CSEC CHEMISTRY

Structure and Properties of Solids

Learning Objectives
❖ Describe the structure and give examples of ionic crystals
❖ Relate the properties of sodium chloride to its structure
❖ Describe the structure and give examples of simple molecular crystals
❖ Distinguish between ionic and simple molecular crystals
❖ Describe the structure of diamond and graphite
❖ Relate the properties and uses of diamond and graphite to their
structures
❖ Explain the term allotropy
The properties of an element or compound whether it is composed of atoms,
molecules or ions depend on the forces of attraction between the individual
particles.
The properties of an element or compound or dependent on the following:
❖ The type of chemical bond between the particles
❖ The arrangement of the particles e.g. if the particles are packed closely
together
❖ Density
There are four different structures of solids:
1. Ionic crystals
2. Simple molecular crystals
3. Giant molecular crystals
4. Metallic crystals
Ionic crystals
Ionic crystals are solids formed as a result of ionic bonding. An ionic crystal is
composed of an ionic lattice in which the cations and anions are held together
in a regular repeating three-dimensional arrangement by strong electrostatic
forces of attraction called ionic bonds. Ionic crystals are represented by
empirical formulae or formula units. All compounds formed by ionic bonding
have an ionic crystal structure for example, sodium chloride
In an ionic lattice the electrostatic attractive forces between the positive and
negative ions act in all directions the forces are very strong. It takes a lot of
energy to overcome them
Properties of Ionic Compounds
❖ They have high melting points. There are strong attractive
forces between the large numbers od positive and negative ions
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acting in all directions. It needs a lot of energy to overcome

these forces to melt the solid
❖ They are brittle. The crystals split apart when hit in the same
direction as the layer of ions. When the layers move slightly,
similarly charged ions come close to each other. The large
repulsive forces cause the crystal to split
❖ They are hard. It takes a lot of energy to scratch the surface.
This is because the strong attractive forces keep the ions
together
❖ They are soluble in water. When added to water the surface
molecules from weak bonds with ions on the surface of the
crystal. The forces between the ions within the crystal are
wakened and the ions eventually become surrounded by water
molecules.
❖ The total forces of attraction between the water molecules and
the ions are greater than the forces of attraction between the
positive and negative ions. So, the crystals dissolves
❖ They do not dissolve in non-polar organic solvents because
either bonds are not formed between the organic solvent and
the ions or the bonds are too weak
❖ They do not conduct electricity when solid. This is because the
ions are not free to move. For a substance to be able to conduct
electricity there must be a movement of charged particles. When
sodium chloride is molten or dissolved in water. It does not
conduct electricity. This is because the ions are free to move
The Structure and Properties of Sodium Chloride
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Table.1. Properties of Sodium Chloride

Property Explanation
Melting The high melting point is due to the very strong electrostatic
Point forces between the sodium and chloride ions. A large amount of
about heat energy is needed to weaken these forces and separate the
801oC ions from each other allowing the solid to melt
Hard and The sodium and chloride ions are closely packed and held
Brittle together by strong electrostatic forces making the solid hard.
When pressure is applied to the crystal lattice the ion layers move
slightly with respect to each other and ions with the same charges
come to lie next to each other. Repulsion occurs between the like
charges and the lattice breaks apart i.e. it is brittle
Soluble When sodium chloride is added to water the ions can separate
in Water resulting in sodium chloride being soluble in water. The partial
positive ends of the polar water molecules attract the negative
chloride ions and the partial negative ends attract the positive
ions. This pulls the ions out of the lattice and the crystal
dissolves. The ions become surrounded by the water molecules
and the new forces of attraction now exist between the ions and
the water molecules
Conducts For a substance to conduct an electric current it must contain
electricity charged particles which are able to move. In molten (melted)
when sodium chloride the ions are no longer held together by the ionic
molten bonds and they can move allowing sodium chloride to conduct
electricity in the liquid state. When sodium chloride dissolves in
water, the ions move freely throughout the water allowing an
aqueous solution of sodium chloride to conduct an electric
current

Simple Molecular Crystals

Simple molecular crystals are solids composed of small molecules. Each
molecule is composed of only a few atoms bonded together by covalent bonds.
These molecules are arranged in a regular three-dimensional way to create a
simple molecular lattice. The molecules within the lattice heave weak forces of
attraction between them known as intermolecular forces. These intermolecular
forces hold the small molecules together. Molecular formulae are used to
represent simple molecular crystals.
Examples of simple molecular crystals include:
❖ Ice -H2O
❖ Iodine-I2
❖ Dry Ice - CO2
❖ Glucose - C6H12O6
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Table.2.Distinguishing Between Ionic and Simple Molecular Solids

Propert Ionic Solids
y
Examples: NaCl, KBr
Type of Ionic bonds are found between ions.
chemic These are very strong
al bond
Melting Have a high melting point because of Have a low melting point
Point the strong ionic bonds between the
ions. A large amount of heat energy
is needed to weaken these bonds
and separate the ions from each
other allowing the solid to melt
Solubili Due to being composed of positive
ty and negative ions most are soluble
in polar solvents e.g. water but are substances dissolves in
insoluble in non-polar solvents e.g. polar substances e.g.
kerosene, tetrachloromethane,
gasoline and other organic solvents
Conduc Do not conduct electricity when solid Do not conduct electricity
tivity because the ions are held together
by strong ionic bonds and are not
free to move. They do conduct
electricity when molten (melted) or
dissolved in water because the ions
are no longer held together by ionic
bonds and they are free to move
which allows an electric current to
be carried
Simple Molecular Solids
Examples I2, CO2, H2O
Covalent bonds occur
between the atoms in the
molecules. These bonds
are very strong.
intermolecular forces of
attraction are found
between the molecules.
These are weak
because of the weak
intermolecular forces
between the molecules.
Not much heat energy is
needed to weaken these
forces and separates the
molecules from each other
allowing the solid to melt.
Some simple molecular
solids sublime when
heated. E.g. Iodine and
carbon dioxide
Follow the rule ‘like
dissolves like ‘Polar
glucose dissolves in water.
Non-polar substances
dissolve in non-polar
solvents. E.g. iodine
dissolves in
tetrachloromethane
in any state because they
do not have any charged
particles which are free to
move
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Giant Molecular Crystals

Giant molecular crystals are composed of non-metal atoms bonded by strong
covalent bonds in a regular three-dimensional arrangement to form a giant
molecular lattice. The covalent bond exists between the atoms throughout the
lattice such that a giant molecular crystal is also known as a macromolecule
i.e. it is a molecule composed of millions of atoms. The empirical formula is
sued to represent giant molecular crystals.
Examples of giant molecular crystals include:
❖ Diamond, composed of carbon atoms, empirical formula
C
❖ Graphite also composed of carbon atoms, empirical
formula C
❖ Silicon dioxide, composed of silicon and oxygen atoms,
empirical formula SiO2
Diamond
Structure and Properties of Diamond
Diamond is composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently to four
other carbon atoms arranged in a tetrahedron around it. A crystal of diamond
consists of millions of these carbon atoms bonded to one another throughout
the crystal by strong covalent bonds. Because of the strength of the bonds
diamond is extremely hard and has a very high melting point.
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Table.3. The properties of diamond

Property Explanation
Very high melting point -about The covalent bonds between the
3550oC carbon atoms are very strong. A very
large amount of heat energy is
needed to weaken these forces and
separate the atoms from each other
allowing the solid to melt
Extremely hard Diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring solid. The hardness is due
to the high strength of the covalent
bonds between the carbon atoms.
This property is very useful in
industry as diamond is often used in
cutting and drilling
Does not conduct electricity The valence electrons of the carbon
atoms are all shared between the
atoms. Carbon does not have any
‘free’ electrons to conduct an electric
current
Graphite
Structure and properties of Graphite
Graphite is also composed of carbon atoms. Each atom is bonded covalently to
three other carbon atoms, forming hexagonal rings of atoms which link up to
form flat sheets or layers of carbon atoms. The fourth electron of each atom is
not bonded to another atom and becomes delocalized. These layers of carbon
atoms then lie on top of each other. The covalent bonds between the carbon
atoms in the layers are very strong, however the layers are held together by
weak forces of attraction
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Table.4.Properties of Graphite
Property
Very high melting point – about
3600oC
Soft and lubricating
Good conductor of electricity
Explanation
The covalent bonds between the
carbon atoms are very strong. A very
large amount of heat energy is
needed to weaken these forces and
separate the atoms from each other
allowing the solid to melt. because of
this graphite can be used in
containers for molten metals e.g.
crucibles
The weak forces between the layers of
carbon atoms allow the layers to slide
over each other resulting in a ‘soft’
crystal which feels slippery. Because
of this graphite can act as a lubricant
The fourth electron of each carbon
atom is delocalized allowing it to
move with the crystal. These moving
electrons can carry electricity
through the crystal. Because of this
graphite is used as electrodes during
electrolysis
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Allotropy
❖ Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element in the same
physical state
❖ Allotropy is the existence of different structural forms of the same
element in the same physical state
Diamond and graphite are known as allotropes of carbon. This is because they
are both made of the same element which is carbon but in a solid state their
carbon atoms are bonded differently. This is known as allotropy.
Diamond and Graphite have same chemical properties; however, their atoms
are bonded differently therefore they have different crystal structures which
result in them having different physical properties
Several other elements also exhibit allotropy. These include sulfur and
phosphorous when in the solid state and oxygen when in the gaseous state