MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FOR
UPSC Engineering Services Examination, GATE,
State Engineering Service Examination & Public Sector Examination.
(BHEL, NTPC, NHPC, DRDO, SAIL, HAL, BSNL, BPCL, NPCL, etc.)

FLUID MECHANICS

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First Edition : 2017

Typeset at : IES Master Publication, New Delhi-110016

 CONTENTS

1. Properties of Fluid ...................................................................................... 1 – 42

2. Fluid Pressure and Measurement .......................................................... 43 – 65

3. Hydrostatic Forces .................................................................................. 66 – 103

4. Buoyancy and Floatation ...................................................................... 104 – 131

5. Liquid in Relative Equilibrium ............................................................. 132 – 167

6. Fluid Kinematics .................................................................................... 168 – 212

7. Fluid Dynamics ...................................................................................... 213 – 262

8. Momentum Equation & Applications .................................................. 263 – 294

9. Orifice/Mouthpiece/Notches/Weirs ..................................................... 295 – 322

10. Laminar Flow .......................................................................................... 323 – 367

11. Turbulent Flow ....................................................................................... 368 – 396

12. Boundary Layer ...................................................................................... 397 – 444

13. Drag and Lift .......................................................................................... 445 – 473

14. Dimensional Analysis ............................................................................. 474 – 528

15. Pipe Flow ................................................................................................ 529 – 604

16. Open Channel Flow .............................................................................. 605 – 636

 1
INTRODUCTION

Vapour Pressure and  A substance in liquid or gaseous phase is referred to as fluid. They
Cavitation are capable of deforming continuously under the action of shear
stress, however small the shear stress may be.
Bulk Modulus &
 In solid, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluid stress is
Compressibility
proportional to strain rate. When a constant shear stress is applied,
Isothermal Bulk a solid eventually stops deforming at some fixed strain angle, where
Modulus as fluid never stops and approaches a constant rate of strain.

Adiabatic bulk TYPE OF FLUID

modulus (KA)
Ideal Fluid
Viscosity  An ideal fluid does not have surface tension, viscosity and are
Newtonian and non- incompressible. (i.e. bulk modulus =  )
newtonian Fluids  No such fluid exist in practical situation.
 However, fluids like air & water have very low value of viscosity
Surface Tension and
and can be treated as ideal fluids for all practical purposes.
Capillary Effect
Real Fluid
Fluids which are not ideal are called real fluids.

SOME PROPERTIES OF FLUID

mass dm
 Density =
volume
=
dv
=  unit is
kg

m3 
 Density of liquid is generally assumed to be constant
1
 Density of gases  Pressure and 
Temperature
 Specific gravity or relative density
2 Chapter-1 : Properties of Fluid

density of substance
=
density of some standard substance at a specified temp. (usually water at 4°C)

NOTE If specific gravity <1 Fluid is lighter than water

Weight of substance  N 
Specific weight or weight density =    g unit is  3 
Volume of substance m 

N kN
                           water = 9810 3
= 9.81 ,  mercury =13.6 w
m m3

VAPOUR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

 At a liquid-air interface, a continuous exchange of molecules takes place. The liquids evaporate
because the liquid molecules escape from the surface into a gaseous form, called the vapour. These
vapour molecules exert a partial pressure in the space, known as the vapour pressure.
 When the absolute pressure above a liquid becomes less than or equal to the vapour pressure,
boiling starts.
 This property of liquids, in fact, may cause an undesirable effect called the cavitation. In many
liquid flow situations, it is possible that very low pressures are produced at certain locations. For
example, in figure shown below, the pressure at point A may drop to a very low value and may
become equal to the vapour pressure of water. When this occurs, water starts boiling at point A.
Low Pressure
Cavities

er
at
w B
High Pressure
 Thus a rapidly expanding vapour pocket called cavity (because they lead to cavity formation) in the
liquid flow is formed.
 Because of the flow, this pocket of vapour is usually swept away from the point A where it originated
to a point B of high pressure.
 Because of the high pressure at B, the cavity collapses (or, the bubbles burst). This process of
formation & collapsing of cavity is called cavitation.
 Cavitation generates annoying vibrations and noise and causes damage to equipment [because it
causes erosion, surface pitting and fatigue failure].
 Vapour pressure increases with temperature. Hence at higher temperature, chances of
cavitation is more ie., there is greater chance that pressure in fluid flow may fall below vapour
pressure.
 Liquid with high vapour pressure evaporates readily and are known as volatile liquid. Mercury
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 Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 3

has very low vapour pressure. Hence it can be used in pressure measuring equipments
so that it can measure even low pressures without evaporating.
Vapour Pressure of water at various temperatures is given below:
Temprature Vapour pressure of water in kPa
10C 1.23
20C 2.34
100C 101.3  1 atm
150C 475.8
Note that if temp is 100°C, vapour pressure of water becomes 1 atm. i.e., becomes equal to
atmospheric pressure, thus boiling starts.
BULK MODULUS & COMPRESSIBILITY
If original pressure is P in a liquid mass and its volume is V and increase in pressure dP causes
change in volume dV then
dP
Bulk modulus of elasticity (K) = –
 / V
dV
stress P
[analogous to = Young’s modulus of elasticity]
strain
Unit of K will be that of pressure.
dP dP P
K 
 dV   d 
 V   
     P

Note:    V = mass = constant

= dV + Vd = 0
d dV
= = –
 V
1 1 d
 Compressibility  =
K  dP
d
 If density does not change with pressure i.e.,  0 (fluid is incompressible)
dP
ISOTHERMAL BULK MODULUS
 kPa.m3 
 For ideal gas P = RT  R  0.287 
 Kg.Kalvin 

 dP 
    RT
 d T Cons tan t
dP
 KT =     RT  P .
d
 for isothermal condition in an ideal gas, KT = P
i.e. Isothermal bulk modulus  pressure

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4 Chapter-1 : Properties of Fluid

ADIABATIC BULK MODULUS (K A )

For adiabatic condition PV  = constant
Cp Specific heat at cons tant pressure
where, = adiabatic index = C =
v Specific heat at constant volume

m
 P  = constant

P
= constant (because mass ‘m’ is constant)


 P = C 
dP
= C (–1)
d
dP
KA =  = C = P
d

 Adiabatic bulk modulus  P  Adiabatic index  Pr essure

NOTE In case of liquid, effect of compressibility is neglected. However, in some case like
water hammer pressure conditon, compressibility can be taken into account.

Example 1 : If 1 m head of water = 10 kPa and 1 atm = 100 kPa, vapour pressure of water at 20°C
= 2.5 kPa, at what negative head of water, vapourisation will start.
Solution–1 : We know that
Vapourisation will start, when vapour pressure > Abs pressure
 Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Pgauge
 2.5 > 100 + (10 × x) [where x = head of water]
 10 x  –97.5
 x  9.75m head of water
 x  9.75m head of water
 Vapourisation will start when negative head of water is greater than 9.75 m
 Below this vapourisation will not start.
Example 2 : The bulk modulus of water is 210×104 kN/m2. What pressure is required to reduce the
volume of water in a closed container by 2%; Also show that the increase in mass
density because of the reduction in volume by 2% will be 2% only.

dp
Solution–2 : From the definition of bulk modulus of elasticity k =  ...(I)
 dV 
 
For 2% reduction in volume  V 

 dV  = 0.02 ...(II)
 
 V
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 Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 5

dP
 210 × 104 kN/m2 =  0.02 

 dP = 42,000 kN/m2
dP = 42 MN/m2
thus additional pressure required to reduce the volume in closed container by 2% is 42
MN/m2
d  dV 
 For constant mass in the closed contaner =   = – (– 2%) = 2%
  V 
thus reduction in volume by 2% will lead to increase in mass density by 2%.

Example 3 : The air in an automobile tyre with a volume of 0.015 m3 is at 30ºC and 140 kPa.
Determine the amount of air that must be added to increase the pressure to 210 kPa.
Assume atm. pressure to be 100 kPa and temperature and volume to remain constant,
assuming Ideal gas equation.
Solution–3 : Since volume & temp. is constant hence mass added =  2 1  V

 P2 P1  (P2  P1 ) V
=   V =
 RT RT  RT
Initial absolute pressure = P1 = (140 + 100) = 240 kPa
Final absolute pressure = P2 = 210 + 100 = 310 kPa
We know that P1 = 1 RT
P2 = 2 RT
P1 1
  [at constant Temperature]
P2 2

P  310
    2  1    1
P
 1  240

 P1  240 240
     Kg / m3 
 RT  R  (273  30) 303R

P2  310   240  310

   1      303R    Kg / m3
P1  240  303R

 310  240 
Mass added = (2– 1) V =  V [ Ra = 0.287]
 303R 
70 70  0.015
=  0.015 kg = = 0.01207 kg.
303R  303  0.287 

Example 4 : A pump is used to transport water to a higher reservoir. If the water temp is 30°C [sat
vapour pressure at 30°C = 4.25 kPa]. Determine the lowest pressure that can exist in
the pump without cavitation.

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6 Chapter-1 : Properties of Fluid

Solution–4 : For no cavitation absolute pressure should be more than vapour pressure in saturation
process.
 Minimum pressure in pump = 4.25 kPa.

Example 5 : Calculate the percentage change in density of gas if it is compressed isothermally from
1000 atm to 1001 atm.
Solution–5 : We know that from ideal gas-equation
P = RT ...(i)
 dP = (RT) ...(ii)

 dP   d 
    =   
 P   
 Percentage increase in pressure = percentage increase in density (for isothermal
condition)
 1001  1000 
=    100 = 0.1%
 1000 
Example 6 : The density of sea water at free surface where pressure in 98 KPa is approx. 1030 kg/
m3. Taking bulk modulus of elasticity of sea water to be 2.34 × 109 N/m2 (assume
constant) and dp = g dz, where dP = change in pressure, dz = increase in depth,
determine the density and pressure at a depth of 2500 m. Disregard the effect of
temperature.
Solution–6 : We know that bulk modulus of elasticity
dp dp
K =  ...(i) z
dv d
v 
 We also have dp = g dz ...(ii)
From (i) & (ii)

g dz  2g dz 
 K =  
 d   d 
  
 
 z
 d  gdz
   2  =  K
0 0

1 1  gz 
  =  
0  K
1 gz 1
  =
0 K 
1
  =
 1 gz 
  K 
 0 
At z = 2500
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 Mechanical Engineering (Study Package) 7

1
 =
 1 9.81  2500 
  
 1030 2.34  109 
= 1041.24 kg/m3 ...(III)
P Z Z
1
 1 gdz
  dP =  g dz = 0
gz 
P0 0   K 
 0 
1 gz
Put  = 
0 K

g  K 
  dz = d  dz =  d 
K  g 
1/ 0 gz/K   gz 
Kg d 1/ 0  
K
P – P0 =  g
= K log   
 1/ 0
1/ 0

 1  1 gz  
P – P0 = K  log  log   
  0  0 K  

 1 
P –P0 = K  log
 0gz  
 1  
  K  
At z = 2500 m.
1
P = P0 + K log
 0 gz 
1  
 K 

 1 
= 98 KPa + 2.34 × 109loge   103 KPa
1030  9.81  2500 
1  
 2.34  109 
= (0.098 + 25.398) MPa [P = 25.50 MPa]

7
Example 7 : An empirical pressure-density relation for water in P / Pa  3001   / a  – 3000 where
suffix ‘a’ refers to atmospheric conditions. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity and
compressibility of water at 5 atmospheric pressure.

7
P   
Solution–7 : = 3001   – 3000 ...(I)
Pa  a 

 Diffn (I) w.r.t.  gives

dP 3001  7 6 d dP 3001  7  6  Pa
=   ...(II)
Pa 7a d 7a

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