuring the echo propagation time, that is, the time interval measured between the emitted
sound pulse and its echo. Ultrasonic sensors have long detection distances up to 10 meters, high
accuracy in the millimeter range, good reproducibility and require little maintenance. Detection is
not affected by dust and contamination common in harsh industrial environments. Liquids can be
detected as accurately as solids, granulates or powders.

Ultrasonic sensors are suitable for a wide range of applications such as level measurement, position
detection, limit detection, thickness measurement, stack height measurement, roll diameter
measurement, wire breakage detection, presence of people, measurement of densities, etc.
The disadvantages of ultrasonic sensors are the existence of a dead zone near the sensor face; Some
materials such as foams, fabrics and rubbers are difficult to detect as they absorb sound and cost more
than the sensors mentioned above.

Revision 09- Industrial Magnetic Sensors

Reed-switch sensors are devices that act as switches (on / off / 0), driven by magnetic fields produced
by or near electromagnets.
The reed switch is made up of a glass capsule and two blades of ferromagnetic material (nickel and
iron alloys). The two blades are placed very close, without contact between them, to activate the
"reed-switch" is necessary to induce their magnetization, causing them to attract magnetically. Just
bring a small magnet closer to the reed switch, as shown in the illustration. Reed Switch Sensors are
used to magnetically trigger electro-electronic devices such as alarms, electric locks, doors and
electronic circuits.
To detect the approach of an object or even a movement, simply use a reed switch and a magnet. The
distance at which the trip occurs depends on the strength of the magnet and the sensitivity of the reed
switch. This circuit can be used to detect through non-metallic objects. A small magnet is attached to
the object to trigger the reed switches at the indicated positions. One of the applications is in pipe
flow measurement.