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Ever since industrialization occurred, there has been an increase in the burning of fossil
fuels to meet the high energy demands. The use of such fuels causes emission of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases which lead to global warming. Such
a warming may have a highly injurious impact to life on Earth. One way to alleviate this
is to reduce the use of such fuels. An alternative method is to capture and store the
emitted CO2 to stop it from polluting the atmosphere. This is known as carbon capture
and storage. This study discusses the methods and economics associated with the
same.
Keywords:
Carbon Capture by Scrubbing
Absorption
Storage
Transportation
Development of Amine Scrubbing
Introduction
MOST industries and power stations today are dependent upon the exploitation of fossil
fuels, i.e. coal, oil and natural gas to meet their demands. While these energy sources
are able to meet the needs to a large extent, they have various problems associated
with them. The aforesaid fuels are all hydrocarbons and primarily release carbon
dioxide (CO2) on combustion.
Apart from CO2, these fuels are also known to emit other gases such as methane, oxides of
sulphur, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide, to name a few. These gases, which allow the
incoming solar radiation to pass through but do not allow the trapped heat to escape, are known
as greenhouse gases (GHGs). These gases, in the right proportions are necessary for human
survival on planet Earth. However, their excessive release causes rise of temperatures on
Earth. This process is known as global warming.
Over the last 100 years, global mean surface temperature has increased by 0.74 ±
0.18°C. Moreover, the rate of warming over the last 50 years (0.13 ± 0.02°C per
decade) is double that over the last 100 years (0.07 ± 0.02°C per decade). Figure 1
shows this warming very effectively. This rise is alarming as it could lead to widespread
melting of polar ice-caps which might result in submerging of low-lying areas.
This crisis can be solved by reducing the current energy thrust on fossil fuels and shifting to
unconventional sources of energy. However, such sources have a high establishment cost, are
location-dependent and their pricing has not been competitive enough. Hence, if we are to meet
the 8–9% economic growth, drastic cuts in fossil fuel usage cannot be considered feasible. This
is because no country in history has improved its level of human development index without
corresponding increase in per capita use of energy. This has been shown in Figure 2.
Nevertheless, efforts to reduce CO2 emissions have been undertaken. The maximum potential
to reduce is present in five sectors, viz. power, energy-intensive industry, transport and habitats,
forestry and agriculture. It is a myth that these reductions are low cost. However, according to
the MARKAL model, the undiscounted incremental energy system costs are US$ 800 billion and
the undiscounted energy system costs are in excess of US$ 1 trillion for CO 2 reduction of 30%
(ref. 2). Even then, these reductions may not prove to be enough given the harm that human
civilization has already caused to the Earth.
• Carbon dioxide removal (CDR) techniques which remove CO2 from the atmosphere,
which involve several methods including enhancing CO2 sinks, the use of biomass for
carbon sequestration, use of natural weathering processes to reduce CO 2 in air, etc.
• Solar radiation management (SRM) techniques that reflect a small percentage of the
Sun’s light and heat back into space.
Literature Survey
1. AEIOU SUMMARY
First we Define the purpose of our project. In this we covered “ Provide the healthy &
cool environment. After that we define our product experience and product function. Our
main components are Sodium Hydroxide , Lithium Hydroxide , Amine as a scrubber &
minarals.
3. Emphathy Canvas
In this canvas we know about our project. For the different reviews we conclude that it is
useful for society. Or on bad stories we define how we work on it. It is useful for writer to
help in his future work.
4. Ideation Canvas
In Ideation Canvas we explained Activities like Scrubbing, etc. Also give a Situation And
Location. In Props we use pipe lines, CO2 Purifier, Trim cooler, Absorber.
5. Mind Mapping Canvas
This canvas highlight our whole project work included Product Functions, Components
etc.
6. Prototype
Post-combustion separation:
The post-combustion separation method involves separation of CO 2 from the flue gas
emitted from thermal power plants. This involves chemical adsorption of the gas in a
solvent. For instance, certain amines such as monoethanolamine or ammonia (using
the chilled ammonia process) can be used as solvent . Fuel gas is passed through the
solvent at relatively low temperatures of about 40– 50°C and then the CO2 is obtained
by regeneration of the solvent at temperatures of more than 100°C. The energy penalty
for this method is regeneration of the solvent.
Oxy-fuel separation:
Oxyfuel separation is the scientifically most advanced way of CO 2 capture. Whenever a
fuel such as coal, oil or natural gas is burnt in air, the emitted CO 2 combines with other
components of air including nitrogen whose composition in air is about 78%. The
oxyfuel separation method thus involves filling of the entire combustion chamber with
almost-pure oxygen and hence the emission obtained is almost entirely CO 2. This is
done using an air separation unit (ASU), which works on the cryogenic principle. The
energy penalty in this method is in the working of the ASU .
Pre-combustion separation:
Pre-combustion separation involves gasification of the fuel such as coal. The fuel is
reacted with steam so as to convert it to carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This mixture is
known as synthesis gas (syngas) mixture.
C + H2O → CO + H2
Carbon Steam Carbon monoxide Hydrogen This mixture is then again reacted with
steam to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen in a reaction known as the ‘water-gas shift’
reaction.
CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Carbon monoxide Steam Carbon dioxide Hydrogen Carbon dioxide so formed is
captured and the hydrogen obtained in the above two steps is used as a clean fuel. For
further reading on CO2 capture.
2. CO2 transport
After CO2 has been captured by any of the aforesaid methods, it needs to be
transported to the storage site. This can be done in several ways – pipelines, boats,
railways or trucks. It is suggested that the initial pilot projects may involve transportation
through trucks or boats, but it may prove to be costly when done on large-scale.
Therefore, pipeline transportation is considered to be most viable6. The pipelines used
must be of good quality as any compromise with it may lead to CO 2 leak, which is
discussed later. Of course, carbon dioxide is not combustible like natural gas, which is
rather inflammable. So, CO2 transportation is more of an economic rather than a
technological barrier.
After the captured CO2 has been transported to a potential storage site, it needs to be
stored. The CO2 may be stored in geological formations or oceans. The choice of the
storage site depends upon the CO2 storage potential and cost-effectiveness. CO2
storage in oceans was initially conceived as a possible option, but due to very high
environmental risks, it is no longer considered one.
Limiting availability of CO2 storage means that power generation with CO2 capture
would almost vanish in the LCS relative to the CTS, which has around 615 GW of
CCUS capacity attached to coal, gas and biomass facilities in 2060. Coal-fired power
plants would be phased out more rapidly in the LCS, at an average of 60 GW of
capacity per year in the period 2025–40 compared with an average of 45 GW per year
in the CTS. The earlier retirements would result in lost revenue of around USD 1.8
trillion between 2017 and 2060.
Carbon dioxide is an important chemical for several industries and has numerous
industrial applications. In fact, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and enhanced coalbed
methane recovery (ECBM) are considered as industrial applications by many.
• Additional revenues which can result in more demonstration projects and accelerate
the reduction of technology costs, specifically those related to capture.
• CCS project delivery experience of addressing financial, environmental and regulatory
barriers.
• Public acceptance of technologies and projects.
The process technology using 30 wt% monoethanolamine (MEA) that has been
evaluated by NETL to give a baseline for the solvent scrubbing process can no longer
be used as a representative baseline for post-combustion capture. A number of
vendors, including Fluor and MHI have developed processes and completed
evaluations that give energy performances substantially better than that reported in the
NETL analyses. Inaddition ,arecentpaperbyAhnetal.hasillustrated all the different types
of flowsheet configurations for the amine scrubbing.
Fig. gives an example of a second generation, optimised process for CO2 capture by
amine scrubbing using 8 molal (m) piperazine (PZ). Compared to 30 wt% MEA it has
twice the rateof CO2 absorption, 1.8 times the intrinsicworking capacity, 5 to 10% lower
heat of absorption (a disadvantage), and a maximum stripper T/P of 150 C/8 bar.
In addition to the absorber, the process would probably include SO 2 polishing with
sodium alkali scrubbing and direct contact cooling of the flue gas before the PZ
absorber. It would also usually include a water wash and aerosol removal aer the
absorber. Much of this additional flue gas contacting could be incorporated into the
same vessel as the CO2 absorption.
Flowsheet:
Features of second-generation processes:
Stripper operating T:
In processes relying upon temperature swing regeneration, the stripper should be operated at
the maximum temperature allowed by solvent degradation or by the available heat supply. This
maximises the pressure of the CO2 in the first stage of the compressor. Elevated stripper T also
reduces the ratio of water vapour to CO2 in the simple stripper overhead. The example uses
reboiler conditions of 150 C and 8 bar.
Steam pressure should be reversibly reduced before it is used in the reboiler. In this example
the steam pressure is 6 bar and could be consistent with steam extracted between the
intermediate and low pressure turbine stages of a typical coal- fired power plant. The reboiler
approach temperature should be minimised consistent with the tradeoff of reboiler capital cost
and equivalent work loss, typically 5 to 10 K. The equivalent work of the stripper and
compressor system should be estimated from the work value of the steam heat and the
compressor work to a final pressure (typically 150 bar) by equations such as those offered by
Van Wagener (above).
Effective cross exchange between the cold rich and hot lean solvent eliminates much of the
energy cost of operating with a large solvent rate. Plate-and-frame exchangers appear to permit
an economic approach T of 5 K. A cold rich bypass41 can be used to address imbalance
between the heat capacities of the rich and lean streams. With a typical working capacity of 0.8
moleCO2 kg(H2O + amine) 1 and a heat capacity of 3.5 kJ K-1 kg(H2O + amine)-1 , the 5 K
approach requires only 22 kJheat mole CO2 -1 or 3.5 to 4.4 kJequivalent work mole CO2 -1 (with
stripper at 120 to 150 C).
Reversible stripping:
When the lean loading (or solvent low rate) is optimised to minimise energy consumption, there
is a tradeoff of sensible heat loss at high solvent rate (high lean loading) and stripping steam
use at low solvent rate (low lean loading). With a close exchanger approach T (5 K), the stripper
typically only removes enough CO2 from the rich solvent to leave the maximum lean loading that
allows for adequate CO2 removal.40 An intercooled absorber using a solvent with a fast rate of
CO2 absorption (such as 8 m PZ) should be able to achieve 90% CO2 removal with a lean
loading that gives an equilibrium CO2 partial pressure of 0.5 kPa at 40 C and a rich loading that
gives an equilibrium CO2 partial pressure of 5 kPa at 40 C.44 Therefore, the difference between
the CO2 loading at these rich (5 kPa CO2 at 40 C) and lean (0.5 kPa at 40 C) conditions will give
a useful estimate of the working capacity of the solution.
6. Amine volatility
Vapour losses , Because practical amines usually include at least two or more hydrophilic
groups such as amine, alcohol, or ether, residual amine volatility at the top of the stripper can be
managed to less than 1 ppm by a water wash. Nguyen measured amine volatility in water and
showed that two or more hydrophilic groups usually produce an amine volatility less than 100
ppm at absorber lean conditions. In solutions loaded with CO 2, diamines such as piperazine are
substantially less volatile because of speciation to ions including protonated amine and
carbamate. Hindered amines and tertiary amines with methyl groups tend to have greater
volatility. Aliphatic monoamines without other polar groups have unacceptable volatility. Several
investigators68 have been developing systems with amino acids (partially neutralised by K+ )
which should be nonvolatile ions. Other vendors may be using amines such as
hydroethylpiperazine with three or more hydrophilic groups that have practically no volatility and
may not require a water wash.
Amine aerosols. Vapour amine may condense in the absorber on submicron hydrophilic
aerosol or particulate to produce small aerosol drops that are not removed by typical contacting
internals in the absorber or water wash.69 Several pilot plants have reported amine emissions
as high as 200 ppm from pilot plants with 1 to 3 ppm SO3 in the inlet flue gas.The resulting
aerosol can be effectively removed by a fibre filter mist eliminator with a pressure drop of 150 to
250 mmH2O. Aker Clean Carbon and MHI claim solutions to this problem. This problem could
also be addressed by using an amine or amino acid with low or no volatility.
Future Work
Abstract
Brief Introduction
Porous coordination polymers (PCPs) or metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are
emerging as a promising class of crystalline porous materials with wide applications,
including gas adsorption and storage and heterogeneous catalysis. PCPs therefore
have an advantage over other catalysts with respect to CO 2 chemistry because of their
integration of the inherent sorptive behavior with the uniform Lewis/Brønsted acidic or
basic active sites endowed by their facile tunability and modular nature, as well as their
ultra-high surface area and heterogeneous nature. Furthermore, flexibility and softness
in spatial and electronic structures can provide a dynamic space that transforms in
response to guest trapping. Flexible structures usually have lower thermal stability than
rigid structures in a single network; however, this problem can be overcome by
interpenetration. Despite this, the location of CO 2 molecules in an interpenetrated PCP
crystal has not yet been reported. PCPs also impose size-slective and shape-selective
restrictions through readily fine-tuned channels and pores, displaying a molecular
sieving effect. Thus our aim is to introduce local flexibility, so effectively that CO 2 are
captured by size and shape-induced fit, and also that all the reactants still possess
degree of freedom for the coupling reaction.
Here, we report the successful design of a two-fold interpenetrated framework, Zn-
DPA·2H2O (DPA = 4,4′,4″-tricarboxyltriphenylamine and (E)-1,2-di-(pyridin-4-
yl)diazene). Their propeller-like ligands 4,4′,4″- tricarboxyltriphenylamine undergo
rotational rearrangement in response to the release and capture of guest molecules,
resulting in slight changes of their channels. The PCP shows a high affinity towards
CO2 molecules, which is clearly verified by the single-crystal structure of the CO2-
adsorbed phases and its high catalytic efficiency and size selectivity with respect to
CO2 cycloaddition to epoxides.
Conclusion
CCS is an important transition technology such that we minimize the CO 2 emissions and
at the same time develop renewable resources.
CCS is largely regarded as the technology of the future, the knowledge of CCS should
not be restricted to scientists and professors, but also be shared with school and college
students through various invited talks, articles, exhibitions, etc.
References
1. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2011 May;8(5):1460-77. doi:
10.3390/ijerph8051460. Epub 2011 May 9.
7. Jordal, K., Anheden, M., Yan, J. and Strömberg, L., Oxyfuel combustion for
coal-fired power generation with CO2 capture– opportunities and challenges. In
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Greenhouse Gas
Technologies, Vancouver, Canada, September 2004.