Acknowledgement

I would like to express my special thank of gratitude to our

teacher Shailesh Gupta Sir as well as our Principal R.K
Pathak sir who gave us the opportunity to make this
assignment on the topic “Cement”. Which helped me doing
a lot of research and I came to know about many new things
so I am very thankful to them.
Secondly, I would like to thank my parents and friends who
helped me in making this assignment with a limited frame of
time
 Certificate
This is to certify that assignment entitled, “Cement”
submitted by Ashotosh Singh Parihar & Deepak singh
Parihar in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of “ Polytechnic Diploma “ in “Electrical Engineering
“ At the “ R.G.P.V Nowgong “ is an authentic work carried
out by me under the supervision of teacher Shailesh Gupta
Sir

To the best of my knowledge , the matter embodied in the

assignment has not been submitted to any other college for
the assignment.

Shailesh Gupta Sir R.K Pathak Sir

Chemistry Govt. Polytechnic College Nowgong
 Index
S.no Topic Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 3-5
2 TYPES OF PLASTIC 5
3 PET OR PETE 6
4 HIGH DENSITY 7
POLYETHYLENE
5 POLYVINY CHLORIDE (PVC) 7-8
6 LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENE 8-9
(LDPE)
7 POLYPROPYLENE (PP) 9-10
8 POLYSTYRENE (PS) 10-11
9 PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF 11-12
PLASTIC
10 AMORPHOUS PLASTIC AND CRYSTALLINE 12-13
PLASTICS
11 CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS 13
12 BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS AND 13-14
BIOPLASTICS
13 SPECIALIST PLASTICS 14-16
14 ENVIROMENTAL EFFECTS 17-18
15 CLIMATE CHANGE 18
16 PRODUCTION OF PLASTIC 19
17 RECYLING 23-25
INTRODUCTION OF CEMENT
A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and
adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on
its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate) together. Cement mixed
with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel,
produces concrete. Cement is the most widely used material in existence and
is only behind water as the planet's most-consumed resource.[1]
Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime or calcium
silicate based, and can be characterized as either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,
depending on the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water
(see hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime plaster).
Non-hydraulic cement does not set in wet conditions or under water. Rather,
it sets as it dries and reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It is resistant to
attack by chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to
a chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical
reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are
quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows setting in
wet conditions or under water and further protects the hardened material from
chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient
Romans used volcanic ash (pozzolana) with added lime (calcium oxide).
 The word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus
caementicium, used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that
was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain
a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment,
and cement. In modern times, organic polymers are sometimes used as
cements in concrete.
Chemistry
Cement materials can be classified into two distinct categories: non-hydraulic
cements and hydraulic cements according to their respective setting and
hardening mechanisms. Hydraulic cements setting and hardening involve
hydration reactions and therefore require water, while non-hydraulic cements
only react with a gas and can directly set under air.
Non-hydraulic cement

Calcium oxide obtained by thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate at

high temperature (above 825 °C).
Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium oxide mixed with water),
hardens by carbonation in contact with carbon dioxide, which ispresent in the
air (~ 412 vol. ppm ≃ 0.04 vol. %). First calcium
oxide (lime) is produced from calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk)
by calcination at temperatures above 825 °C (1,517 °F) for about 10 hours
at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with water to make slaked
lime (calcium hydroxide):
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically
called setting), the carbonation starts:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction takes time, because the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the
air is low (~ 0.4 millibar). The carbonation reaction requires that the dry
cement be exposed to air, so the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and
cannot be used under water. This process is called the lime cycle.
Hydraulic cement.

Clinker nodules produced by sintering at 1450 °C.

Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration of the clinker minerals
when water is added. Hydraulic cements (such as Portland cement) are made
of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main mineral phases of the
clinker, abbreviated in the cement chemist notation, being:
C3S: Alite (3CaO·SiO2);
C2S: Belite (2CaO·SiO2);
C3A: Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO·Al2O3) (historically, and still
occasionally, called 'celite');
C4AF: Brownmillerite (4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible for the cement's mechanical properties — the
tricalcium aluminate and brownmillerite are essential for the formation of
the liquid phase during the sintering (firing) process of clinker at high
temperature in the kiln. The chemistry of these reactions is not completely
clear and is still the object of research.[2]
 Raw materials for cement manufacture
The first step in the manufacture of portland cement is to combine a variety
of raw ingredients so that the resulting cement will have the desired chemical
composition. These ingredients are ground into small particles to make them
more reactive, blended together, and then the resulting raw mix is fed into a
cement kiln which heats them to extremely high temperatures.
Since the final composition and properties of portland cement are specified
within rather strict bounds, it might be supposed that the requirements for the
raw mix would be similarly strict. As it turns out, this is not the case. While it
is important to have the correct proportions of calcium, silicon, aluminum,
and iron, the overall chemical composition and structure of the individual raw
ingredients can vary considerably. The reason for this is that at the very high
temperatures in the kiln, many chemical components in the raw ingredients
are burned off and replaced with oxygen from the air. Table 3.3 lists just some
of the many possible raw ingredients that can be used to provide each of the
main cement elements.
Table 3.3: Examples of raw materials for portland cement manufacture
(adapted from ref. [1], Table 2.1).

Calcium Silicon Aluminum Iron

Limestone Clay Clay Clay
Marl Marl Shale Iron ore
Calcite Sand Fly ash Mill scale
Aluminum ore
Aragonite Shale Shale
refuse
Shale Fly ash Blast furnace dust

Sea Shells Rice hull ash

Cement kiln dust Slag

The ingredients listed above include both naturally occurring materials such
as limestone and clay, and industrial byproduct materials such as slag and fly
ash. From Table 3.3 it may seem as if just about any material that contains
one of the main cement elements can be tossed into the kiln, but this is not
quite true. Materials that contain more than minor (or in some cases trace)
amounts of metallic elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium,
strontium, and various heavy metals cannot be used, as these will not burn off
in the kiln and will negatively affect the cement. Another consideration is the
reactivity, which is a function of both the chemical structure and the fineness.
Clays are ideal because they are made of fine particles already and thus need
little processing prior to use, and are the most common source of silica and
alumina. Calcium is most often obtained from quarried rock, particularly
limestone (calcium carbonate) which must be crushed and ground before
entering the kiln. The most readily abundant source of silica is quartz, but pure
quartz is very unreactive even at the maximum kiln temperature and cannot
be used.

Grinding and blending prior to entering the kiln can be performed with the
raw ingredients in the form of a slurry (the wet process) or in dry form (the
dry process). The addition of water facilitates grinding. However, the water
must then be removed by evaporation as the first step in the burning process,
which requires additional energy. The wet process, which was once standard,
has now been rendered obsolete by the development of efficient dry grinding
equipment, and all modern cement plants use the dry process. When it is ready
to enter the kiln, the dry raw mix has 85% of the particles less than 90 £gm in
size [2].
The Cement Manufacturing Process
Different minerals need to be mined in order to make cement. Limestone
(containing the mineral calcite), clay, and gypsum make up most of it. The
US Geological Survey notes that cement raw materials, especially limestone,
are geologically widespread and (luckily) abundant. Domestic cement
production has been increasing steadily, from 66.4 million tons in 2010 to
about 80.5 million tons of Portland cement in 2014 according to the U.S.
Geological Survey 2015 Cement Mineral Commodity Summary. The overall
value of sales of cement was about $8.9 billion, most of which was used to
make an estimated $48 billion worth of concrete. Most construction projects
involve some form of concrete.

There are more than twenty types of cement used to make various specialty
concrete, however the most common is Portland cement.

Cement manufacturing is a complex process that begins with mining and then
grinding raw materials that include limestone and clay, to a fine powder,
called raw meal, which is then heated to a sintering temperature as high as
1450 °C in a cement kiln. In this process, the chemical bonds of the raw
materials are broken down and then they are recombined into new
compounds. The result is called clinker, which are rounded nodules between
1mm and 25mm across. The clinker is ground to a fine powder in a cement
mill and mixed with gypsum to create cement. The powdered cement is then
mixed with water and aggregates to form concrete that is used in construction.

Clinker quality depends on raw material composition, which has to be

closely monitored to ensure the quality of the cement. Excess free lime, for
example, results in undesirable effects such as volume expansion, increased
setting time or reduced strength. Several laboratory and online systems can
be employed to ensure process control in each .
Different brands of cement.
Ambuja cement.
Acc cement.
White cement.
Birla cement.
Opc cement.
Lafarge cement.
Portland cement.
Shree Cements. ......
Binani Cement. ...
Ramco Cements
OCL India. ...
Ultratech cement

Rotary kiln.

Rotary kiln (large rust-colored horizontal tube at center right) at a

Wyoming cement plant

General layout of a direct fired countercurrent rotary kiln used in cement

manufacture
 Rotary kiln body, with drive gear and 2 tyres (riding rings)
A rotary kiln is a pyroprocessing device used to raise materials to a high
temperature (calcination) in a continuous process. Materials produced using
rotary kilns include:
 Cement
 Lime
 Refractories
 Metakaolin
 Titanium dioxide
 Alumina
 Vermiculite
 Iron ore pellets
They are also used for roasting a wide variety of sulfide ores prior to metal
extraction.
 Contents
 1Principle of operation
 2Construction
 3History
 3.1Kiln shell
 3.2Refractory lining
 3.3Tyres and rollers
 3.4Drive gear
 3.5Internal heat exchangers
 4Other equipment
 5Differences according to the process
 5.1Kilns used for DRI production
 6See also
 7References
 8Sources and further reading

Principle of operation
The kiln is a cylindrical vessel, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which is
rotated slowly about its longitudinal axis. The process feedstock is fed into
the upper end of the cylinder. As the kiln rotates, material gradually moves
down toward the lower end, and may undergo a certain amount of stirring and
mixing. Hot gases pass along the kiln, sometimes in the same direction as the
process material (co-current), but usually in the opposite direction (counter-
current). The hot gases may be generated in an external furnace, or may be
generated by a flame inside the kiln. Such a flame is projected from a burner-
pipe (or "firing pipe") which acts like a large bunsen burner. The fuel for this
may be gas, oil, pulverized petroleum coke or pulverized coal.
Construction
The basic components of a rotary kiln are the shell, the refractory lining,
support tyres (riding rings) and rollers, drive gear and internal heat
exchangers.
History
The rotary kiln was invented in 1873 by Frederick Ransome
Kiln shell
This is made from rolled mild steel plate, usually between 15 and 30 mm
thick, welded to form a cylinder which may be up to 230 m in length and up
to 6 m in diameter.
Upper limits on diameter are set by the tendency of the shell to deform under
its own weight to an oval cross section, with consequent flexure during
rotation. Length is not necessarily limited, but it becomes difficult to cope
with changes in length on heating and cooling (typically around 0.1 to 0.5%
of the length) if the kiln is very long.
Refractory lining
The purpose of the refractory lining is to insulate the steel shell from the high
temperatures inside the kiln, and to protect it from the corrosive properties of
the process material. It may consist of refractory bricks or cast refractory
concrete, or may be absent in zones of the kiln that are below approximately
250 °C. The refractory selected depends upon the temperature inside the kiln
and the chemical nature of the material being processed. In some processes,
such as cement, the refractory life is prolonged by maintaining a coating of
the processed material on the refractory surface. The thickness of the lining is
generally in the range 80 to 300 mm. A typical refractory will be capable of
maintaining a temperature drop of 1000 °C or more between its hot and cold
faces. The shell temperature needs to be maintained below around 350 °C to
protect the steel from damage, and continuous infrared scanners are used to
give early warning of "hot-spots" indicative of refractory failure.
Tyres and rollers

Kiln tyre closeup showing typical chair arrangement

Tyres, sometimes called riding rings, usually consist of a single annular steel
casting, machined to a smooth cylindrical surface, which attach loosely to the
kiln shell through a variety of "chair" arrangements. These require some
ingenuity of design, since the tyre must fit the shell snugly, but also allow
thermal movement. The tyre rides on pairs of steel rollers, also machined to a
smooth cylindrical surface, and set about half a kiln-diameter apart. The
rollers must support the kiln, and allow rotation that is as nearly frictionless
as possible. A well-engineered kiln, when the power is cut off, will swing
pendulum-like many times before coming to rest. The mass of a typical 6 x
60 m kiln, including refractories and feed, is around 1100 tonnes, and would
be carried on three tyres and sets of rollers, spaced along the length of the kiln.
The longest kilns may have 8 sets of rollers, while very short kilns may have
only two. Kilns usually rotate at 0.5 to 2 rpm, but sometimes as fast as 5 rpm.
The Kilns of most modern cement plants are running at 4 to 5 rpm. The
bearings of the rollers must be capable of withstanding the large static and live
loads involved, and must be carefully protected from the heat of the kiln and
the ingress of dust. In addition to support rollers, there are usually upper and
lower "retaining (or thrust) rollers" bearing against the side of tyres, that
prevent the kiln from slipping off the support rollers.
Drive gear
The kiln is usually turned by means of a single Girth Gear surrounding a
cooler part of the kiln tube, but sometimes it is turned by driven rollers. The
gear is connected through a gear train to a variable-speed electric motor. This
must have high starting torque to start the kiln with a large eccentric load. A
6 x 60 m kiln requires around 800 kW to turn at 3 rpm. The speed of material
flow through the kiln is proportional to rotation speed, and so a variable speed
drive is needed to control this. When driving through rollers, hydraulic drives
may be used. These have the advantage of developing extremely high torque.
In many processes, it is dangerous to allow a hot kiln to stand still if the drive
power fails. Temperature differences between the top and bottom of the kiln
may cause the kiln to warp, and refractory is damaged. Hence, normal practice
is to provide an auxiliary drive for use during power cuts. This may be a small
electric motor with an independent power supply, or a diesel engine. This
turns the kiln very slowly, but enough to prevent damage.
Internal heat exchangers
Heating exchange in a rotary kiln may be
by conduction, convection and radiation, in descending order of efficiency. In
low-temperature processes, and in the cooler parts of long kilns lacking
preheaters, the kiln is often furnished with internal heat exchangers to
encourage heat exchange between the gas and the feed.
These may consist of scoops or "lifters" that cascade the feed through the gas
stream, or may be metallic inserts that heat up in the upper part of the kiln,
and impart the heat to the feed as they dip below the feed surface as the kiln
rotates. The latter are favoured where lifters would cause excessive dust pick-
up. The most common heat exchanger consists of chains hanging in curtains
across the gas stream.

Other equipment
The kiln connects with a material exit hood at the lower end and ducts for
waste gases. This requires gas-tight seals at either end of the kiln. The exhaust
gas may go to waste, or may enter a preheater which further exchanges heat
with the entering feed. The gases must be drawn through the kiln, and the
preheater if fitted, by a fan situated at the exhaust end. In preheater
installations which may have a high pressure-drop, a lot of fan power may be
needed, and the fan is often the largest drive in the kiln system. Exhaust gases
contain dust and there may be undesirable constituents such as sulfur
dioxide or hydrogen chloride. Equipment is installed to scrub these from the
gas stream before passing to the atmosphere.

Differences according to the process

Kilns used for DRI production

Setting and hardening of cement

 Direct reduction processes based on a rotary kiln[2]

1 2 3a 3b 4 5

sol.
(clinker
Consistancy of kiln semiliqui
solid )
discharge d
liq. (pig
iron)

30
Preferred iron content 30-
- 55-63 25-45 50-67
of ore (% Fe) 60
60

<
Size of ore feed (mm) < 20 < 20 5-25[3] < 5 < 0.2
10

Influence of basicity of
charge (CaO/Al
no influence 0.3 2.8-3.0
2O

3)

Maximal temperature 600- 1200- 1400-

900-1100
of charge (°C) 900 1300 1500

Oxygen removal (% O
2 extracted from Fe 12
20-70 >90 100
2O %
3)
 Highvel
d SL/R
Lurg R Krupp-
Examples of processes Udy N Basset
i N Renn [fr]
Larco Krupp
Elkem

Cement when mixed with water forms a plastic mass called cement paste.
During hydration reaction, gel and crystalline products are formed. The inter-
locking of the crystals binds the inert particles of the aggregates into a
compact rock like material.

This process of solidification comprises of

(i) setting and then

(ii) hardening

Setting is defined as stiffening of the original plastic mass due to initial gel
formation. Hardening is development of strength, due to crystallization.

Due to the gradual progress of crystallization in the interior mass of cement,

hardening starts after setting. The strength developed by cement paste at any
time depends upon the amount of gel formed and the extent of crystallization.
The setting and hardening of cement is due to the formation of inter locking
crystals reinforced by rigid gels formed by the hydration and hydrolysis of the
constitutional compounds.

Reactions involved in setting and hardening of cement:- When cement is

mixed with water, the paste becomes rigid within a short time which is known
as initial setting. This is due to the hydration of tricalcium aluminates and gel
formation of tetra calcium alumina ferrite.