-.

I
I . ,
 Basic 'rincip11.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . < . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = . .. . r 77-79.
ii

inrroducrlori to the basic concept . . . .. . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . .. .. ........ ... ....... . . . . . . . . UTi - i

The naturt of sound . . . . ... . .. . . ., . ........ ..... .. . ... ...... .. . .... . . ... . ... .. . .... . [.IT: - i
The .a.ioustic Specrru~n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . .... .. . . . LIT1 -3
',the Propagation of' Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.... . . L/2'2
.-
i lie Ultrasonic Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. ..... .. . .. L'T? I
Side lobes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......
... . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , .
-
- 7
LTL-; 7

The uitrasonic pulse ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . , . .,. . ........ . . .. .. . ..... .. . . . .. . . UE-3

..
Pulse length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U Y - 4
, .
r:eso~utlon . . . ..... . ....... . . .. . .
.....
.. . . .
.. .. .... .. , ... , .. . . . .. . . . . ... . .. . ... UT:-5
Pulse repericiori frequency (P.R.F.)
. . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UTTI-5
hilodes: of propagarion . . . . .... . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . ., . . . .. . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LTT2-b
Boundar,' waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT2-7 ,

Factors affecting the propogation of ultrasound .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . . . . . , . , . . . . . UT2-S

i i o u s ~ i cimpedance ... .... . . ... .. .. . . . .
..... .
.. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT--
? -1
b
Couplanc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LrT?_-9
Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .., UT2-9 ,

,.>
The decibel (dB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . ... .. . UT2- I0
'.
. .

Sound Generation . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . UT3

The piezo electric effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3- 1
, , ,
,. ;,;e
Reflection, refraction Sr. Snell's Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .'. . . . . .?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3-2
Mode conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . .
.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3-3
Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3-3
. .
Crit~calangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3-4
Equipment . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
...... .. .. . . . . .............. . ...... . . . . . . . UT4
Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . UT4-1
Probe frequency, bandwidth 6r damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-4
Probe selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-5
Tne ultrasonic flaw detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-6
Calibration blocks and their uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-8
I I W N 1/A2 calibration block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-8
0" compression probe uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'UT3-8
Shear probe uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-9
.\.CN2 calibration block/DIN54/122 or kidney biock . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4-9
Compression probe uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT3- 10
Shear probe uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UTA- 10
Institute of welding (I.O.W.)/AS block ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UT4- 10
Equip~r~enr
ciiecks .. ... . ... .. ... .. . . . ... .. . .. .. . . ... . ... .
...... ..... .. . .. .. . .... . . U T ~I -1
 . ' - r,..;
?
, :- ;-
l , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. :- r".

- ., , cv.-
,iliil.:'iillUii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i -.,-:

T:, ::ilibrale .i 0' pr.01~1~

LC,. L rang= Gi CJ io i b b rnrn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.. . i .:-,
%aiioiatlon exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
:' - !Ti.-:
_.

.ACCU;~LE
measurzrneni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- :T5-2
. .T>-
I ~ l u l r ~ poat!;
i t wall ~nechod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... I :-.:
&iecr ~ C L ~ C L I. .~ . ~. I. .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
!T5-'!
. . .

,- . . . : T?--
n s ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1-3
Grapns and DAC curves .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !.-,lrr<
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1-,-4
Scanning patterns 0"probe ...................................................... GT-5-5
S i z ~ n gmethods 3" probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .~ ~ 7 ' 5 - j

h g i e Probe Scanning .......................................................ii i o.' T T r n

Cai':!:rarion
~
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iT6-i

.4ngle probes rest sensitivity ......................................................... IJT6-2

Scanning patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIT6-3

Skip factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . !. 'T6-4

.

The r a ~ i oof the sides of [he triangles in the three mosr common probe a n g l ~ s . . . . . . . . . :_'T6-5
T
I he irradiation factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .l.!Tb-~
. #..

Plorrlng sysrerns ..................................................................... i.r~(,-5

Sizing methods angle probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,:...!'I0-t, 7,-

Testing Techniques ..........................................................ijy7

.
.
ill
_
Y
A, B & C scanning systems
Pulse echo systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.......................................................

.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i !'n-2
.. . . .
i.iT7- !

Through transn-~issiontesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1l'n-2

The Tandem technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27'7-3

Immersion testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lJT7-3

.

Ultrasonic Thickness Surveying ..............................................UT8

. .
Acceptlreject criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .UT3- 1
Reporting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1JT8-2

Ultrasonic Wrought Plate Testing ............................................UT9

Tee hnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .UT9-
. 1
Defects in plate material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .UT9-2
.

Ultrasonic Weld Testing ....................................................UTlO

,
Tecnnique .......................................................................... UTIO- 1
Defect signal interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IJT 10-3

Ultrasonic Testing of Forgings ..............................................UTI I

Geneyal . 1 1- 1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .LIT

Tecrlnique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .lJ?I
4 .
. I- I
7 7'7-
DeiLe:;ls in forgings ............................................................... L.: I 11-2
 .i.ccep: dnc; rzjez: zrl:e!-ll: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -IT;; - -
Reporring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7

,-IT!1--

Ulrrasonic: Testing of Castings ............................................ , .. ~ ~ 1 2

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iTT! 2 - 1
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .UT12-
. !
Dekcts in casrings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .
...... .. . . . LIT1 2-2
.
.I-\ccepr and reject crite:~;~. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIT1
. 2-5
Reporring ......................................................................... LIT1 2-5
British Standards ........................................... . - . . Appendix A
British Standards relating to ultrasonic testing ...................................... APPA- i
Formulae ...................................................., ......... Appendix B
Formulae used in ultrasonic tesring ................................................ .liPPB- I
Table of Acoustical Velocities ........................................ Appendix C
Table of acoustical velocities in different materials ................................ .4PPC-!
Table of Acoustic Impedances ........................................ Appendix D
Table of acoustic impedances for different materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPD- i
Attenuation Factor ...................................................Appendix E
Exampie method for determining the attenuation factor of a material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..4PPE- I
Example Calculations .................................................Appendix F
Example calculations used in ultrasonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ilPPF- 1
 I
10' introducrion io the basic cancept
Tnc rilos~Lonlnion recn~l~quc useu 11. ulrra~onl:. I C S I I ~ ~..L :I!: ~ L I I S Le ~ i l [ec!;!,luuc-
~ :
T n ~ smakes use of [he pilensmenor il~arsound waves :rk\.el Ir, ,;rral:h~ l ! n t . i . I I I : arc
reflcc~edb), an cjbs~acleplaced i n [lie:r patl:.

I Tilc rnechan~sniis j u s ~the samt as audlhie souncl uln\8eL i:iouric~n; ol'~;i o r i ~ i :..val. X I C !
an echo being received. The strengrh of' rhc eclio 1s zon~rulledoy lnc bize oi riic \vail.

201 I
.41so, if [he linlt: lapse b'e~ween sending and recel?,lng ihc ech~. I: measurec. I: l i
possibiz lo tiererrnine the distance to [he wail.
I Giver: the required instrumentarion can pass sound waves throuzt~soliu ri~:~lcr-~als
wc.
I and receive ~ c l l o z shorn the bad; uzall of' the malerial. i i ,i l e k ~ :is pre~tncIF, ,he

I niarer~al[hen rhe sound energy wouii.: be rtlltzled back from I [ ancl Z I arl~ echc t:u.ilc!
than [ha[ i ' r o ~ti12
~ ~back wall because tile sound i:zs nor ~raveiiecias far. The. h l r - n g ~ ioi~
amplitude of h i s echo will be an i n d i a ~ i o noi' !he s i l t o ! mi dr%;i 311U t i i i d i s ~ a ~ i i ~
1 travelled by thc sound will tell us its depth.
I This then is the basis of ultrasonic testing.
The instrument thar produces the sound energy IS called ~ n eprobe and the echoes are
~ V r ~ ri r hloderri a i g r ! u i , f i n ~ v shown on a cathode ray tube' (CRT) within a fla!v detecro:
direciors u r r 111orerecenr
displu!. r e c t u ~ o l o f i ~srrc11
rs us
~ r LCD
o l ~ r s ~ or u screer~s.

I
Probe 1
&\ .,
,
D
.- .
2ii'>,xi.,i<,-
A ', A '
,

. .
Sound waves YAY

Sound energy is transmitted from the probe into the test specimen at surface "A"
Nore 2 . TIE echo ur A 1 1s producing an echo at Al'. Some of the sound is reflected by the defect at "B"and the
rhe result of sound energy resulting echo appears at B1. The rema~nderof the sound continues through the
reflecring back o f j r11efronr
specimen to be reflected by the back wall "C", the echo from the back wall appearing
surjace ofthe specimen
rogerl~erw r h rhe ringing of at C1.
rhr crysral and rile rnrrrul If the screen is calibrated from a test block of known thickness then [he depth or the
pulse u l l ~ n e r t r dinro one
srgnal envelope.
defect from the specimen surface (A to B) can be read off the screen.

The nature of. sound

1 Sound is caused by mechanical vibrat~ons.
In order for sound to pass there must be s rnedium [hat will supporr mechanical
90~
vibrations therefore SOUND CANNOT TRAVEL l N A VACUUM.
The particles [molecules) wil11111Llle l~~eciiurilv ~ b r a ~passillg
e U I I cllelgy i'lorn uric to
1 a ~ o ~ l l givl~ig
cl the effect uf sound movemcnt rhroogh ihe nlateriai.
 . .

. .
., : >...! ~, ,

1 Sine:. tnese propzrr~ei-~vil!L ' ~ T \hon

, , une marerial ! r anorfie:-. :i!jmt rnarr:~-1: will pas;
TI.; 2er;~iry, ~ n aeiusilc~!!qr
L ! rrlruiilrfl r!re ulso !I!? rriciin
I sour~dmore easiiy rliari orhers.
So~indfollou,s ~i wsvcl'orni:
;,!('lor!,'1 1 t ~ i IcJl5cl 111:
l,c.'o!~!l:
!
~ ! 'A::~veic:igrl: 1
i * .
,+.~
8

,' \

\
1
\ ',
1 i !
-2 1 1
20
u

-
.- i i , i
b.T'
'
i ~mtidis~a:rcr

f
C

i i
30
! - 4
7
I
1
1 \\

'i
~
'1

One cvcle

VELOCITY is the disrance movzd in unir rime

WAVELENGTH is the disrance between successive p e k s a i ' : ~~ v a v e
40
PERIOD is the rime taken for one complete cycle
FREQLENCY is the number of cycles per second
1 cycle per second = 1 Hertz (Hz)
I Kilohenz (KHz) = 1.000 Hz
i Megah~rtz(MI-IZJ = 1.000.000 Hz
50

Wavelength
Wavelength is a funcr~onof frequency and velocity.

Velocity
Wavelength =
Frequency
or A x "f

Therefore: c = f x h and -
f- +

The Acoustic Spectrum

.Vure: The m - i m u m Manual contact testing range

frequerrcy rhe hunun ear 4 Steels *
curl derrcl reduces wirh uge. 5 MHz
Ir I S :enerully accepred 111ar Y
!rios!pe11;11ewill lluvr llrurd
all rl~eh i g h j r e q u e r ~ c ~
suunds rhar [hey are liable
ro rncounrer by rile rime
rile. reac11:2r1 vears oiugr. Frequency

+Noim;ll test rangp: -+

 ICI Thk UUTtrasonic Beam
hrarr, :cis:

I
I
I
+ i~c~r:.!
cta~rt
( ! OiJ% Inicnslry,
1 . . . ~ . . .

near zont
1
iar zone iOS;? rn!snsi;j.i

301
( The dead zone
Seen on the CRT as an extension of the initial pulse. the dead zone I S the rinyiily time
, . :
.. . '
..;
. :;.. . .-:i,
of the crystal and is minimised by the damping medium behlnd the crystai. Flaws or
,
I ;,Ii

, :.' I,-"' other reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the beam will not be uetected. Tne
-
I.,,...
:,
,_1
.-,::.- .. dead zone can be seen at the s t x t of the trace on a CRT displaying .>~-scan,bu; ~ n i b ,
40 with single crystal probes.
The dead zone increases when the probe frequency decreases.

/ The near or fresnel zone

) In [his region of the beam, the sound intensity is variabls owing LO wavs inrer!'sreni-e,
50
therefore, reflectors or flaws lying in this zone ma; appear smallzr or large; thar iheir
. .
ae:ua! size, The signal heights displayed on the CRT are unpredicrribiz i:, 11 I S
desirable to keep the near zone length to a ~ninimum.
The near zone length can be calculared using the following iormula:

Where: D = crystal diameter (mm j

h = wavelength ( m m j
f = probe frequency (Hz)
c = test rnaterial velocity ( m d s j
It can be seen from the formula that the near zone can be decreased by decreasing [he
crystal diamerer or decreasing the probe frequency.

The far or fraunhoffer zone

Beyond the near zone the far zone exists. In the far zone the beam diverges resulting in
a decay in sound intensity as the distance from the crystal is increased.,just as a beam of
light from a torch gets weaker the further i t travels.
Thc amount of bcam divergence depends upon the crystal sir.5 a ~ i d[he waveleng~has
shown in the following formula:

Kfi~ciar~.
Exrrprne 10% 7nnrensi[y~I!,/g,. = I 77 Where: 0 = he half finzl-, D = c t y i n l ~ i i m c [ s (mrn
r j
j0% cdgdlj d~ = 0.56 K = a cur~sla~~r I = probe freq~iericy[Hz:
iii'% rageE0 d 8 = 1.08
k = wavelength ( m m j c = material ve!ociry imn:/s!
I
 dzcrc:s-ci b ~ increas~n:;
, [he crystal dianierzr o? by 1n:rcasinp rile prone i.reau-nci,
1 Uniortun~ltely[ h ~ wili
i exlend the iengrl! oi the near zoil-. 50 in pfooe design rtiere I> ,,
1 :omprom!se ro obtain 2 m~nirnalbeam spread :in" s h o r ~11carZ ~ I ~ C .

near zone
crysra!
Ir[easlt)
beam extreme edge 0% inlenb~ly
iuit
In tne fx zone of ihe uluasonlc beam there is no w a \ t ~nrerierzncz~ h s r ~ i o rile
r t jounJ
inrznsity in this zonc is predictable.
T h e sound lnrensity reduces from 100% In the e n u e iii 0% a[ !li c a g e oi ~ h cbex!-i .
therefore v/tien the centre. of the beam hits a reflectoriflau thl mp11:ud- o r t i l t 51,up.ai
on [he C R T will be at its maximum.
The sound intensiry will also decrease with n grzatzr distance I in ths [ange .xis) :o 2
reflector or flaw.
In the far zone the amplitudes of reflected sound from large and small reile-tors follou.
different laws.
LARGE REFLECTORS (larger than the width of the luiuasonlc beam! foliow [he
INVERSE LAW - The amplitude is inversely proportional to (he distance, i.e. ii tile
distancz is doubled t h x thc signs! amp!irud:: is lialved (i.t... reduced by 6dB j.
S M A L L REFLECTORS (smaller than the width of the beam) follow the INVERSE
SQUARE L.4W - The amplitude is inversely proportional to the square of the disiance,
i.e. if the distance is doubled then the amplitude from ihe second reiiecrol. is one
quartzr of the ampiltude of the nearer ( l 2 d B less).
Large reflectors Small reflectors

Dl
A
I t
 ,aslnd z ~ ~ u o s e ar(1
~ ~ lsnu u o j )vr(rn s1 uop3enuo3 pue uo~suedxaJO apL3
s!r(~, ,adeqs leu!%uo si! u! Isa1 01 saw03 X l ~ e u rI!~ 1!lun ' q a 'q3laas uaqi uavoqs uaq1
adeqs 1aWOJ Sl! 01 u n l a ~[IIM 8uuds a u 'panalal uaql p a q a a n s s! 11 uaym 8uuds r!
JC Jno!neqaq aql 01 pauayq aq uc3 'asdell03 uo '1elsXr3 aql j o Ino!naqaq aqj; ,panoural
uaaq seq X8laua 1e3ul~a1aaql 1alF 1elsXr3 aql JO asdqlo3 aq) Lq pamloj a E suoIIelq!A
3!uose1l[n aqjl .aqold aq] u! 1eish3 31n3ala ozald aql Lq uo!~e~q!n[e3!uerpam
r! OIU! pa~lahuor,s! XZlaua 1e31113a1as ! u .aqold aql olu! 'AXZ 01 A X I i m q c 'Xo9laua
le3!113a[? J O ao9reqn s!qi Su!sealal Xluappns uaql ;Cn!n31!3 a@] u! 101!3ede3 c 2u!Zleq3
Lq palVal3 s! punon1iIn J O aslnd aql .1013aiap meU oq3a a s ~ n d31uosenln ruapour c u~

'saqol aprs aq1 snolamnu alom

pur: ls>Icah\ all] . m a q aql jo a1Sw-j1eq arll 1aIIcurs aql .a.! 'aqo1 urcm aq] 1aMoJ.m aqcL
ic pals u! saqold aheM rcaqs roj q2uv m a q m n m ~ u ~aql
m ]as 91 l a p ,(11cnsn
I! u o n a J s ~ q i2nd 7 x 3 aql uo suor1c31pu1snounds asnc3 ,<aur 'alq!Srlo9au /;[~ensn
02
q4noqllc 'r{"q,j\ paruloj aq Xam ;a001 apls 'sa[Z'uc a l n x L~an!lelal asarji ~ i Inq
! ' o 01~ ~

.EC ,ila~cur!xolddr?sr [aals u! a[gur u a q pa13vqal urnm!urm aql 'saqold aAcM Rays 103
' J : Jarll
~ uo I
lo! u a q c ~ s ~ uaql .<cur 4 3 1 4 ~'sanv,!lns rlBnol uo iillci3ads? ' a a o ~ daql Xq p a ~ i a 3 a ~
';rfil?!f
?q 91 I;aorlnP palu?.r,un asnco /;CW prle sa!l!suau! o11sno3e .no[ ?uv i!S!rj JO scan!
luasalda.1 f C x ~ .3qo1
~ u~cur941 w0.g ACME alc!pw puc ia3npsuall i! jo a3ej U; I 11: paurloj o,
all: icy] , ? ~ 7 1 ? ! !111?1(1 .lo rumq aruoscllln ,ircm!ld aql ol saqol .<mpuo3as ale .:aqoT ap!S

53oo1 ap!S 1
 /
/>A
.,*,

"'7 // 'NOLLfl?OSER! SIollUo3 IW9NT'I 9S'lnd

.(sap,i3J O daqurnu a w s aql S U I U ! E ~ E q12ual
O ~ ) aslnd aql lauoqs
aql amaq p ~ r caslnd aql U I apL3 43ca J O qlDPual aql ,a.! ' q 1 4 u a l a n e ~aql ~ a ~ ~ aql
oqs
L3uanbalj aql ~aqi?!qa u .d3uanbaq aqodd s! qlzual aslnd sjonuo3 1e41 .1013ejlaqlo a u AT. ,
pa,
.
,
. ,.
- ~ 7 ,
- .."
. ( q ~ Z u a l a ~ exh ~sapA:, jo laqmnu 241) ~ ~ 9 ~ ~s m2 SIOJIU03
d7 uaql ' 9 N I d w a
.slelsh;r3
a[qe[!snr: ,([le!3~aurruo3pur! srunrpam Surq3sq ]EUOllUaAUO3 4 1 1 ~a ~ a r q 3 m I1I ~ ~ T J JareIP
Surdursp jo slanq qgns ~ n qsa13,(3 om1 d ~ a l ~ r u r x o ~ daqd eprnom qGua] a s ~ n d[cap! a u
 1 Resolution
13 I I
R e s o l u ~ ~ uisn [he abiiily l o sepxaii. on ~ h clirnebast.
close logether in terms oi'bearr: pall-Iiength.
,--
iwii or mnrt ~ . e l l e c ~ o r1tl;l;
s .LI.L.

tonside: rnro reflec~orsw i t h ~ nthe beam w ~ l ha beam p3~t1jtrlgrli, dii.~er?nce01' 31-IIITI,

If the pulse length was greater than 3mn-I11icn rhe sigrlals i'ron-1 cht: i\ricl rcflecrors would
be contained wirhin the same envelope, as In i:~) Ii'lne pulst iengrl: was less rhan 3rnrr1
then, in pracucal terms, the signals would be separarsd, as ir! ( b , .

I (a) OJ)
40

The above therefore demonstrates that the shoner the pulse lengrh, the b e ~ t e ithe
r~solut~on.

I 2ulse repetition freqnency (P.R.F.;

501 T

The pulse repetition frequency (p.r.f.) or pulse repetit~onrate [p.r.i.! 1s the number o i
pulses of ultrasonic energy that leave the probe in a given rime (usuaily per second).
Each pulse of energy that leaves the probe must return before the nexl pulsz leaves
otherwise they collide causing "ghost" or spurious echoes to appear on the CRT. Tne
time taken for the pulse to travel from the probe and return is known as thp transir time.
T h e time between pulses leaving the probe is known as the clock inter\fal. Therefore it
can be stated that the transit time must be shorter than the clock interval or ghosting
occurs. Practically speaking the clock interval should be around five rimes the trnnsit
time.

DISTWCF,TRAVELLED (mmi
?RANSIT?m?E(psec) =
, VELccrrY(Km/s)

Mnimum = TR;WSlT Tm,IE

Practical = 5 x TFLWSlT TIME
 i li
I ~ompressiorl
or iongitudirlai waves

I
i
~ ! I ; IJIC 1he:irri I ~ !>ersDc::
Corrlpression ~ v u v s s;ut produceu In s ~ e r il i ' t t ~ c~ n c i t i e ni~nglz
less than approxirna~ely27.4' Piol>ts L ! I ~ Lproduct: comprts~1c;r;v \ , ~ \ , - i , :vili no~-r;~lal!~
h a v t an inciden~and refracted inigll: oi',or close LO.9".
I i-

I
These waves uavzl ii~rougi~a mediurr;
causing the pmclzs oi' h e malerid to
I 1 osciUare p w d e l to the direcriun of wave
e==3
-
propagauofi and constsr of d~ernare
compression and dilaoon pressurt waves.

vibra~ion
0 00CO00 0
cornprwion
. 0 0 0 0 0 0
ailauor~(r;ueharuoni

Compressive veiociry In sree! = 59bS m/s

1615 / Compression waves can propagnu.

1 \
Duecdon of propagauon
through solids, liquids and gases since
rigid particle bonding (:i condition that
only exists in solidsj k not essential.

Shear or transverse waves

Shear waves only are produced in steel if the incident anglz of the beam in perspex is
between a p p i c x i ~ a t e l y28" rind 56".

4/1\
I Particles vibrate a1 90" to ths drrection or'
r,rooat.ation and have a whir, like action

Shear velocity In steel = 3210 d s

S h e a r ~ v a v e scan o n propagate ~n o i d s ,
rigid particle bonding being a pre-requisite.
I
Direction oi
propagalion

80
a = Incident angle
 i
i These forms of propagarion can onls occur whsn r: sill!d to yas inierface 1s present. I f
lo! rhe objects were immersed, these modes woirld be Tully at~enuated.

Surface or rayleigh waves

Suri'ace waves are formed when s h e x waves refract to 90". Tlw wli~p-Ilkparticle
\libration of the s h e x wave 1s converted into an ellipilca: mollon by [he part~cle:;
cnanging direction at the interihce with the surface.
These waves are not often used in industrial N.D.T. alti~ouglirhey do have somi:
applications in the aerospace industry. Their mode of propagatlor1 1s ell~pticalslong
the surface of a matenal, penetracing to a depth of one wavelength. They will follow
the contour oi' a surface and they travel at approximateiy 90% thc velocity oi' shear
waves.

Direction of propagation
-

penetration
(one wavelengrh
'~irection of particle motion

Where sharp changes in contour occur, such as a corner edge, reflected energy will
return to the probe.

Plate or lamb waves

Plate waves are formed by the introduction of surface waves inco [hln plate material.
They are a combinat~onof compressi~nand surface or shear ~ i i dsuifiice iYave,j causing
the plate material to flex by totally saturating the matenal.
There are two types of plate waves:
Surface wave
symmetrical
plate waves
ff
l,
L y++
i70~T Z7i7fl
f, t ) c H (Longitudinai wat!e)
f,
'
:* Surface wave

Plate distortion

Asymmetrical
(flexural)
plate waves

Plate distortion
0
a
/
L -
00 (Shear wave)

?
> Surface wave

< Sunace wave

f-,
.- --...-. . -

-
., . . ..
. - - - .- -
/
LJ
i.,~
 / Factors affecting the propagation of ultrasound
?'he propagarion of ulrrasonic waves in a marerid is dependanr on rhc aznsir;: and
elasric properties of thal malerial and the type o i wave uansmirred.
l0I

/ The pracrical considerarions which will affecr propagation uiill include:

1 6
rhe Lesr marerials gram size
nrrenua;ion (absorprion and scatter effects)
* acousric impedance of rhe tzsr marerial
* characreristic impedance of inclusions
diffraction
lack of homogeneity
I . rinlrurropi:. The grains a.nisotropic mareriais'
are m n d u n ~In onenrarlun
u l d have difsrerlr elusric
pruperrles rn diflererrr
directluns.
Acoustic impedance
ilcousric impedance (2) is the resistance of a marerial to the passage of ultrasound. It
2. I . z l o c l ~18 somerlnreJ is [he product of the material densiy (P) and sound velocity ic)'.
denorea by [he lerrer ' v '
(conJranr veiocln).

Ir is the acoustic impedance difference between two differenr marerials/mediums which

governs the intensity of ultrasound reflected from the interface between them.
Conversely, the amounr of ultrasound passing from one material ro another depends on
this difference between the two materials. This difference is expressed as rhe acousric
inlpedance ratio.
Theorericaliy if an ultrasonic wave was passed rhrough two marenals. wirh rht: same
acoustic impedance (1:l ratioj, in intimate contacr, [hen no reflecrion would occur, i.e.
100% transmission of sound would occur. In pracrice i t is very difficult LO ach~eve
intimare contact without a coupling medium (see nexr secrion~. The coupianr would
have a different acoustic impedance to the material and so would affecl [he amounr of
sound reflected.
The amount of energy reflected at an interface can be calculated with tile following
formula:

, I
.- - .- ..- - - - - - .- - - a,

[Zl+Z2 )
.. -.-
Where Z1 and 22. are
,"5<&,,,*> .z
the respcirive acoustic
impedances of the rwo

I
/ It can be seen from the formula that:
materials

HIGH ACOUSTIC IlvIPEDANCE RATlO (e.g. 20: 1) = MORE KEFLEC'I'EL) ENEKG Y

LOW ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE RATIO (e.g. I : I ) = MORE TRANSMITTED ENERGY
It can also be seen from the formula that the same m o u n t of enerey is reflecred.
regardless of which direction the sound is travelling across the interface.
 !$'~le.Tile ~ d e u U i C~IL.SIIL
i~nprdo~icr (~f~.ollpiunf 10
.rhurrid b? 111 berweeri rlir
uconsric rnrpedonc.e olriir
probe c~nrltile U C O I I S I I ~
~ ~ ~ i o c a u nujrirr
c e resr
n~aierrul. Tile rdeol
rh~cicliessofrhe iuyer o j
coupionr should be one
quurrer of [he wuveiengrl~
of sound rhrougll ii.
Sorn: rtcenriv developed
~rirruronrcs~srerru.use ni,
coupiarir. riiese ilre kno\vn
LLS urr coupled S Y S I C I I I J U I I
rile? us: very po\vr,,lr!
ampliJicarior~ondzenrrrrve
recenjer clrculrr)'.
.;,;; . ; , , , As the sound LI-: !s through a material a small amount of the energy is used up by the
I,>;<.,:, ' ,
!,_. - . .1
,..:: . ,,, L I ..
Because of [he ven, high acousric irnpeda~ici-rarlo 01' alr lo ,: solid marcria! sin~ost
100% of [he energy is reflecred nr an inrerface bcrween [lien? (the bknis of !law !
~ e c Therefore
. ro enable tne sound znergy ro Unr,slnl! ~II.II-e readil! in^^ rh:: rzsL
specimen we nave ro zxciude any ali thai nlsy be preseni bervveen thr pl-obr 2116 i e s ~
~ u I - ~ ~ This
c c . is ach~evedby hnbstituring 111c a i iillLh 3 m a ~ c ~ - i ariin:
l lias ;1 e i o s ~ ;
acousrlc impzdance ratlo to tile probe and Les! materia!. Tliis is i;nown as ;I couplan:.
Common couplank are: warer, oil, grease, polyceli, sutarfc,oa and glycel-inz.
The selection of coupIan1 is somerimes based on the post-~tsruse of [he rnare~i;~! be~ng
resred. c.g. water based couplan~smay cause rusring or corrosiol: bur are easier ro clean
off in prepiira~ionfor painling or coaring when compared io oi! or grease, which may
actually pro~zctthe marer~al~ r o !.mcorrosion
.
~ NB. ,.
' \ ' :-..
I j Vi;coslty of the coupianr may be a consideration, idea!ly rough s u ~ f a c t srequlre ;!
more viscous couplant to effectively fill the air gaps more uniformly.
2) Whatevex couplant is used for calibrationlsetting the search scnsirivity, this mus: be
used throughout the subsequent inspection.
Attenuation I(. --,
I
Artenuation is defined as the loss in inrensity of the ulrrasonic b e m as il pssscs t h r o ~ g h
a material and is dependant upon the physical properrizs of the material.
The two main causes of attenuation are SCATTER and ABSORPTION
Scatter
This is the major cause of artenuation and is the redirection of [he sound w:ivzs
reflecting off grain boundaries, porosity and non-mzrallic inclusions, erc.. a n i becomes
+
more apparent on the inspection when the size.of grains become z of the wavelengrh
of the,search unit being employed.
I.-. YJ I r,r..z.
Absorption
. interaction of the particles, as rhey vibrate, causing fric~ionwhich is dissipated as heat.
'
.a As rhe frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more
\ , ---. ,, particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to small iet'lectors (scatter from
g a i n boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which is related 1.0 the wavelengrh of the
sound.
;;
Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due ro
their coarse grain structures, etc. The attenuation factor of a rnarerial can be measured
and is expressed in dB/mm (see the appendices for an example).
Natural attenuation also occurs due to the divergence of the beam in the far zone.
, . .-. : ;.., I' i.e. assuming compressioi~probe use, tile amplitude of the. backwall echo will bc hnlved
. i :' (-6dR) every rirne the distance from the probe is doubled.
 The decibel (dB)
Tile decibe! 1s a iogartrhm~obase unli uscd rn compare sound inrens~r~es.
Because we d o not know the actual znergy belr~gtrails~nit~cd
hy a probe, we can onl!,
compare sound inrensiries being received and express then: LIS r m c , e.2. [wice :is
much, [en rlmes as niucil el<..
.A change in sound inrens~ry,sxpressed in dB, can be measurecl by comparing s~gnui
Ilelghts on a calibra~edCRT. Tlie change In dB IS given by rhc tormula:

H1
dB = 30 log,,- : Where H1 and 1-12 are the respective signal heighrs.
H2 '

By transposing he formula ir is possible to determine the rauo of [he s~gnalheignrs

whzn the dB difference is known.

I
!::
,,.
it
The gaidattenuaror controls on a convenrional ultrasonic flaw clerecror are calibratzd In 1i
.1
/i
decibels, i.e. if we reduce the intensity of uluasound by 6dB any s ~ g n a ioil he CRT.
will drop ro half irs original heighr. If we reduce or increase intensiry by 20dB [hen
1'
the signal will reduce ro a rent/] or increase by ten times its origirlal height respectively. 1:
j i:
It is imponanr to note that on cerrain flaw detecrors, if reject or suppression is used ro
remove small unwanred signals horn [he display, then tile linearity of the amplifier, and I!]
i;

!'
..
/>.,
hence the other signals, will be adversely affected. I;
Table of approximate dB drops: 8
II
1.F

dB 1 H3 Drop 1 Hl:H2 ratio I 1;

1;
l
I i.
d

I !.
i'
1;
1;j
:1
;j:
1)
g!
F:
I:!:

r'
fii
!;

1 i.
I'i
4 i/
I /?
i

jii
 EQUIPMENT

lo Probes
The angle of a probe used in ultrason~c restins is measured from a line drawn
perpendiculsr to the test surihce. This line is known 2s the normal. .4 0"probe ll~enis
one which rransmirs sound at 90"[O Lhe test surface. .41so known as a norrnal probe,
chis probe usually transmits compressional or longirudinal waves. A 60" angle probe
would transmit sound a1 ,60°to the normal, i.e. 30" from the surrace. The rnosr
20 common angle probes uansmit shear waves [although angltd compression probe:; do
exist for special applicationsj and the manufacturers quote the angle of rile probe for
use on mild sreel.

+ Mu! u1s0 be referred io us 0" combined double* probe

iwrn c . n . 1 ~ probe.
1
Electrical connections

I . Dead zone - rrngmg rrrne
ojcrys~ul.
Double probes have two crystals, one transmits and the other receives uitrasound. The
cork separator in berween the shoes prevents "cross-talk" or "chatter" between the
crysrals. Using oil as a couplant may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and
produce spurious standing echoes on the display. Having separate crystals eliminates
the dead zone' on the display, enabling the detection of near-surface defects. These
probes are therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g. thickness gauging and
examining for near surface flaws. The crystals may be focused to give a focal point at
h e ideal beam path range to be examined.

Single crystal angle probe

Electrical connection qasing ,

Dmping f;i;kl?X g'/lr$ j, ,

marenal . ~rcdal
I

Crystal

I
/
Index point Perspex s h o e

Sii~glei!ystal probes havc cne crys~al hut trunsmlirl; slid iecai\ias ultrasound. The flaw
dctcctor controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy ~ h r nswitcliing rhp. circuit
to receive, listening for any returning sound, in betwee.n pulses. The circi~itrycna be
switched quicker than [he crysrai can be damped. So the receiver picks up the l a s ~few
 I
vibrat~onsof the crystal, as i t switches In, and dispiays them on the screen as the dead
zone. This eliminates the possibility of detecting near-surface deiects.
Angle probes have a perspex shoe, on which the crystal sirs, that can be machined ro
any angle. The angie of the wedge determines the angle that the ultrasound strikes the
interface iincident anglej. This in rum, according to Snell's law, controls the angle [hat
lo
the sound will propagate through the rest material (refracted angle). Damping material
on thz back of [he crystal (also known as a backing slug) controls the length of [he
ultrasonic pulses by absorbing the sound energy, producing short sharp pulses The
izngth of the pulse is the main factor in determining the resolution of the zquipmenr.
The most common dampinglbacking medium is Tungsten Araidite.
SHORT PULSE LENGTWWIDTHDURATION MEANS GOOD RESOLUTION.
20

/ Soft nosed probe

I Electric connection

Damping
slug \
r77Plng KLL~) hQskT

Couplant ' 'Soft diaphragm

This has a soft diaphragm mounted on the front of the crystal. clamped In place by s
threaded ring, [he space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with
50 couplant to expel an]: air. The soft d i a p h r a , ~ follows the contour of the surface under
test, making this probe ideal for rough or uneven surfaces. e.g. castings or rough
machined components.

Water gap o r gap scanning probe

m

water acts a

Test material
v
Sound path

This consists of a watcr jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe ~ n s l d e .Waicr is fed
into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test
surface, through which the sound can travel. Because of the flexibility of the coupling
medium, (water) ;he probe can be used on rough or unevell surfaces. These probes
are usually used in autonisted ultrasonic scanning systems and can be set up, using a
guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They can also be used in m a y s to
scan a wider area.
 I

[ Wheel type probe

,---Electrical
connection

Spring loaded
joini

Soft tyrs, solid

or water tilled

Crystal [within a l e )
itb
rY
w K ~ e s surface
t
Sound path

In this probe the crystal is within the axle of the wheel and [he sound travels through
the soft tyre into the test material. The spring loaded joint allows the probe to follow
the contour of the surface so i t can be used on rough or uneven surfaces. !t is used in
a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that
it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, mainly used in aerospace
industries.

I Delay line probe

Electrical connection
A-L
Damping Casing
slug
- I *
'\hh p\~,i'l
nng

Long perspex

The delay line probe is very similar in construction to che soft nosed probe. The
difference is that it has a long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The
length of the shoe extends the time taken for the echo from the front surface, of the
material under test, to return to the crystal. This places the Front surface echo (FSE)
further along the timebase, i.e. beyond the dead zone. This enables near surface defects
to be located or thin piate to be tested using a single crystal probe. Another
advantage of using a long shoe is that these probes are usually high frequency probes,
hence small dead zone b u ~high frequency = long near zone, therefore, 10 ensure usage
for near surface naw detectiodsizing, the long shoe is used to contain the near zone in
the probe not in the test material.
 i Magnetostrictive transducers

1 to 80ft long
Transducer coil
A

Derection quipmenr
Frequency 100 KHz

Used for detecting defective bar stock, the transducer coil has a magnetic field that is
switching at ultrasonic frequency. This field c a u h ~[he ~ bar Stock to vibrate at an
ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length 01 [he bar. When the
vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are then picked up by the
transducer (in receive mode) and register on the detector. The equipmenr is calibrated
off a defect free piece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector and
defective bar stock is recognised by a change in this value.

1 Probe frequency, bandwidth & damping

An ultrasonic probe transmits sound at a range of frequencies, not just at the stated
frequency, this is known as the bandwidth. For example a 5MHz probe may produce a
frequency range of 4 to 6MHz. T h e bandwidth is also an indicarion of the damping
factor.

BROAD BAND PROBES NARROW BAND PROBES

They have low damping

(typically 1 to 2 cycles) (typically 3 or 4 cyclesj

A shorc ringing time (dead zone) A long ringing time (dead zonej
Better resolving power Poor resolution
Poor penetration Good penerration
 / Probe selection
. .
!, , . i
-. .-. lo
The selection of probes for ulrrasonic inspection is influenced b y various aspecrs ol' the
./ --
rest and the particular material under test. These may include; the rype and slze o f
defecr being sough^, the type of material under test and the distance the sound has ro
travel through tht material. Below is a table of properties of probes using llie rwo
criteria that we can select, i.e. frequency and diameter.

Effect of frequency

1 LOW FREQUENCY I HIGH FREQUENCY I

I Long wavelength
More beam spread
Shorter near zone
Better pehetra~ion
Less attenuation
Longer dead ,zone
...
Less sensitivitv ' '
I Shorr wavelength
Less beam spread
Longer near zone
Less penetration
More attenuation
Shorter dead zone
Hizher sensiti;itv .

401 Effects of Diameter

I I LARGE DIAMETER 1 SMALL DIAMETER 1

!
Less beam spread More beam spread
Longer near zone Shortef near zone
Better penetration Less penetration
Less attenuation (due to beam spread) More attenutaion
Difficult coupling on curved surfaces Easier coupling on curved surfaces
More coverage on flat surfaces

Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combined double crystal

probe. The advantages of a singie crystal probe are; better penetration, for the same
size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crysta! diameter is larger, no
focal point. i.e, it works effectively over a longer range and cost (cheaper). TIie main
advantage of a double crystal probe, is that there is no dead zone on the screen, this
means better near surface resolution can be achieved.
It can be seen From the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity. In
this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect small defects. The higher the
probe frequency the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the size of reflector the
probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can
detect is half the probe's wavelength. S O a probe with a long wavelength (low
frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or g a i n boundaries
and so the sound will penetrate further through the material because it is not reflected at
these small interfaces.
 T h e Pulse Generator, also known as the clock or timer this circuit conuols the
synchronisation of the flaw detector. It sends an electrical signal to the timebase
generator and to the pulse transmitter simultaneously. These elecu~cal signal
frequencies are known as P R F F R R (Pulse Repetition FrequencyFulse Repetition
Rate). It is usually controlled automatically by the range (coarse) control setting, this in
turn ultimately controls the maximum depth of inspection and the ultimate scanning
speed.
The Timebase Generator or sweep generator, upon receiving the clectricai s l m d
from the pulse generator this circuit controls the voltage or charge on the X-plates
causing the electron beam in the cathode ray tube to sweep across the screen in 2 iinear
motion.
T h e Pulse Transmitter or pulser circuit, the electrical signal from the pulse genzraror
kiggers this circuit to send a burst of electrical energy, about I to 2Kv, to activare the
probe.
T h e Probe or search unit, converts the electrical energy, sent by the pulse transmitter.
into pulses of ultrasound by means of a piezo electric crystal (Tx). The returning
ultrasound from the test material is converted back into electrical energy by the probe
(Rx) and sent to the amplifier.
The Receiver Amplifier circuit accepts and amplifies the incoming electrical pulses.
The amplification required is about 10,000 to 100,000 times and the output must be
linear with the input. The amplifier must also be capable of accepting a range of
different frequency signals to accommodate the range of probe frequencies used.
Broad band ampl@*iersaccept a very wide array of frequencies producing an accurate
representation of signal shape. This enhances defect interpretation (type) but the signal
to noise ratio will be poor, so defect detection may be adversely affected, i.e. a
reduction in sensitivity, because of high noise (or grass) levels.
Narrow band arnplgers, on the other hand, suppress the parts of the signal that are
outside the frequency band that ~t operates at (the pass rrequency). This crealeh a
cleaner signal (although not a true representation of the input signal), which means that
the gain (amplification) can be increased which in :urn enhances defect detectab~lity
(sensitivity). The disadvantage of :his is that the altered shape of the signal means that
defect interpretation is more difficult.
The Attenuator or gain conrrol reduces the smplificauoti from the zmplifier by
controlling the voltage or charge on the Y-plates in the C.R.T., which will corltrol
I
 s~gna!heights, bringing them down [G a readable levzi. The control> :vorks on a
logarithmic base and ir does nor affecr the linearity of the amplifier.
Suppression or reject reduces the grass or noise level on the display by effecrively
raising the time base, but in doing [his ~t destroys amplifier linearity. Usually
reserved for taking thiclcness measurements. Some modern digital flaw detectors have
a "linear reject" function which does not destroy ampl~fierIlneariry and shows the
amount of reject in use as a percentage of display heighr, e.g. 50% rejecr indicares thar
all signals below 50% screen heighr have been removed but the remaining signals are
still the same height as before.
T h e Cathode Ray T u b e (C.R.T.) consists of a vacuum tube with a posirively charged
phosphorescent coating on the inside of the front surface, a cathode ray gun at the
opposite end, a focusing coil and X-plates and Y-plates to control the direction of the
electron beam. The gun produces a shower of negatively charged electrons h a t are
attracted to the positively charged coating on the front of the tube. As the electrons
travel toward the front (meeting no resistance because of the vacuum), they pass
through the focusing coil which focuses the shower inro a single stream (or beam!.
They then pass between the X and Y plates and are attracted toward any of these plates
thar have a positive charge or voltage applied. This bends the beam toward the
respective plate so deflecting h e position that it hits the front surface of the tube, i.e.
the screen. When the electrons finally reach the front surface they react with the
phosphorescent coating causing it to glow (green in most analogue sets), producing a
dot on the screen.
This dor is changed into signals purely by the deflection of the beam by the X and Y
plates.

Focussing coil Phosphorescent

Cathode
ray gun , --I
--I
\ _"iT rn.,r.nn
'U""""

\ Vacuum tube
\
Elecrrons X-plates
 lo I
The piezo electric effect
j Tllis is iief'ined as [tie property oi' cerlain crysrais t c ~converl clcclr!c~l zrie:-;> irlrc
!i mechanical energy and vict: L1ersa. Ttiese c q s ~ a l s n;;~ybe naturali:; cccurrilig.

i ar-riiicially manufactured or grown in solution.

Electrical energy in

Biezo electric crystals

These crystals may be X-cur or Y-cut depending on which orienrarion iheg xlre sliced.
from the crystal material. The crystals used in ultrasonic testing are >;-cur due ro i h t
mode of vibration they produce (compressional). This means that [he crystal is sliced
with its major plane (the crystal f x e ) perpendicular 10 the X axis of [he crystal
marerial.

Typical crystal Eicc:ncal sonnecrions

Puise w ~ d r h

Long distance to
avoid static discharge
I 0ri;inal crystal \ /
Gold or silver conducrors (silvering)
reinforced with chrome For wear resisrance

The frequency of the crystal is determined by its thickness and its acoustical velocity
and can be calculated wirh the formula:
70

where: ~f = ~ ~ frequency ~ From dthe formula~ i t can be ~seen that ~ ~

Ff = - v = Crystal material velocity the thinner the crystal the higher
21
t = Crystal rt~ickness the frequency.

80
Piezs electric crystal materials

I Natural 1 Artificially grown / Manufacturcd ccramics 1,

<
Quartz Lithium Sulphate (LiSO,) Barium Titanate (BaTiO,)
Tourmaline Lead Zirconate (PbZrO,)
Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT)
Lead hiletaniobate (PbNblO,)
YI
 Properties of piezo electric materiais

Crystal material Advantages 1

I Liniitarions I
The 1lniliar1on.r oj~rioderri
Quartz Srable / Poor p i u o slcctric properties 1
cerarrlic crysiai rn0reriui.r pp
Good wear reslsrancz I
ure rhar rhev have 1o1t. Lirhiurn sulphare Besr receiver and eas~ly Soluble ~n water
~nechu~lical srre~rgih.i.r
rile): are brirrle, u ~ i d
rile):
damped
i u v e a rendenc): ro age. )Barium~iranac-- I May be preformed to 1 Temperature critical 1
The advuniage hubvever is
rhur rhey are escellenr I [ focus beam 1 i
ye/lerarors ojulrrasound. 1 1 Best transmitter and good ( I
piezoelectric properties jI

Lead Zirconate Good piezo electric

I
1 I
propenies
Lead Zirconate Titanate Good transmitter and
round properties I

The Curre renlperarurefor

The polarisation of ceramics
Burium T i r u ~ a is
r ~around In their natural state the poiycrystalline ceramic materm's cr)srals are randomly
100 ro lZO°C, ulrilough rile orientated and the piezo electric properties cancel each other out. To polarise these
prezo elecrricpruperlres of
ceramics they are heated up to their Curie temperature and subiected to an electrostatic
Barium Tircmure w i l l srun rc
degrade or uround 70°C field. The crystals align themselves with the direction o l the field, which is maintained
and above. during cooling. This polarised ceramic material then behaves as a piezo electric
transducer until heated again to it's Curie temperature.
The p r i m ? reason
srmdard probes are nor The most common crystal materials in use are Barium Titanate and Lead Zirconare
usually used on ~rmrerials Titanate.
above 50°C is becarrse of
rhe possibiiiv of
degradafion ofrhe cnsral

Tile secc~~dur)'reusocl IS due

ro rlre probe shoe
characrerisrics beginning ro
change, airering velociy
m d rilerefore the beam
angle on shear wave
probes.
I . Specular: Mirror-like
Reflection, refraction &. SnelI1sIaw
Reflection
Ultrasonic waves are reflected by objects or interfaces placed in their path. When
striking a specular' reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is governed
by the law of reflection, which states:
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection

Refraction
This describes what happens to an ultrasonic beam when it passes from one medium to
another where the two media have different acoustical velocities, e.g. from perspex to
steel. The bean1 changes direction or angle in the venical plane.
ICy/ lncid;;;

4v ,
angle

Reflected angle Incidenr angle

(r) (a) M;dium I '

Medium 2

Refracted sound
1 Reflected sound I Refracred angle
!PI
 I
1 The reiarlonship between the inciden~angle and rciiacteu a ~ ~ g l eissgoverned by Snell's
/ law that stales:
Where: o: = incident angle
-Sin
-- a V1
- = refracted angle
Sinp V2 \/ 1 = velocicy in rnediurn I

V2 = velocicy in medium 2

I Mode conversion
A change in wave-form from one to another, together with the accompanying change in
velocity, due to reflection or refraction at an inrerface. An example of mode
conversion that we make use of is when the compression wave, generated by the crystal
30 in a shear wave probe's perspex shoe, crosses an interface between the shoe and a steel
test piece and converrs to a shear wave.
'4nother example of mode change that we do not want to occur. e.g. shear waves
changing to compression waves. This occurs fairly regularly when carrylng out a
critical root scan on a single v fully penetrated weld with a shear wave probe, i.e, some
o i the ultmsound entering the root bead can be reflecled vertically up to the weld cap
and if a cricical angle is exceeded, the wave mode will change from shear to
compression. Accordingly on its return pach [O the probe, the received sp~irioussignal
displayed on the time base will represent an indication ihat appears to plot o n j i l l skip
just outside the weld side wall on the opposite side from the scanning surface.
The operator however will not be able to confirm this from the opposite side of the
,, weld on half skip which, if it had been an actual flaw, he would have expecced to do so.
.4s this type of mode change/spurious indication gives a fairly characteristic signd
display, an experienced operator would be expected to interprec this eflect fairly easily.
It is also possible though that mode conversions andlor spurious indications can be
misinterpreted asfla>vs, particularly if not investigated carefully.

This occurs when sound waves pass the tip of a narrow reflector. Some of the sound
scatters off the tip causing waves in different directions that reinforce or cancel out the
70
original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out
from the tips, giving the impression of sound bending around the edges of [he defect.

\ .. t Diffracted energy

Sound waves
 Critical angles
These are the incident angles in the firs[ medium a[ which the refracted angles in the
second medium change over from one wave-form to the nexL. The first critical angle is
where the refrac~edcompressional wave is just a b o u ~to disappear leaving only shear
waves in the second medium. The second critical angle is where the reiracted shear
wave has changed to a surface wave.
The critlcal angles c m be calculated using Snell's law

0
0" a 1 s t critical angl:

2nd critical angle

Critical angles perspex to steel

Ln diagram (1) a compression wave (cj is incident on the boundary between perspex
and steel at an angle of 0". . i t the interface some energy reflects jr) and some is
transmitted across (cj coniinuing through at 0". In (2) as we increase the angle ( a ) of
the incident wave (c), in the perspex (i.e. less than first incident critical angle), the
wave in the steel (c) refracts (Po),
due to the difference in the velocities of perspex
'
(vl) and steel (v2). However as well as the refracted compression wave there will also
be a weak shear wave mode is) - see sketch (2). In (3) if we increase the incident angle
( a ) until the refracted wave (cj reaches 90" (P0(c)), then the incident angle ( a ) has
reached what we term the first critical angle. Following behind the refracted
compression wave is a shear wave (sj and in (4) as we increase the incident angle ( a )
still further, the compression wave internally r e f l e c ~(r) leaving only shear waves (s) in
the steel. At (5) if the incident angle (a)is further increased then the shear wave
refracts until it reaches 90" (P0(s)). This is what we tern1 the secoull critical angle.
At this point the shear wave bounding along the interface has changed into a surface
wave (su). Therefore we can see that (i) compression and shear waves exist in the
second medium whcn the incident angle is between 0" and the first critical angle. (ii)
Only shear waves exist when the i~lcidentangle is between the first and second critical
angles and (iii) surface waves exist only at the second critical angle. Beyond die
second critical Incident angle, as in diagram (6j, all convenrional modes of' propagatiull
are reflected internal1 y.
 I
Calculatiofi of the critical angles for a perspex to steel interface.
1
a = incident angle = refracred an21e
I
i v l = compressional velociry ~n perspex = 2740 m/j
1oj
i v2 = velociry ~nslee!, compress~anal = 59610
1 shear = 3340 rn/s

i 1st critical angle:

201
I Sin a = - x Sin
v2c
I
p Sir, a =
3740 d s
5560 m/s S1n90"

2nd critical angle:

Sin a = 0.845679012 x 1

Ar the first crirical angle compression and shear waves co-exisr, so rhe lowest angle for
50 shear waves only in practical use, is just beyond the first critical angle, ar an incident
angle of 79", which gives a refracted shear angle of 35".
v3s 3240 mls
Sin p = -
v1
x Sin a Sin p = x Sin 39"
2730 d s
,
'
Sin fi = 1.182481752 x 0.4848096

.4t the second critical angle surface waves exist so the highest incident angle we use for
shear waves is 56" that gives an 80"shear wave.
So the range of shear wave probe angles in steel (for practical purposes) are 35" to 80".
produced from incident angles of 29" to 56" in perspex.
 I

.-- I Calibratio~blocks and their uses

I ,fi
2- , : .,,,,\.
~
1 ~ 0 1 a r o n ; j : Wherever practical the limits on dimensions should be 0.1 mm.
10, Mlu:niuls: Steel blocks are made from low or medium carbon ferniic steel (killid:,
normalised to produce a line grained homogenous struciure throughout.

/
i
The International Institute of Welding (I. I.%'.) block
1. Tlre rurrenr Brirlsh ,41so referred to as the A2, V l , DIN54/120 or dutch block.
srunhrdjor ulrrasonic
cuiibrarion blocks is:
BS 2704

50 1
0" Compression probe uses
Calibration
OD probe calibration can be set using back wall echoes (BWE) off the various
thicknesses available, i.e. 5 , 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough) on
the 23mm thick perspex insert which gives a reading of 5Omm when calibrated on steel
(the ratio of sound velocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960mls to
27401s1'1, = 50:23). A minimum of two echoes are required for calibration w ~ t hOD
probes. The 91mm step in the block serves to calibrate the screen for use with shear
wave probes by using a compression probe. If a OD probe is placed over the 91mm and
the echoes placed at 5 and 10 on the graticule then the screen is calibrated for s range
o i 0 to 182mm compressional. This is equivalent to 0 to lOOrnrn shear, the ratio of the
velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82: 1 (5960m/s:3240m/s).

Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe)

Place the probe over the 5mm section. If the signal is visible outside the dead zone
then the dead zone is less than 5mm. If the signal is not visible then place the probe on
80 the IOmm section. If the signal is now visible then the dead zone is grearer than 5mrn
but less than 10mm. If the signal is still not visible then go on to the 15mm deep hole.
'Ihis procedure can be carried out with an un-calibrated screen. An alternative method
would be to calibrate the screen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw
detector graticule.

Resolution
The resolution of a 0" probe can be chccked by using the three different thicknes:
sections around the slot below the cer.tre of the IOOmm radius. Place the probe above
the slot and with a calibrated screzn note :he separation between the 3 5 , 91 and 10C)mm
signals.
 Shear probe uses
Index or sound exit point
Place the probe on the top of [he block over- thr. centre of' the lOOmm rad~us,w ~ r hthe
beam [ravelling toward [he I-adius. Maximise [he signal by moving the probe back and
forth, stopping at the point where rht: signal is highest. Marl: rhe posirion of rhe sm:lil
slor, in the block, onro the probe, [his represents the point where the centre of [he sound
beam is leaving the probe. Tlie engraved lines either side of the small slor rand rhe
ones on the probej can be used ro measure the movement of Lhe index poinr as the
probe shoe wears down.

Shear probe calibration

This can be canied out using the IOOmm radius, repeat signals being secured by the
small slor used for indexing.
30

( Shear probe angle check

Maximise the reflected signal from the 50mm diameter (sidej of the perspex inserr and
note the position of the probe index, in relation to the engraved graduations on the
block, to read off the approximate angle. A more accurate check can be made using [he
reflection from the 1.5mm diameter hole in the same way.

Shear probe output

Maximise the signal from the l0Omrn radius and adjust to full screen height, using the
gain, and note the dB figure indicated on the conuols. This figure can be used ro
compare differenr probes or to check the probe in use, daily, for dererioration.

~ ~

,44N2 calibration b l o c ~ l [ N 3 4 / 1 2 2or kidney block

dia. hole
 I Compression probe uses
Calibration
This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, alrhough [he current srandards in use
for ulrrasonic calibration blocks may only mention 13.5 or 20mm. The repeat signals
secured from chis through thicltness can be used ro cllibrate the 0" probe

Dead zone measuremenn..

resoiur~or~ und sireur probe
unyle check con only be
upprorimred on rhe A2/.41
b l o c k . Specific b l o c k such
LU rhe A5. A6 und A7 should

be used for more accurure

reproducible resulrs as
quored in associared
slondordr. i.e. BS 4331
Parrs I und 3.

P L A N VIEW

This block can be used as a calibration block with a compression probe, however, its
main use is as a reference block with either compression or shear wave probes. Its two
most common uses are for plotting the beam profile and for setting test sensitivity,
using the various individual side drilled holes as reference reflectors.
The five side drilled holes on one side of the block that are drilled close Logether inay
be useful to check the resolution capabilities of angle prok,es.
 1 Equipment checks
I . T l ~ currenr
r Bririsll
srandnrd j o r eyuipmenr
checks is BS 4331:1978
2. The roierunce/or
rimebase linearin in
BS 4331 is 22% ujrhe ~vhoie
rimebrae.
3. Tht rolerance /or
amplifier linearin in
BS4331 is quuredjor eoch
srep o j the check, if
averages approximarely
+j%
Periodically ultrasonic flaw detec~ion equipment musr be ci~ecked to cnsure
performance characteris t ~ c shave not deteriorated.
Some of the checks include:
Timebase lineariry
Amplifier linearity
Timebase range calibration
Signal to noise ratio
Angle probe index point
Probe angle check
Beam profile determination
Resolution check
This is not a comprehensive list. the recommended checks to be carried out can usually
be found in the relevant current standards'.
Timebase linearity
Carried out over the ranges to be used, this is performed by placing a compression
probe on a calibration block to obtain multiple echoes. Calibrate the screen by placing
the first and last echoes, within the required range, in their correct respective posi~ions
on the timebase and check thar the intermediate echoes are in their correct respeclive
positions. The tolerance' on linearity can be found in the currenr standard'.
i
!:
Amplifier linearity '-+.,. - - -
Position a probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflec~edsignal from a 1.5 or jmm
diameter transverse drilled hole. using the gain adjust this signal to 80% of full screen
height. Increase the gain by 2dB and the signal should rise to 100% full screen height.
Now reduce the gain by SdB and the signal should fall to 40% screen height. Reducing
the gain a further 12db should see the signal fall to .lo% screen height and a Further
6dB should take the signal down to 5% screen height. The tolerance' on signal heights
can be found in the current standard'.
Timebase range calibration
Check the ability of the equipment to be calibrated to the ranges required.
Signal to noise ratio
Place the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal From a transverse
drilled hole. Using the gain adjusr the signal to 20% of full screen height and note the
gain setting (dB): Increase the gain until the grass (noise) level reaches 20% screen
height at the same timebase position and note the new gain setting (dB). The difference
in the two dB gain settings is the signal to noise ratio and can be used to compare
different equipment or to monitor the equipment in use.
A~igleprobe i d e x poini:
This check is covered in the calibration block section of the notes
Probe angle check
Also covered in the calibration block secrion, the more accurate check being when
plotting the bbdm profile u i n g the 4 3 block (see next paragraph).
 Reanr spread
1 Example: 20 dB drop berm spread
Althougii rhe beam spread can be calculared, i r is usually plor~edour practically using
the .A5 block and a range 01' different deprhs of reference holes. Before plocr~ngrhe
beam profile the probe index poinr should be checked. The probe is placed above one
of the holes, [hen by moving the probe back and l'orrti: rhe signal from the hole is
maximised and the gain adjusred LO give a signal a1 100% full screen he~ghr. The
posit~onof the index poinr is rhen marked onro the block. The probe is then moved
forward until the signal falls to 10% screen height and again rhe position of rhe index
point is marked onto the block. The hoie is now in rhe 10% (-20dB) intensity trailing
edge of the beam and the distance between [he two marks on tht block represenrs the
distance From the centre to the 20dB uailing edge of the beam at the depth of the hole.
The procedure is then repeated in the opposite direction (backwards) to find [he leading
edge of the beam. This is repeated on several ( a minimum of three) different d e p h s of
hole to find rhe profile of the beam. The marks on the block can be [ransferred to a
g a p h to give a pictorial representation of the beam andlor rransferred ru a plotting
sysrem for use in plotting and sizing d e f e c ~ .

1 surface dis~ance(rnrn)

Resolution
This check can be found in the caiibration block section of the notes.
 0" PROBE SCANNING

lo / Caiibration
The initid pulse or main bang is LI resr signal thar the flaw de~eclorcreares and has no
significance for calibrarion. It usually lies just off 10 the left of a calibraied screen.

C.R.T. - Carhode Rnv Tube

I ! , : :
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Visible area
/ of C.R.T.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

J ,

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

When an ultrasonic probe is placed on to a piece of steel, some of the ultrasound in the
probe reflects off the interface between the probe shoe and the steel and some is
transmitted through into the sreel. When the transmitted energy strikes the back surface
of the steel it vinually all reflects off the steel to air interface and rerurns to [he steel to
perspex interface. Here some energy transmits into the probe and creares the first
signal ( I ) and the rest reflects back inside the sleei and the process repeats itself.
creating the repeat signals, (2 etc.) until the energy decays away. The spacing between
the echoes represents the thickness of the steel, s o if we place the probe on a A2 block,
on the 25mm thickness, then the echoes are 25mm apart. Note. If we are using a single
crystal probe then the initial energy that reflected back into the probe will create a
signal at the start of the screen (F) which will be very close to the initial pulse and there
will also be a dead zone visible on the CRT. If we are using a double crystal probe
(separate transmit and receive crystalsj then there will be no signal from the front
*Dead zone - nlrhougl~~vrrh surface and no dead zone* visible.
nvrn cysral probes no
1:iribie indicarion r.rlsrs on
rhe CRT, rhe rerm dead zone
correcrly mean1 an area
where indicaiions cuiinor be
locared and is srill preserlr
I near sujilce due ro rtre
~ g l oef rhe crysralr used lo
focur ihe bean1 a! rhe
oprirnunl usage ranse.

* There are nvo me~hodsof

:ctlieving calhrorror~:
'1 To calibrate a 0" probe to a range of: 0 to 100 mml
Apply couplant to the A2 block and place the probe on the 25mm thickness to obtain
(11 ~nulri-bacbvnllecho:
bJ delay rechnique. multiple echoes. W e require a range of IOOrnm on the screen so four echoes would fit
in to this range, s o we adjust the coarse range control to give us about four echoes on
the screen. We then adjust the delay control to position the first backwall echo a
quarter of the way along the screen and the fine range control to position the fourth
e-cho at the end of the screen. This procedure i s rcpea~erl1.1nti1all four echoes take up
their respective positions (see sketch). The same basic procedure applies to different
ranges using aifferenr ~hicknesses. Ey dividing the range b!~ the thickness we can
obtain the number of echoes required and by evenly spacing the echoes on the screen

UTS-I
 the desired range is achleved

0 1 2 3 1 j b 7 8 9 1 0
0 to >
- 1 0 0 m m range

/ Calibration exercises
I, Using the V l block:
1 Calibrate the timebase for:
100 mm range using the 75 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
200 mm range using the 25 mm thickness Merhod: Multiple B W E
400 mm range using the 3-5 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
100 mm range using the 100 mrn thickness Mechod: Delay technique
200 mm range using the 100 rnm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
400 mm range using the 100 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
20 mm range using the 10 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
10 mm range using the 5 mm thickness Method: Multiple BWE
10 mm range using the 10 mm rhickness Merhod: Delay technique
1 0 0 mm range using the 200 mm thickness Merhod: Multiple BWE

1 Accurate measurement
For accurate beam path measurement, such as thickness surveying using a flaw
detector, the achievable accuracy is determined by the range selection. For example if
the range is set to 100 m m full screen, then each large graticule division is 10 mm and
each small division is 2 mm. This means that the most accurate that you could read the
screen, by judging the halfway distance between the divisions, would be 1 mm.
However, the manufacturers of analogue flaw detectors using a C.R.T., can only
guarantee the horizontal (time base) linearity of the display to be within 2% of the
whole time base. This means that an echo could be one smail division (or 2 mm on the
100 mm range scale) out of posirion, so the guaranteed accuracy would normally have a
tolerance of 2 % of the range (the same size as one small division).

I
Timebase range Large division 1 Small division I Read accuracy
1
'01 500mm
2Wmm
5 omm
2omm
l omm
4mm
5nIm
2mm I

1omm I 1nun 1 0.21~11 0. lmrn I

 I
1 WIultipie back wall method
/
Another method of reading accurate th~ckness measurements IS LO use [he multiple
lo! backwall merhod. This ~nvolvescalibr-aring the screen to a larger range then I-eadrng
i che nth repeat signal from the rhickness and ciividing [he reading by , I . where ,!is the

I
clearesr signal thar you can read [lie Furthesr along the screen.

1 OOrnrn range
In this example the 6th signal can
, , . . be easily read off the screen
at a beam path of 15rnm.

The thickness can be calculated by:

. .
45
0 LP'3 4 ' % 6 7 8 910 -
6 = 7.5rnm
?
6rh signal

/ Defect detection
When using a 0"probe to search for defects we must consider the following. Which
range should be used, for accuracy and through thickness coverage?. Probe selecrion.
t&ng into account material attenuation and defect size. Whai level of tesl sensi~iviry
to use to ensure that defects which are considered harmful to the product (not
necessariiy all flaws are considered harmfulj, are located and to assure that
reproducible test results can be obtained, by differenr operators, using differenr
manufacturers equipment. Probe and range selection have been co\lered in previous
sections' of these notes, setting sensitivity is as follows.

Sensitivity
There are various methods of setting the test sensitivity these include:
Back wall echo level method (0" probes only)
Grass level
Using a reference reflector
9 Using a graph or curve plotted From reference reflectors

Back wall echo (b.w.e.)

The backwall echo method involves coupling the probe to the test material and
80
increasing the gain until the back wall echo is at the pre-determined level. The level
can be varied in several ways, e.g. if the second back wall echo (bwe) is set to Full
screen height (fsh) this would b e more sensitive than setting the first bwe to fsh.
Another way is to set the bwe to a lower level (less sensitive) or to set it to a percentage
of fsh and add a pre-determined number of dBs to [he gain (increase sensitivity). The
bwe method can obviously only be used with 0' probes since reflecrions off the back
90
surface, when using angle probes. do not return to the probe.

Grass
The grass or grain interference nerhod involves.coupling rhr; prohe to the test surface
and increasing the gain until the r e ~ k c u o n sfrom the grain structure of the material
 ' reach a pre-derermlned level This 1s often quoteG b 3 rnm - 3 1nrr1 in height at me
[ rnaxlmum test depth but ideally should be referenced as a percentage of full screen .
+height not all flaw detectors use the same dimension icreen The sensitivity can be 4 -
1 adjusted by increasing or decreas~ngthe level or b\. adding or subrractlng dBs to or \

from the gain J? -

1' Reference reflectors
.4 common method of setting sensitivity is LO set a rnaxlrn~sedsignal from a reference -.
..-
-;I
reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full screen tieight. The I-

reference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side
drilled hole, a flat bottom hole, a slot or a vee notch, or i t could be a real, or simulated,
defect of known size and type.

The range, gain setting and probe identification should all be recorded (on the screen
usually) along with the curve. The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain
setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i.e. if the flaw detector is changed for another
one the gain setting will be different and if the probe is changed for another one,
another curve should be plotted.
P
Distance gain sizing or DGS, although a sizing technique, is sometimes used as a '
sensitivity level, e.g. Looking for defects up to a certain size as acceptable and above
that size as rejectable. An example nethod to set the sensitivity would be: The hwe
from the reference (DGS) block is set to a pre-determined level and the gain setting
noted. The maximised signal from a reference reflector (usually a flat bottom hole) at
target depth (test material thickness) is set to the same pre-determined level and the
difference between the new gain setting and the previous one is noted. The bwe from
the test material is se: to the pre-determined level and the difference noted in the first
two gain settings is added to the present guin urid this then is the scanning sensitivity.
( Scanning patterns 0" probe
When scanning for defects the scanning pattern to be used is sometimes dependant on
the size of defect sought. The two main factors to consider are the pitch (distance
between scans) or overlap (the amount, if any, thal the each scan overlays the nexr, and ,-)

the pattern or direction of scanning. If the p ~ r c his less than the size of the probe then
the scans will overlap. If the pitch is greater than the size of the probe then [here ~vill \.,
be a gap between the scans. Whether there 1s a gap between the scans or not may
depend on the size of defect sought and the size of the test piece. For example on a
,:'
-
large test piece looking for defects over 100rnrn the pitch may be 75mm between scans,
regardless of the probe size, because scanning every 75mm will locate defects over
lOOmrn in size. The pattern may require scanning in one direction or in two direct~ons
at 90" to each other.

OverLap~ k Probe dia.

Sizing methods 0" probe

There are four main sizing techniques used with 0' probes: "'
,;
6dB drop 2
C
hLSjii /~$i.)' 9
,r,o,\
L,L
;,: JS,,- .:# ,::V',\L.

Equalisation 1
Maximum amplitude
J, GL,>< !,LL,,> l,,..,..L,$
, . ,, !: .- . . i
DGS
J
6dB drop technique
Used to size large defects, i.e. defects that are bigger than the beam spread, such as
laminations, this is where the probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until the
signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe, is
then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam
is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated along the edge of the reflector the
reflector's size and shape will be marked out onto the material's surface.

bwe

. .

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
 I
1
/ Equaiisation technique
The equalisation technique is very similar in operation to the bdB drop except that the
probe is moved off the edge of the reflector until irs signal is equal in amplitude LO the
rising bwe. ~t this position the centre of the probe is marked onto the surface, again
conlinuing along the edge of the ~.eflector10 map out the shape and size.

Both the 6dB drop and the equalisation methods only work accurately on large
reflectors and will grossly oversize small ones.
NB.The flaw must also be along the centre line of the plate or again sizing accuracy
will be adversely affected.

Maximum ampIitude (max. amp) technique

This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions, or to size multi-faceted
defects, such as cracks'SThe technique involves moving the probe off the defect area?
'
until the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching the whole
signal group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The probe
position is then marked as in the other methods to mark out the edge of the defect area.
This technique will pick out the Iasr individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of a
crack giving the overall size of the defect or a e a .

I Edge of marked 1

Last response
either end

Distance gain sizing (D.G.S.)

DGS uses the reflections from flat bottom holes or disc reflectors, of different sizes and
over a range of depths, plotted on a graph. Signal amplitudes from defects are
compared to the graph to give the minimum size or, more correctly, the minimum
reflective size to the defect. These graphs are provided by the manufacturer of the
probe, are illustrated in some reference standards or can b e plotted.
To size a reflector with the DGS diagrams: With a calibrated screen and the DGS
diagram for the type of probe being used, maximise the signal from the reflector and set
the amplitude to'h pre-determined reference level, using the gain control, and record the
gain setting. Move the probe to an area of the material, where the back wall is the same
distance as the previously recorded reflector, there are no reflectors and the surface
condition and curvatures are the same as the previous area. Set [he bwe to the same
pre-determined reference level as before and note the difference between the previous
and the new gain settings. Using the DGS diagram look o n the infinity line, at the bwe
distance, for the dB figure and add this E u r e to the previously nored dB difference.
Read the total dB figure (the two just added), at the reflector beam path (depth), off [he
graph, to give the equivalent size of the reflector.
I.. ,;
?'."

ANGLE PROBE SCANNING

The initial pulse and the dead zone, mentioned in the previous, secuon also occur with
angle probes and should be regarded in the same way.

I Calibration
With angle probes, the reflector must be perpendicular to the beam and there must be
,, some method of capturing repeat signals. Both the V 1 (A?) and the V2 (A41 blocks
Fulfil this criteria.
The V1 block has a lOOmm radius to reflect the sound and a slot cur at the cenue to
capture repeat signals. Signals occur every 1OOmm therefore can be used to calibrate
the screen, e.g. to calibrate the screen for a 0 to 200mm range we would place the first
echo on 5 on the graticule and the second on 10. To calibrate for a 0 to lOOmm range
we would place the first echo on 0 and the second on 10 ( w h ~ c hgives a 100 to 200mm
range), then delay the first echo across the screen to 10.

CRT

\ range

The V? block has a 25mm radius and a 50mm radius both irradiating from the same
centre. This has the effect of bouncing the sound from one radius to the other, via the
centre, creating repeat echoes. After the first echo, which occurs at a distance
representative of the radius that the probe is facing, the echoes occur every 75mm (the
sum total of the two radii) this feature can be used to calibrate the screen. The
direction that the probe faces varies with the range required because it is easier to align
more of the echoes on the graticule, when facing a particular radius, for a particular
range, than on the other radius, e.g. for a 0 to lOOmm range, the probe would face the
25mm radius where the 25mm signal and the lOOmm signal can be eas~lyaligned. For
a 0 to 200mm range the probe would face the 5Omm radius where the 5Omm and
200mm signals can be easily aligned (the 125mm signal falling somewhere in between).
 Angle probes test sensitivity
Tile following methods can be used for setting lesr sensitivil!~
Grass level
Reference reflectors
DAC curves

Grass
The grass or g a i n interference method involves coupling the probe to the tesr surface
and increasing the gain until the reflections from the grain smcture of the material
reach a pre-determined level, this is often quoted as 3 - 3 rnrn in height at the maximum
test depth but ideally should be referenced to as a percentage of full screen height as
not all flaw derectors use- the same dimension screen. The sensitivity can be acijusred
by increasing or decreasing the level or by adding or subtracting dBs to or from the
gain.

Reference reflectors
A common method of setting sensitivity is to set a maxirnised signal from a reference

.,
reflector, at target depth, to a predetermined level, for example full screen height. The
reference reflector could take the form of a known reflector, e.g. A transverse side
drilled hole, a flat bottom hole (drilled at the appropriate angle for the probe), a slot or
a vee notch, or i t could be a real, or simulated, defect of known size and type.

Graphs and D.A.C. Curves

Another common method of setting sensitivity involves plotting a graph or curve on
paper or on the flaw detector screen using transverse holes. One of these is known as
the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve. This is a curve plotted on rhe screen
using transverse holes, of the same size but at different depths, in a block of the same or
,
I
strucrurally similar material as the material under examination. The screen is c a l i b r a t e d 2
to the required range and the probe is placed over the hole that gives the best signal
response. The response is maximised and set to a pre-determined level using the gain.
The peak of the signal is then marked onto the screen (usually on a transparenr inlayj
and the probe is then moved along to a deeper hole. The signal from the deeper hole is
then maximised and with the gain setting unaltered the peak of the signal is marked
onto the screen and the probe is then moved to the next hole down. The procedure is
repeated until the end of the range is reached. The marks on the screen are then joined
up with a line drawn through and this forms the DAC curve.

The range, gain setting and probe identification should all be recorded (on the screen
usually) along with the curve. The curve shape is a probe characteristic, the gain
setting is dependant on the flaw detector, i.e. if the flaw detector is changed for another
one [he gain seLLirig will bc diffc~cntand if the prube is ci~angzdfor another nne,
another curve should be plotted.
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 Skip f :tors
In angle probe scanning plotr.ing systems are used for projecting d e ~ e c tdepihs and
posirions in relation ro the probe index by applying the beam path, read from the
screen, and the s ~ a n doff or surface distance from a reference darum on [he lesr surface.
The system works on a senes of righr angled uiangles, s o the depths and poslrlons can
also be calculated, with rrigonometrq., using the probe angle and the be:~mpalh reading
on the CRT timebase.

= probe angle A-
d = depth
sd = slap or surface distance Sin p = oppi sd)
bp = beam path hyp(bpi
Cos p = adi id )
~YP(~P)
Tan p = onpisd)
adj (d)

To calculate h e expected beam path to a refl~ctor,when the depth and the probe angle
are known, we transpose the Cosine formula.

I1p = - d
Cos B

To calcuia~ethe depth of a reflecror, whec the beam path and probe ~r!gleare kno%n.
we rranspose the Coslne formula agaln.

d = bp x Cos p .,>*

,, To calculate the surface distance, when [he beam path and probe angle are known, we
transpose the Sine formula.

b sd = bp x Sinp

Finally if we wish to calculate the beam angle when the depth and surface distance to a
70
reflector are known we use t!le Tangent formula.

Tanp = sd
!...- , .-i . ,
,. . (.. .
i'
1-1
6b
A , ..I L,i;A5 .
.
.
.
, .
.. I

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_--p_-p-________
 The ratio of the sides of the triangles in the three most
common probe angles

The irradiation factor

. .
40
When testing tubular materials around [he circumference with angle probes, I r IS
possible that due to the curvature, wall thickness and probe angle, thar the beam will
nor strike the inside surface of the material. We can calculate the minimum probe angle
that will strike the inside surface [at a tangentj. This is known as the irradiarion factor.
I

I sin =
by trigonometry:
opposite IR
- -
hypotenuse - OR

p = probe angle
IR = inside radius
OR = outside radius

Since tubular materials are usually measured

by diameter wc can convert the equation to:
ID
Sin p = -
OD

' Plotting systems

Rather than calculate the position of a reflector in relation to the probe index, using
80 trigonomevj., we can draw the probe angle onto a card. or transparent Film, and by
overlaying onto a cross-sectional diagram of the test piece, we can plot the reflector's
position. 'l'he following illustrarions show two examples u l pluuir~gsyslellw, one For
use on a flat surface and one for a curved surface.
 Curved surface plottlng system

70"

Sizing methods Angle probes

50
There are three main sizing techniques used with angle probes:
0 6dB drop
70dB drop
Maximum amplitude

60 6dl3 Drop technique

Used to size defect dimensions which are larger than the beam, such as the length of a
lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. The probe is moved off the end of the defect until the
signal amplitude is reduced by 50% (6dB). The position of the centre of the probe is
then marked onto the material surface. The probe is now in a position where the beam
is half on and half off the defect. If this is repeated at the other end of the defect then
O' the distance between the marks represents its length.

20dB Drop technique

This technique is used for defects that are less than the width of the beam, such as the
cross-sectional size of a lack of sidewall fusion in a weld. It requires the use of a 20dB
beam profile, plotted out for the probe in use, drawn onto a. plotting system. The signal
from the defect is first maximised and the position of the defect plotted down the main
beam on the plotter as in fig. 1 . The pmhe is then rnnver! fnrwardx, nff the defect, until
the signal drops to 10% of its original height. As the probe has moved forward the
defect is now in the trailing edge of the beam, so we now plot the signal down the
trailing edge on the plotter, see fig.2. This should give a point plotted just above the
previous plot and this represents the top edge of the defect. If we now move the probe
backwards, past the maxim, to a position where the signal is again 10% of the maxim,
then plot the signal down the 1e.nding e.dg~.of the beam, as in fig.3, this qho~llrl~ i v US
e
the bottom edge of the defect and thus the overall size.
 Maximum amplitude (max. amp) technique
20
This is used to size areas of small defects, such as inclusions or porosity, or 10 size
multi-faceted defects, such as cracks. The technique involves moving the probe off the
defect area until the signals disappear, then slowly bringing the probe back, watching
the whole signal group, to the first position where one of the signals maximises. The
defect is then plotted using the main beam on the plotting system. If this is carried out
in both directions then the cross-sectional extremities of the defect are plotted out. The
30
lechnique is repeated moving the probe laterally to size the length of the defect by
marking the position of the centre of the probe. This technique will pick out the last
individual inclusion of a group or the last facet of a crack giving the overall size of the
defect or area. It can also be used to plot the shape of a defect and for condition
monitoring where critical sizing is required by plotting each individual signal in the
group as it maximises.
40

Sizing [he length of a crack]

rjrj

I
"I-;.'.
'.:!$y
t ,
 I TESTING TECHNIQUES

A, 93 & C Scanning systems

1°1

This is one of' the most common sysrems in use for manual ulrrilsonic ~nspecrion.11
displays the reflected energy as signals on a CRT. The horizonral axis on the URT
represents elapsed time or distance and the vertical axis represents signal amplitude or
sound energy rerurnlng to the probe. This system can provide an indication on rhe size
of a defect from signal amplitude, the defecl location, from the position of the signal on
the timebase, and the signal shape and behaviour, on movement of the probe, can
indicate defect type. The disadvantages of this system are that the s~gnalsrequire
interpretation, which means that a more s h l l is requlred for operation. The advanrages
of this system are its portability and less time involved in setling up.

' In [he case o j o defeci in
B-scan system
The B-scan system provides us with a cross-sectional view of the material unde: test by
scanning the probe across the surface (sometimes at high speed). By using a high
persistence phosphorescent coating on the CRT the image is retained, for a period of
time, and can be photographed for a permanent record. The amplitude of the received
signal is represented by the brightness of the image and the synchronisation of the
movement of the probe and the display can give a true representation of the size' of the

r:
steel piare, rhe dejecr f o m defect.
M air lnlerface so the
rhrough rhlckness of the
defecr is nor sliown o n [he
display.
-

.
.
.
. I
Material cop surface+ , . , . . .

defect
. ,
. , . . . ,
bottom surface-
. . . , , . .

"1 C-scan system

This system gives us r, plan vlew of the scanned area, showing defects as contrasting
areas, on a printout or plotling system that is synchronised with the probe's movement
as it traverses over the material. The big advantage o i the system is an ~nstant
permanent record. The disadvantages are there is no indication of defect depth or
orientation and setting up the system can be time consuming.
Puke echo systems
A system that sends our pulses of ultrasonic energy [hen llsrens out for the returning
echoes is a pulse echo system. The probes used can be jn the single or double crystal
format. The single crystal probe transmits pulses of energy, rypically at a rare of
anything between 150 to 1000Hz, in between pulses the circuiuy switches to receivt:
mode to listen for any returning echoes. The double crystal probe has separate cransmit
and receive c ~ s t a l s the
, transmitter still sends our pulses, (at the same rates as above)
but rests in between, whilst the receiver is in "listening" mode perrnanenrly. See the
"Introducrion to the basic concept" section of the noles for further information and the
"Propagation of sound" section for derails on pulse repetition frequencies.
The advancages of the pulse echo system are that defect positions can be located wih
accuracy and access to only one side of the test material is necessary.
Tne disadvantage is rhat the sound has to kavel rhrough the material twice (there and
back) so there is more attenuation.

Through transmission testing

Mainly used in automated systems, in this technique there are two probes, one either
side of the test material, one transmitting pulses of energy the other receiving the
energy. The received energy signal is set to a pre-determined level on the CRT and [he
presence of a defect is indicated by a reduction in amplitude or loss of this signal. In
automated systems the signal may be set to reach or exceed a negative gate on [he CRT.
This means that a portion of the screen in the area of the signal will have an alarm
sound if' the signal does not reach the pre-set amplitude. This may be coupled ro an
automatic marking system, such as a paint sprayer, that marks the marerial when [he
signal falls short. The marked areas then being inspected later manually in more detail.
The advantages of this technique are based on the fact that the sound only has to travel
one way ~hroughthe material, i.e. Materials with higher attenuative properties can be
tested, thicker materials can be tested and higher frequency probes can be used.
The disadva~~lages are; thcrc is no indication of defect depth, thera rnllst be access ro
both sides of the material to place rhe probes, the probes must be correctly aligned and
a change in coupling conditions (causing a loss of signal amplitudej could be mistaken
for a defect.

/ Immersion testing
* Surface waves are
exrremly limired in
immrsion syslems ( r a n b )
since ir is a baurldary wave 90
and rcquirrs u svlid ro gar
inrerface 10 propogare
rvirhour massive a~lenua~ion.
Signal levti on
defecr lrer area
Test material Signal lcve1 is
Defect reduced 3 s
. .
detecr starts LO
enter beam
Receive
probe
The Tandem technique
This employs two probes, one transmitting sound and one receiving, this time borh the
probes are on the same surface of the test material. The probes are set at 3 ilxed
distance from each other so that the pulses from the transmitter, if reflected irom a
defect. will be directed to the receiver probe and thus create a signal on the CRT. The
distance belween the probes is dependant on the probe angle, the material thickness and
the depth of expected defects. The technique is used when looking for defects at a
pre-determined depth such as in the root of a double sided weld.
The advantage of this technique is, that vertical defects, wnlch would normally be
extremely difficult to locate ultrasonically by 0" or angle probes, would he easily
found.
The disadvantage is, that only defects at the pre-determined depth would be located.
Recelver -- ,G
Jie Transmitter
\ \' , . (weld prep)
This is an automatic ultrasonic inspection technique that is carried out in laboratories or
specialised factory inspection areas. The system uses a compression probe mounted in
a manipulator that is carried on a bridge over a La~ik-of water in which the test marcrial
sits. The manipulator allows the probe to be tilted at any angle. By varying the angle
beyond the criticd angles, various shear wave refracted* angles can be produced in the
test material as required. The bridge allows the probe to be moved over the test
material. The test material is sometimes placed on a rotating table in the tank and is
rotared as i t is scanned. Probe frequencies up to 25MHz are not uncommon in
immersion testing.

111prilcric: rhe "rule of
rhumb" is r h a ~rhe bvaler gap
~.houidbe tir l e u [ a !4 ofrlre
marerial rhickness
ivrsuming Fe/Al i %"
( 0 mml.
Inrtlal pulse
Bridge, Manipulator ,Probe ,Tank
e Test piece
Calibration is normally done with a contact probe from a calibration block. The warer
gap between the probe and the test material front surface is then delayed off the screen
so that the zero end of the screen represents the front surface of the test material. The
velocity of ultrasound in steel is four times the velocity in water. So when testing steel
the water gap should be greater than one quarter the thickness of the steel'. Otherwise,
the repeat signals from the front surface will start to occur before the bwe and a front
surface echo will occur within the test area on the screen, thus masking any defecrs
within the test piece at this depth.
Fronr surface echo Second fronr surface echo iwirhin the [esr area I
I n~ bwe
Correct set up Incorrect set up
 . % 0 ~a y l sa.1n2y a~drursSLBMIF I O U are sa3uelalol aZelua3lad a q ~Inq MO[[OJ
01 Xsea al!nb ale saldurexa OMI 1s1g a u iuru1~1.10 z U I U I S J~O U I L L I S ' ~ ~
UILLIS'~
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sr! u a ~ r z
10 sassauy31qI urnru!u!u pue urnur~xewJO w o j aql u! u a ~ 1 aq 9 Leu sa3uvlalol
a3uclda33y 'pueq u! qor aql JOJ alnpa3o~dU ~ I I U Me l o prepuv~sleuo!leu c m o y
c!~a111313alayda33c aql Z u ! s d q aq XCLU S I ~ J .maq] Su!p~o3al'se IlaM se lo '30 pealsu!
'uayel s1uaur3lnseaur aq] a l e n l e ~ aa1 paysr aq X~runoL 'Zu!Xa~lns ssauy3rql uaqifi
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plnoqs B u ~ p e aaql
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urnurlulru .IO sSu!pnal a q ~jo X3elnme 103 nuaunsnrpe 's5u!peal aql l o j aZelo~s[e~rS!p
o Leu .ialaur a u .q3olq UOIlEJq![E3 aql sr! Ivualeur a m s
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aql uo asn IOJ Xpea~s! puc alclq!!c3 X[lc311emo1neu a q ~I ~ ! M l a ~ a u raqLL . s s a c p q I [enl3c
aql lalu? puc ,,[at,,, s s a ~ d'q3olq uor1e~q1le3aq] jo uo113as q3!q1 e uo a q o ~ daqi a x i d
uaqJ, .l!un aql olu! ssaq3!q1 lcnlse aq] ~ a l u aprre u~eo'c,,olaz,,ssald 'q301q uo11vlq1lc3
aql 30 uo!l3as u!ql c uo aqold aql a x i d pue ,,air?~q!1~3,, I3alaS .aqold aqi olaz 01 uollnq
uon3unj ,,olaz,,aql ssald pue aoqs aqold aql uca13 'uo 11un aql q31!ms :aq plnom lalaw
q ! ~ y .asn 01 loud Ino pa-3
Ssauqn!ql le1141pc uo a u l l n o ~u o ~ l e ~ 1eo1dX1 s! au!lnoJ
u o ! ~ c ~ q ! ~r!c spur! y3olq UOIlBlql[83 e asn Xeur J O ']run aqold paqddns c V I M ' l ~ p a i e u ~
nln3!1n!d r JOJ ';Cio13cj aql IE palelq![e3-ald laqi!a an! slalaur ssaq31q1 p a u n p a a
JaTaur ssauq2!ql c 9u!sn
.sa!uado~dilor~enua~lr! pue ssauy31ql I E I J ~ I aql
~ ~ Iuo ~ucpuadapS! uo!l3alas
aqold aqL .aqold ,(I c pur! .101321apM B U IICDS-yuc 10 L ( a S n e Z -10 ~ lalaw-a) l a ~ a u r 0,
ssau?j2rqi pa1c31pap I? Su!sn 'IInq s,d!qs c J O /]EM lal!oq c -Z.a '~uauoduro:, c uo s u o ~ ~ ~ s o d
p a u ! ~ u a ~ a p - aIT~ dsluamalnscaui aldrlln~u,;o ruloj 3q1 a v l ,(1[cnsn sXa~lnsssauqolqLL
To calculate the value of the loierance from the stated percenrage and hence [he
maximum and minimum thiclinesses we use the formula:

txn
Tolerance = -
100
W h e r e r is the plate thickness
and n is the percentage
txn
So; Maximum thickness = t + -
100
txn
Minimum thickness = r - -
100

Reporting
When reporting the results of a thickness s u n e y , the readings may be elecuonically
stored, in memory on some thickness meters or digital flaw detectors, or written down.
In each case the location of the reading must be stored along with the thickness for use
as a reference in further checks or for mapping O U L the test surface. The elec~ronically
stored readings may be downloaded into a database application or directly inro a
graphics propam that will give a visual representation of the test area.
 ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLATE MATERIAL

Technique
When searching for defects in wrought plate you should havz, as 3 m~nirnum.[he
following information, which is usually written on 3 technique or instruction sheet (see
[he appendices for an example).
The test component identification and area to test.
Actions to be taken when defects are found.
The purpose of the test (defecG sought and acceptance criteria).
Equipment required.
What method and level of test sensitivity to use.
The method of scanning.

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant saiety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an aurhorising signature.

(01 Test area

The test may involve testing the whole, of a component, or just parts, this must be
specified

Actions to be taken
When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description. or the component, or materiai, may be accepted.
rejected or graded according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the
defecr information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. Defecr
type, size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of the test

This section tells us the accepdreject criteria for particular defects, i.e. w h a ~size and
type of defects to report, which defects render the component rejectable, or which
defects to assess for grading of the material.

Equipment
The type of flaw detector, type, size and frequency of probes, type of couplant and
70
calibration blocks to use, should be stated.

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. 2nd
B.W.E. F.S.H..

Scanning method
The method of scanning the material is either a written, step by step, instruction or
technique sheet, or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant na~ional
standard. An example written step by step could be:

I. Prepare the material surface by removing any loose scale, rust, dirt or other debris
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.
2. Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using a 0" probe and the A2 calibration
block, for a ranee of 0 to SO mm.
 I Set [he sensilivity (as quored in tile relevant section above! and apply couplan[
I 3.
I [he rest area.
4. Scan [he designated test area with a probe overlap, between scans, of at leas[ 20%
ofthe probe's diameter at a maximum probe movement rate of 150rnm/sec
When delecrs meeting the znteria i n the "Purpose of' rhe test" section are found,
record the relevanr defect aara 4s in the "Actions ro be raken" section.
6. Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, 1.e. where there is no B.W.E. presenl,
should be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation merhoas. Defecrs thar u e
smaller than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and posirioned using [he
maximum amplitude technique. Where there are found to be a number of small
defects rogether they should be grouped and sized as an area, using the max~mum
amplirude techmque on the defects thar are ar the edge of rhz area.
7. Prepare a neat concise report giving detals of the component idenrificarion. Test
area, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing with the defecr details as
recorded in secrion 5 above. Sign and date the report and state your relevant
30 qualifications.

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the tesr area and
covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements.

I Defects in plate material

The interpretation of defects in plate material involves knowledge or experience of [he
expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations ir is a
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then
50
choosing from the remaining possibilities ss to which type of defect is most likely.
Here are a few of the more common defects found in plare:

Laminations
A lamination is a defect that is larger than the ultrasonic beam and lies parallel ro the
plate surface, normally midway through the plate depth. It is formed from the rolling
out of secondary pipe in cast ingors. The air and the slag, that was originally on the
ingot surface, are trapped within the defect forming an acoustic barrier (interface).
This means that sound is totally reflected off the defect, so there is no B.W.E.. So the
defect echoes all behave in a similar fashion, e.g, a change in coupling conditions
causes the whole group of repeat echoes to fluctuate.

701 All deiecl

signals (repears)

.. . L

. .

80 . . .. .. . . ..
. . . . .
Lamination f
0 1 2 ~ 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

Inclusions
Inclusions, in plate material, are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic
material in the cast ingot. These lumps are crushed, flattened and broken up during the
rolling proccss and end up as smaller flnttai sl~apcts. Small inclusions are easily
differentiated from laminations because B.'YV.E. signals are still present on the screen
among the defect signals and they may be found at any depth. T w o most common
 rypes of inciusions are linear and s c a ~ ~ e r einclusions.
d Tney can be differentiared by
the signal pattern on the screen.

( Linear inclusions
This defect is formed f'rom a single inclusion or a closely grouped clus~erof inclusions
in the cast i n g o ~ . This results in the rolled our defects ending up at sirnilar deplhs
wlthin the plate. The signal paltern consists of a set of defect repear signals and a set of
back wall echoes. The centre of the ultrasonic beam has the most intense energy and as
the probe is moved across the marerial surface the beam centre is sometimes on the
back wall (as it passes between the small defectsj and sometimes on the individual
defects. This has the effect of high B.W.E.'s and slnall defecr signals or high defect
signals and small B.W.E.'s alternating as the probe is moved.

I ,.. :3.
ti..
fi-
Inear inclusions

1 Scattered inclusions
These are formed from various sized inclusions throughout the cast ingot and when
rolled out the shapes, sizes, orientations and depths of the defects in the plate vary. The
varying orientation and shape has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as it passes
through the plate, and if the sound reaches the back wall and reflects back, then it
scatters again on the return journey. This causes significant attenuation in the
amplitude of the B.W.E., compared to a defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals
kom the defects also vary because of the differences in sizes and orientations. The
signal's we see then on the screen are, a low B.W.E. and a cluster of signals, of various
amplitudes and depth, from the defects. The cluster of signals from the defects has a
consrantly changing pattern when you move the probe across the surface.

The beam scatters J 1 L

Stringers
These are formed from non-metallic inclusions in the cast ingot. The inclusions are
rolled out into long thin string-like shapes (as the name implies). The signal response
from a stringer is very much like a linear inclusion signal, when scanning across the
rolling direction of the plate. In the rolling direction, the B.W.E. is still present, but the
signal can be maintained along the defect's length.
I::.'

This defect occurs in the rolling process, when too great a reduction in section is
attempted, in one rolling pass. The material folds over onto itself and is flattened into
the surface by the rolls. This leaves a visible seam on one side of the plate. The signal
response, from the opposite side of the plate, is the same as wit11 a lamination on one
edge of the defect (probe position A). ,4t the other edge, (B) the signal from the defect
drops very low, or disappears, before the B.W.E. appears, i.e. before the probe reaches
the edge of the defect. This is because the defect surface slopes down toward the
bottom surface of the plate, this causes the sound to deflect away from the probe. As
the probe is moved off the edge of the defect [position C), the B.W.E. comes up. The
sloped end of the defect therefore has to be sized by performing a 6 dB drop on the
B.W.E. (If the sloped area has a degree of irregularity, then the maximum ampl~tude
technique would be an alternative).

Accept and reject criteria

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, or the material
may be accepted, rejected or graded according to the defects found. The accept/rejecl
criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report, which defects render the
component rejectable, or which defects to assess for grading of the material. The
criteria can be found in a p~ucedul-e,a W I ~ L L C I Iil~shu~;liuusheet or in a national
standard.
Reporting
A reporl should give derails of the cornponenr identificar~on, lesl area. surface
condlrion, equiprnenr used, sens~livityserrings and a drawing showlng rile deiecrs 2nd
dzrails such as; defecr type, size. larerai and longirudinal posi~ionsin relarion ro darums,
erc.. The reporr should be signed and dared and there may be a rec~uiremenr io .;[ale
your relevanr qualiiicauons. Al~ernarively,if grading marerial, ~nsieadof :i cirawlng
you may be asked ro give a wrlrren srarernenr oi'conformlry LC' [he reicvanr grade, or
acceprancz level, of the narionai standard employed.
 I ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING

lo 1 Technique
When searching for defects in welds yo11 should have, as a minimum, the i'ollowing
~nformarion, which is usually written on a techniqui: or instruction sheer (see [he
appendices for an example).
The test component identification and area to test.
Actions to be taken when defects are found.
The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance crileria:)
Equipment required.
What method and level of test sensitivity to use (prepararions)
The method of scanning.

The insuuction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevan[ safety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area afterwards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.

40
Test area
Tne test may involve examining the whole, of a component, or just the weld and heat
affected zone, this must be specified.

Actions to be taken
When defects are found i t may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
50 diagram or as a written description, or the weld, may be accepted or rejected b a e d on
the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect information that needs
reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. Defect type, size, lateral and
longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of the test

This section tells us the acceptlreject criteria for parricular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report, or which defects render the weld, or parent metal, rejectable.
Note: Defects in the parent metal, adjacent to the weld, could limit the weld scans with
the angle probes.

Equipment
70
The type of flaw detector, types, sizes, angles and frequencies of probes, type of
couplant and calibration or reference blocks to be used, should be stated.

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. using an
80% F.S.H. DAC curve, plotted from 3 rnrn diameter side drilled holes, add 14 dB to
the gain. This information may be contained in a section on preparation for the test,
along with things like; lighting conditions, surface cleanliness etc.

Scanning method
The method of scanning the marerial is either a written, step by step, instruction or
technique s h e e ~ ,or involves following the steps laid out in the relevant national
standard.
 An exampie wrltten srep by srep insuuclion~[or ;l single vet: butt weld, coulci be:

1. Visually inspect the parent metal and weld surfaces, reporting the surface
condition and the presence of any weld cap defecrs.
2. Scan the parenr metal wirh ;1 O0 probe, check and report the thickness and any
derects. Where the cap is dressed flat scan the weld metal with the 0"probe for
defecrs and record on a rough report.
3. Draw up full size working diagrams and cursors (plotting systems), noting surface
distances and beam paths for each angie probe on half s h p and lull skip positions.
4. Mark [he centreline of the weld and the surface distance for each probe onto the
scanning surface.
5 Using a guide strip behind the probe, perform a critical root scan by scanning
laterally on a fixed line parallel with [he weld axis, with the probe index point a[
the half slup surface distance, with each probe (access permitring). Make a note,
on a rough diagram, of any suspecred defective areas of the root, as they are
located with each probe. Assess each suspect area individually lo ascertain
wherher the area is a defect, whether the defect is in the root, if so, what type of
defect and its size and posirion. Record the defects on the rough report.
6. Scan the weld body on full skip, with each angle probe in turn (access permitting),
by moving the probe back and forth between the half and full skip surface
distances, whilst gradually uaversing [he length of the weld. Assess each signal
that falls wirhin the half skip to full skip beam parh range as i t is locared. Record
the defecrs on the rough report.
7. Scan the weld body on half skip, wirh each angle probe in rum [access
perrnittingj, by moving the probe back and forth between the half skip suriace
distance and the weld cap. or past the weld cenue line if the cap has been
removed, whilst gradually traversing the length of the weld. Assess each signal
that falls within the zero to half skip beam path range (except the dead zone), as i t
is located. Record the defecrs on the rough repon.
8. Scan the weld for transverse defects by scanning down the axis of the weld, where
the cap is removed, using sufficient scans and different angle probes to ensure full
coverage of [he weld body, on half and full skip where n e c e s s q . Assess and
recbrd the defecrs on the rough report.
9. Transfer the nored defects from the rough report to a pro-forma report sheet and
make a note of signal amplitudes in comparison to the DAC curve at [he rest
sensitivity level.

All noted indications should be assessed, using the plotting system and changing probes
as necessary, as to whether they are in fact defects, not spurious indications. If they are
defects then the type, size and pos~tionin relation to the datum and the centre line of
the weld should be assessed. (The sizing of defects to be carried out as in the "0"
scanning" or "angle probe scanning" section of these notes, as appropriate, or as in a
relevant national standard)

t
The fi shed report should be signed and dated by a level two operator.
 I Defect signal interpretation
Once i t has been establisl~edthat a signal is an lndicar~onof a defecr, then the next
srage is to try to establish what type of defect I r is. 'This i~ done by interpretat~on0 1 tile
signal shape, size and response to movemenr of the probe, the posir~onof the dei'ect in
the weld and knowledge of the types oi' defects expected.

Signal shape and size

High amplirude sharp signals are ~ndicativeof specular (mirror-like) reflectors, such as
large flat defects, that are perpendicular ro the ultrasonic beam. When using angle
probes, in weld testing, a high amplirude sharp signal that drops in amplirude
significantly, as the probe is swivelled slightly (so that the beam is not perpendicular to
the defect), would indicate a lack of fusion. If the defect plots at a posir~onwhere the
bevel on the parent metal was, prior to welding, then this may indicate a lack o i ' s ~ d e
wall fusion. If the signal plotted in the bottom comer of the roo[ face then i t may
indicate a lack of root fusion. If i t plotted in the bottom comer of the root face on both
sides of the weld then i t may be incomplete penetration of the root run. This illusrrates
thar defect interpretation is not only dependanr on signal characteristics, but also on ~ t s
plotted position.

Specular reflection
k 0" probe

Perpendicular
to the beam
O b l i q u e to the beam

Low amplitude signals are indicative of poor, or highly attenuative reflectors, or der'ecrs
or reflectors thar are not perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam. Examples of poor
reflectors are interfaces where the ratio of the acoustic impedances of the interface
materials is low such as cladding marerials, applied ro improve surface qualities of
some components (load bearing or anti-corrosion materials). Highly attenuative
reflectors are ones with rough surfaces, such as cracks, or small multiple defects, such
as porosity or inclusions, which scatter the sound in different directions (away from the
probe). Specular reflectors that are not perpendicular to the beam (even by only a few
degrees) redirect the sound away from the probe so less, or none of it, returns.

701 Scattering effect

Crack
d ' + \
Porosity/slag inclusions

Multiple signals are often obtained from multi-faceted or multiple defecrs such as
cracks, porosity or slag inclusions. Cracks usually give a higher signal response than
porosity or slag (size for size, at the same sensitivity and beam path). The signals from
a crack, or porosity, will rise
fl-
and fall as the probe is swivelled. The signal pattern from
a crack will decrease in ampl~tude,if the probe-is orbited around it, whereas the signal
pattern from porosity, or a slag inclnsinn, can be m;iintained when [he prohe is orbited,
because the porosiry nr slag inclusion is volumetric (see "angle probe scanning" section
of the notes for derails on swivel and orbital scans).
 ( Signal responses from weld defects
As previously mentioned the position where the signal plots plays a significanr role in
determining defect type and here are a few examples:

Root defects
Lack of penetration
,.......A,
i.. l0I
High amplitude corner s~gnalsboth sides of the weld, rapidly decreasing in ampilrude
on rotational scan. Plotting ar plate thickness depth, [he width o l he root gap apul,
with no cross-over.

)__incomplete root
penetration
/i

/ Lack of root fusion

High amplirude signal defect side of the weld, rapidly decreasing in amplitude on
rotational scan and plotting ar plate bottom beam path. (There may also be a signal
from the root bead as well, particularly if using a steep angle probe, e.g. 45" - see
sketch).

)2 Lackfusion
of root
J

+
Rederemined beam Prederemned beam
path plate bortorn
p a h to plate borlom 10

From the opposite side a signal from the root bead should be observed which could
vary in signal amplitude on probe movement. The beam path plotting slightly longer
than the pre-determined BP from plate bottom.
The tip of the LORF is unlikely to be monitored at all from this side because of its
vertical orientation.
Root crack
Subject to orientation and crack irregularity, it would be normal to expect a high
amplitude, multi-faceted reflector probably from both sides of the weld.
If the venical height of the crack was substantial, a characteristic running signal on the
time base would be noted on a depth scan with the angle probe. The response would
rise and fall on rotational and lateral probe movements due to crack irregularity.
Toe crack plotting at the toe of the weld root and centre line cracking plotting at the
root centre.
I Root undercut
Dependent on how severe the undercul is will determine the type o i amplitude received,
e.s. i t could be a relatively low amplitude response or on the other hand, it can give
high amplitude responses. However, associated witii the undercut echo wiii be a signal
iiom the root bead as well (see sketch). If the undercut is on one side o f the weld only
as shown in the sketch, when the root area is being exam~nedfrom the opposite side i r
is likely thai a normal root bead response will be observed oniy.

Excess root penetration (over penetration)

Root bead type signals, both sides of the weld, plotting beyond expected beam path
length to the bead and crossing over. Steeper angled probes (e.g. 38" or 45"), access
permitting, giving best results. NB. If weld cap is flush a 0" probe would give best
results.

Excess root

. .
+
Pre-delemined k a m
path ro plare botrorn
1
Predz~crminedbeam
path ro plare botrom

Root concavity
Low amplitude signals, both sides of the weld, plotting shon of plate thickness, no
cross-over. If only slight concavity it is likely that it will not be observed
ultrasonically.

Concave root

Defects in the weld region (sidewallhody)

Lack of sidewall fusion
High amplitude signal from "a" on full skip and "c" on half s h p (access permitting),
plotting on the bevel (as shown). Low amplitude signals or no response (dependant on
slag entrapment) from "b" and "d" ( l u w c ~iilnplitudc signals from "a" and "c" when thc
probe angle is such that the beam is not perpendicular to the defect).
 i The signal will normally be clean with a high amplitude response (as previously
described) and on swivel and orbirai scanning the echo will fall quickly.
When sizing the defect's length using a iareral scan, the amplitude response should
remain constanr.

Lack of sidewall fusion

Lack of inrer-run fusion (between weld runs) would give similar signal responses to the
above, but plotting anywhere in the body of the weld, the angle probe with a beam
perpendicular ro the major plane of the defect giving the best response.

Slag inclusion
Derecrable from all accessible posirions and directions, due to voiumstric narure.
Signal contains numerous half-cycles and has a rounded peak. Signal appears to roll on
movement of probe (the front edge of the signal a p p e x s to fall as the back edge rises
and vice versa). Should be able to be detected, wirhin reason, wich any arlgle probe.

Slag inclusion

Si^.
. 601 Cluster porosity o r multiple small inclusions
Detectable from all accessible positions and direcrions, due to volumetric narure. Very
low amplitude response due to signal attenuation giving multiple signals with a wide
time base, Signal can be maintained on an orbital scan.

Cracks
Cracks can appear at the toes, in the heat affected zone or in the centre of a weld as
well as in the root area. The signal response from a crack in these locations is much the
same as in the root. (See previous explanation root crackj. The orientation of the
crack has an i..ffcr.t nn the arnplit~ldeand width nf rhe signal. If the mnjnr plant nf rht
crack is perpendicular to the beam then a high amplitude, narrow, group of signals is
seen. If the major plane is at an oblique angle to the beam then a lower amplitude,
 broad based, group of' signals is seen (very similar in shape to the signal from cluster
-
Q'
l
" porosity). The signals will rise and fall on a rota~ionaiscan and [he signals will
I. diminish on an orbital scan.

&i? Sizing

: "i"
@' :
The sizing methods are explained in the "0" probe scanning" and "angle probe
scanning" sections of the notes.
There are various sizing methods available and normally i t is left up to the ultrasonic
I technician as to which one helshe prefers, however, certain projects/contracts may refir
to detailed ultrasonic procedures which dictate the sizing method to be applied.
In general, whether applying maximum amplitude, 6 dB drop or 20 dB drop sizing
techniques, providing they are all used correctly, they will all give similar results.

Accept and reject criteria

When defects are found it may. be required that the defects are reported, or the weld
may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The accept/reject criteria
tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects render the weld
rejectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure, a written insuuction sheet or in a
national standard.

Reporting
A report should give details of the component identification, rest area, surhce
condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to datums.
etc. making a note of signal amplitudes in comparison to the DAC curve at the test
sensitivity level. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a
requirement to state your current relevant qualifications. .4lternatively, if accepting or
rejecting the weld, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written statemenr of
conformity to the relevant acceptance level, of the procedure used or national standard
employed.
 ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS

lo I General
The ultrasonic resting o i forgings of simple geomerr),, such as bar 2nd b ~ l l e ~there
. are
few limlta~ions. When resling general forgings, s u c l ~as crankshafrs, eLc.. [hen rhe mosl
limiring i'acror is [he shape. On complex shapes, the surface curvature: may nor allo~5
good contacr or coupling, the angles of the surfaces may prevenr back ivall echoes w i h
0"probes and some forgings, simple or complex, may be anisotropic in g a l n srrucrure
20 (differenr grain sizes in differenr directions).

I Technique
30
When searching for defects in forgings you should have, as a minimum, the following
informarion, which is usually wrltten on a techn~que or insrrucr~on sheei (see the
appendices for an example).

1 The test component identificarion and area to test.

Actions ro be taken when defects are found.
The purpose of the tesr (defects sought and acceprance crireria).
Equipment required.
What method and level of test sensiriviry to use.
The method of scanning.
The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving details of any relevant saiety
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the test area af~erwards.Ir
would a!so have the company name, a unique tzchnical reference number, thc
originator's name and signature and an nuthorising signature.

Test area
The test may involve tesring the whole, of a component, or jusr parts. this must be
specified.
60

Actions to be taken
When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the component, or material, may be accepted or
rejected according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect
information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. Defect type,
size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.

Purpose of the test

This section tells us the accepdreject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report or which defects render the component rejectable.

Equipment
This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and
frequency of probes, type of c.cuplant. calibration blocks and reference blocks to use.

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitivity need to be quoted for each scan, e.g. S ~ the
L
bwe from [he DGS block tn 80% fsh and note the gain setting. Still on the DGS biock.
maximise the signal from the flat bottom hole at target depth (test material thickness)
and set that to 80% fsh and note the difference in dBs between rhe new gain set~ingand
 I
the przyious onz. Se: [he bwe fro% the test materlai to SO% i'sh and add [he difference
I nored in the first two gain settings to the present gain and scan at [his level.

Scanning method
The method of scanning the material is either a written, srep by srep, instruc[ion or
10 rechnique sheet, or involves following [he steps laid out In [he rele\,ant narional
srandard. An example written step by sLep could be:

I I. Prepare the material surface by removing any loose scale, rusl, d i r ~or other debris
and visually inspect for surface defects or damage.
2. Calibrate the screen on the flaw detector, using 2 0" probe and the A2 calibration
20 block, for a range of 0 to 200 mm.
3. Set the sensitiviry (as quoted in the relevant section abovej and apply couplant 10
the tesr area.
4. Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 20%
of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of ISOmm/sec.
.30
5. When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" sectlon are found,
record the relevanr defect data as in the "Actions to be taken" section.
6. Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where [here is no bwe presenr, should
be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller
than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and posirioned using the DGS diagram
40 for the probe in use. With a calibrated screen, maximise the signal from the
defect and set the amplitude to 20% fsh and record the gain setting. Move the
probe to an area of the material, where the back wall is the same disrance as [he
previously recorded defect, there are no defects and the surface condition and
curvarures are the same as the located defect area. Set [he bwe to 20% fsh and
note the difference between the previous and the new gain settings. Using the
50 DGS diagram look on the infinity line, at the bwe disrance, for the dB figure and
add this figure to the previously noted dB difference. Read [he rota1 dB figure
(the two just added), at the reflector beam path (depth), off the graph, to give [he
equivalent size of the reflector.
7. Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the component identification, rest
area, equipmenr used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the
60 defect details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and date the report and state
your relevant qualifications.

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and ,

covering the surface with protecrive coatings according to client's requirements.

rrli.
I 70

uq
1 Defects in Forgings
,.,-.
The interpretation of defects in forgings involves knowledge or experience of the
Ij expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations i t is a
.
Uru
J.
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of signal, then
'I1.'1,. choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which rype of defect is most likely.
'.l'U Here are a few of the types of defects found in forgings:

Inclusions
Inclusions, In forgings, are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic material in
the original cast ingot and when forged out the shapes, sizes, orientations and depths of
rhp, dfifp,crs vnry. The varying oriantntinn and .;hap? havc thc cffcct of scattering [he
suurld betlrri, as i t passcs tll~.uugh.TNhan using a 0" probe on parallel sided forgings, if
thc sound reaches thc back wall and reflects back, tllen i r scatlers again on the return
 journey. Thls causes a signillicanr drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared (0 a
defect free area. The amplitudes of the signals from the defects also vary because of [he
differences in sizes and orientations. The signals we see then on the screen are, a low,
or no bwe and a cluster of signals, of various amplitudes and depth, from the dziects.
The cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattern when vou
move the probe across the surr'ace.

The beam scatters

\

Banding
When alloys are added to the molten material in a cast ingot, some of them may nor mix
thoroughly and get left as segregated material in the centre of the ingot after
solidification. These segregations get elongated and reduced in section in the rolling
and forging processes, this is known as banding. If the acoustic impedances of the
alloys and the base metal were different enough ultrasonic reflections may occur. In
sreel casting they generally have an acoustic impedance that is similar to the steel, so
they are not usually found ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of the equipment is high.

A forging lap
This defect occurs in the forging process by the material folding over onto ~tself2nd it
is flattened, but not fused onto the surface. This usually leaves a visible seam on the
surface of the forging. Using a 0"probe, scanning from the opposite side of the forging
shows a signal appearing just before the bwe. On the defect side of the forging this
defect is very easily missed because it is very near the surface and if using a single
crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone. (However, evidence of this problem
would be a total loss of back wall echo, providing the surface area of the lap is larger

1 1 1 1. 1
than the beam).

A
A - defect at bottom , .
. . . . . .

dead -[
,
.....
,
c
.
. . ..-
. . < ..... L

,
. ,
. . .

/ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

B - dsfect near surface .

,
.
. B,
, .
I I- I . L . . . . .
, . L
. . . . . .

(& lost c
dead
 If a double crystai O0 probe is used, in "B"the defect signal will be near zero on the
CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam then the bwe will not be
present.

Slugs
10 These are pieces of foreign malerial t h a ~have been pressed into [he surface and give
signal responses much the same as 3 lap.
.a'1.8
'C: !7

Bursts
Internal or surface ruptures of the material, caused by processing at too [ow a
temperature or excessive working during forging. The signal response from this defect
varies according to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of
ultrasonic testing apply to the signals received, i.e. Perpendicular orientation and large
defect area give a good signal, oblique orientation andlor small defect area gives poor
signals and larger defect area than the beam causes a loss of bwe, etc.. Deciding
whether the defect is a burst or not requires careful plotting of the responses received to
determine the shape and position.

I Accept and reject criteria

When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, oi he material
40 or component may be accepted or rejected according to the defects found. The
accepdreject criteria tell us what size and type of defects to report or which defects
render the component rcjectable. The criteria can be found in a procedure. a written
insuuction sheet or in a national standard.

Reporting
A reporr should give details of the component identification. test area, surface
condition, equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects and
details such as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to datums,
etc.. The report should be signed and dated and there may be a requirement to state
your relevant qualifications. Alternatively, if accepting or rejecting the component or
material, instead of a drawing you may be asked to give a written statement of
conformity to the relevant acceptance level, or reasons for rejection, to the standard
employed.
 1 IILII(\SONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS

lo 1 General
The ultrasonic testlng ot cast products IS Ilmired, 13 some degree, by the scattering
effects of the coarse =.rain structure and Lhe ro~lgi-Isurfaces produced on most casting
processes. This scattering effect can be overcon-~eby uslng lower frequency probes, but
this results in a reduced sensitivity.

/ Technique
When searching for defects in castings you should have, as a minimum. the following
infomation, w h ~ c h is usually written on a technique or instruction sheet (see the
30
appzndices for an example).
* The test component ~dentificationand area to test.
.Actions to be taken when defects are found.
The purpose of the test (defects sought and acceptance criteria).
Equipment required.
What method and level of test sensitivity to use.
The method of scanning.

The instruction sheet would also contain sections giving detaiis of any relevanr safzty
procedures and post test procedures such as the cleaning of the tcst area afterv;ards. It
would also have the company name, a unique technical reference number, the
so originator's name and signature and an authorising signature.

Test area
The test may involve testing the whole of a casting, or just sectlons of it. [his should be
specified.

60
Actions to be taken
When defects are found it may be required that the defects are reported, e.g. on a
diagram or as a written description, or the casting may be accepted or rejected
according to the defects found. If defects are to be reported then the defect
information that needs reporting would be contained in this section, i.e. Dzfzct type,
size, lateral and longitudinal position in relation to datums, etc.
70

Purpose of the test

This section tells us the acceptlreject criteria for particular defects, i.e. what size and
type of defects to report or which defects render the casting rejectable.

1 Equipment
This section should give information on; the type of flaw detector, type, size and
fi-equency of probes, rypc of couplant, calibration blocks and reference blocks to use.

Sensitivity
Method of setting and level of sensitilrity need Lo be quoted for each scan, 2.g. For the
90 0"probe; set the response from the 3 mm flat bottom hole reference reflecror to 40%
fsh and scan at this level. For the angle probes; increase the gain unril 2 mrn to 3 mm
of grass is ob~aiiieda l tile full skip bcam path.
I Scanning neth hod
The method of scanning the material is eirher a written, stzp by step, insrrucrion or
technique sheet, or involves followin:: the steps laid out in the relevan[ n a ~ i o ~ ~ l
standard. An example written step by step could be:
1. Prepare the material surface by removing any loose sand, rust, dirt or other debris
and visually inspect for surfac:: defects or damage.
2. Calibrate the screen on the flaw detecror, using a 0"probe and the A2 calibration
block, for a range of 0 to 3-00 mm.
3. Set the sensitivity (as quoted in the relevant section above) and apply couplant to
the test area.
4. Scan the designated test area, with a probe overlap between scans of at least 10%
of the probe's diameter and at a maximum probe movement rate of 150mdsec.
5. When defects meeting the criteria in the "Purpose of the test" section are found,
record the relevant defect data as in the "Actions ro be taken" section.
6. Defects larger than the ultrasonic beam, i.e. where there is no bwe present, should
be sized using the 6 dB drop or equalisation methods. Defects that are smaller
than the ultrasonic beam should be sized and positioned using the 20 dB drop
method. Multiple or multi-faceted defects should be sized using the maximum
amplitude technique.
7. Prepare a neat concise report giving details of the casting's identification, test
area, equipment used, sensitivity method and settings and a drawing with the
defect details as recorded in section 5 above. Sign and dare the report and state
your relevant qualifications.

Post test procedures

This would involve cleaning any remaining couplant and dirt from the test area and
covering the surface with protective coatings according to client's requirements.

Defects in castings
The interpretation of defects in castings involves knowledge or experience of the
expected types of defect and the possible signals from them. In some situations it is a
case of reading the signal, evaluating which defects do not give this type of.signa1, then
choosing from the remaining possibilities as to which type of defect is most likely.
Here are a few of the types of defects found in castings:

Inclusions
Inclusions are formed from lumps of trapped solid non-metallic material in the casting,
of various shapes, sizes, orientations and depths. In large groups of small inclusions,
the variation, in orientation and shape, has the effect of scattering the sound beam, as i t
passes through. When using a 0"robe on parallel sided castings, if the sound reaches
the back wall and reflects back, then i t scatters again on the return journey. This causes
a significant drop in the amplitude of the bwe, compared to a defect free area. The
amplirllrles nf the signalr; frnm the defecrs also vary because of the differences in sizes
and orientations. The signals we see from multiple inclusions are, a cluster of signals,
of various amplitudes and depth, from the defects and a low bwe, or no bwe. The
cluster of signals from the defects has a constantly changing pattern when you move the
probe across the surface. Larger il~clusionswill give stronger signals dependant on the
shape, size and orientation.
 inclusions

The beam scariers

\ t!

,K\i/ 7
%1\. 4

Segregation
When alloys are added to the molten material in a casr ingor, some of them may not mix
thoroughly and ger lefr as segregared marerial in [he centre of the ingor after
solidification. If the acoustic impedances of the alloys and the base metal were
different enough ultrasonic reflecrions may occur. In steel casring [hey generally have
an acoustic impedance thar is similar ro the steel, so they are nor usually found
ultrasonically unless the sensitivity of [he equipmenr is high.

A flake
This defect occurs in the casting process by [he material splashing up the sides of the
mould, this defecr is on bur nor fused to the surface. This usually leaves a visible
"flake" of material on [he surface of the casting. Using a 0" probe. scanning rrom the
opposire side of the c a r i n g shows a signal appearing jusr before the bwe. On [he defecr
side of the casring [his defect is very easily missed because i t is very n e x the surface
and if using a single crystal probe the signals will be in the dead zone.

dead z e. ,
.
,defect
.
,
:
.
bwe,
.

B - defect near surface

*

If a double crystal 0" probe is used, in "B"the defect signal will be near zero on the
90 CRT. In both cases, if the defect is larger than the beam hen the bwe will nor be
prcscnt
 1 Scabs
These are pieces of foreign mater~al,from the inslde of the mould that have stuck to the
surface 01 the casting and give signal responses similar to a f l k e if smooth or ,nay just
scarter the beam if rough..

Cold shuts
A lack of fusion resulting from splash~ng(a flake), surging, interrupted pouring or the
meeting of rwo srreams of molten metal coming from different directions. This defect
gives a good signal response ultrasonically when favourably orientated to the beam.

Pipe o r Shrinlrage cavities

Internal or surface voids in the material, caused by shrinkage during solidification or
insufficient filling of the mould. The signal response from this defect varies according
to the shape, size and orientation of the defect. The normal rules of ultrasonic testing
apply ro the signals received, i.e. Perpendicular orientation and large defecr area give a
good signal, oblique orientation a n d o r small defecr area gives poor signals and larger
defect area than the beam causes a loss of bwe, elc..

Hot tears
Surface or near surface cracks in the marerial due to different cooling rates at changes
in section in a casting. Ultrasonic testing gives low amplitude multiple signals from
multiple cracks or may give a high amplirude "ragged" signal from a large crack wirh
the orienration of its major plane favourable to the beam.

Porosity
This volumetric defecr gives a multiple low amplitude signal from all directions, access
permitting.

Blowholes
These are small holes in the surface of a casting caused by the gas evolving from
80 decomposing grease, moisture, etc. This defect is not readily found ultrasonically
because i t can be confused with rough surface signals normally obtained on some
castings.

Airloclts
Air trapped in the mould during pouring can be located ultrasonically and gives signal
90 responses dependanr on its shape, size and orientation.
 / Accept and reject criteria
When defects are found i t may be required thai [he dei'ects are rcponed $1- [he casun,o
10 may be accepred or rejec~edaccording 10 [he dei'ec~sSound. Tile accepwrejecr crlleria
tell us wliar size and lype of dei'ec~iLo reporr or whlcli de~ecrsrender the tomponenl
rejectable. The crireria can be found in a procedure. a writ~er~~ n s t r u c r i osheel
~ ~ or in 3
national standard.

Reporting
A repon should give details of' the casting identification, rest area, surface condition,
equipment used, sensitivity settings and a drawing showing the defects 2nd details such
as; defect type, size, lateral and longitudinal positions in relation to darums, etc.. The
repon should be signed and dated and there may be a requiremenr to stare your relevant
qualificarions. .4lternatively, if accepting or rejecting the casting, instead of a drawing
you may be asked to give a written srarement of conformity to the relevant acceptance
level, or reasons for rejection, to the standard employed.
 British Standards reia ting to ultrasonic testing

Part I :
Methods for manual examination offusion welds in Serri~icsleek

20
BS EN 1714 : 1998
Ultrasonic examination of welded joints (this standard superseded BS 3923 in Feb
1999).

BS 4331 : 1978
,, Assessing the performance characteristics of ultrasonic flaw dereciion equipmen1

Part 1 :
Overall performance: on-site methods

401 BS 3704 : 1978 ( c o n f i r m e d September 1 9 8 3 )

Calibration blocks for use in ultrasonic flaw derection.

BS 5996 : 1993
Acceprance levels for internal imperfections in sreel plate, strip and wide flats. based on
ul~rasonictesting.
50
BS 3683 : 1985
Terms used in non-desrructive testing.

Part 4 :
Ultrasonic flaw detection.
60
BS 4124 : 1991
Ultrasonic detection of imperfecrions in steel forgings

BS 6028 : 1990
Ultrasonic resting of ferritic steel castings including quaiity levels
70
 1 Forrnuiae used in ultrasonic testing
Wavelength h = r
10
f h = Sound wavelength (mm!
c = Material sound velocity i m m / s ~
I' = Sound frequency (Hz!

1 Near zone N = 12'

4h
or D'f
4c
N = Near zone ( m m )
D = Crystal diarnerer (mrnj
h = Sound wavelength (mm)
f = Sound frequency (Hz)
c = Material velocity (mm/s)

Half' beam angle Sin A = a or & A = Half beam angle (degrees)

Df D = Crystal diameter (mm)
D
c = Material velocity (mmis)
f = Sound frequency (Hz)
h = Sound wavelength ( m m )
K = Consrant;
1.22 for 0% edge,
1.08 for 10% edge,
0.56 for 50% edge of the beam.

,, Snell's law m=Kl a = Incident (wedge) angle ("1

Sin p V2 p = Refracted (probe) angle ("1
V 1 = Velocity in medium I(m/sj
V2 = Velocity in medium 2(m/s)

Decibel dB = 20 log,, H1 dB = Decibel

50
HZ. H 1 = 1st signal h e i g h ~( 100%)
2 = 2nd signal height (70of H l j

1 Ci-ystal thickness
t = 1 t
V
= Cryscal thickness (rnm)
= Sound velocity in crystal
material (mmis)
f = Fundamental frequency that the
crystal vibrates ar (Hz)

80
Material Velocity V = T x CV V = Unknown velocity (mls)
TB T = Material actual thickness (mmj
TB = Time-base rending (mm)
CV = Calibration block velocity (m/sj
Table of acoustical velocities in different materials

Compressional or Shear or
Material longitudinal wave transverse wave
velocity ( d s )

1 Aluminium I 6,400 1 3,130 1

I Brass 1 4,372 1 -7.100 7
I Cast iron I 3,500 1 2,200 1
Copper 4,769
Gold 3,240
I Iron 1 5,957 1 3,214
1

I Lead 1 2,400 1 790

Oil 1,440
Perspes 2,740
- -
Mild steel 5,960 3,240
/ Stainless steel 1 5,740 1 3,130 1
I Water 1,480
Tungsten 5,174 2.880
1 Zinc I 4,170 1 2,480 I
I zirconium I 4,650 I 2,300 I
The velociry in a medium depends upon the medium's Density and Eiasticiry
 ( Table of Acoustic impedances for different materials
I ir;.
qi ,

10

Medium
Compression Shear I Density Acoustic
, velocity (mls) velocity (m/s) / (glcm3) impedance

I 230 -- q, LC.; ; bij?,

 1 Exampie method for determining the attenuation fac:or of
a material
10

0" probe method

Using a calibrated timebase, place the probe on the material ro be measured. Seiect
two back wall echoes at a distance ratio of 2 1 , the first one b e ~ n gar leas[ three n c x
zone distances from zero. Measure the difference in amplitude, in dBs, of' [he rwo
signals and record their range difference. The back wall echo decreases in amplitude
20
by 6 dB for every doubling of the range. The attenuation factor can be derermined by
subtracting 6 dB from the amplitude difference (in dB) and dividing this by twice the
range difference (return journey of the sound).
This method becomes less accurate as the number of multiple echoes used increases,
due to the fact thar about I dB of sound re-enters the probe, on each bounce o i rhe
sound, at the probe to material interface.

Correction for attenuation and transfer loss

When reference or calibration blocks are used there may be attenuation differences
between the block and test object (in surface condition or marerial). Merhods for
determining these attenuation differences are given in the current standards!.

XPPE- P