PUON 10} Aja1DOs UPIUEUY ay RELEVANT DISCONTINUITIES ULTRASONIC TESTING eS [0 The American Society for Nondestructive Testing 4a)Published by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. 1711 Arlingate Lane PO Box 28518 Columbus, OH 43228-0518 Copyright © 2010 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. ASNT is not responsible for the authenticity oF accuracy of information herein. Published opinions and statements do not necessaily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products oF Services that are advertised or mentioned do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT. IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NOT Technician and wenw.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Socity for Nondestructive Testing Inc. ACD, ASNT, Level I Study Gulde, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. [ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing, ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-202-0 Printed in the United States of America. Cover photograph courtesy of Joe Monroe, Eastern NDT, Inc. First printing 02/10 PODGOHTDOOT AGE Martin Lug - TSC Inspection Systems David G. Moore — Sandia National Laboratories Sam Robinson - Sherwin incocporeted Dave Russell — Russell NDE Systems inc. 8 Roderié K. Stanley - NDE inforthation Consultants Bill White — Forged Products Inc Carl J. Wilkey — IveyCooper Services, LLC William J. Wiltsey ~ TEAM Industrial Services inc. ‘The Publications Review Committee includes: Gary Heath — All Tech Inspection, Inc. Glenn M. Light - Southwest Research Institute Bob Conklin Educational Materials EditorThis module is intended as a reference guide for students, technicians and professionals in NDT. ‘An overview of each discontinuity provides the following information: Description Location in part Characteristics/appearance Metallurgical analysis Depending on the availability of information, one or more of the following items are subsequently presented in terms of ultrasonic testing per discontinuity: * Appearance - describing the outcome of a typical test result * Rationale — explaining why the method is preferred * Advantage(s) — highlighting the strong points of the method Limitation(s) — detailing any drawbacks associated with the application of the method Recommendation(s) - providing procedural tips for a successful outcome Precaution(s) ~ advising what safeguards to take when conducting a test Please note that this module is intended as a supplement only. It should not take the place of specific codes, procedures or standards applicable to a specific test. ADDDDQDDD00000008 Preface... 2. Table of Contents. Advantages of UT. Limitations of UT. Precautions with UT Relevant Discontinuities 5 steak Cold Shits Nonmetallic inclusions Pp Segregation in Ingots Shrinkage Cracks Welding Discontinuities. Drop-Through : Acoustic Velocities of Weld Terminology. 37 Selected Materials..acncnnemeel4 Heat Affected Zone Cracking... 38 Inclusions (Welding) ) Incomplete Fusion 242 Lack of Fusion B- and C-Scans..44* Ultrasonic equipment has extreme sensitivity. Discontinuities as small as 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) can be reliably detected. May be used in support of production line since it is adaptable for automatic instrumentation. Normally used to test material prior to machining. Economical means for high-speed, large- or small-scale testing of materials. Can be very accurate in determining depth of a discontinuity. Standards can be made with little expense. May be used to measure the thickness of a material or examine the internal structure of a material for discontinuities. Requires access from only one side of a test object. © Ultrasonic transducers have varying temperature limitations. © Grain structure and surface conditions may limit the effectiveness of UT. © Grain-size noise affects sensitivity; surface finish and grain size affect the validity of techniques require type of couplant; component ae with the couplant may be a limiting factor. © Ultrasonic equipment compatibility with the test environment in terms of temperature, radiation levels, electrical interference and other factors may affect the effectiveness of a test.* Certain ultrasonic contact couplants may have high sulfur content, which has an adverse effect on high-nickel alloys. * The surface roughness of the test material strongly influences the reliability and quality of the ultrasonic test. The more sensitive the test is to be, the smoother the surface material must be. * The test frequency should be the highest that will give an adequate response from the reference standard in use. Typical frequencies range from 1 to 10 MHz. * Nicks, gouges, raised areas, tool tears, foreign material or gas bubbles on the article may produce adverse UT results. Such surface irregularities, including tool marks, may cause loss of back reflection. discontinuity. component is in service. All foreign materials (loose scale, dirt, oil, grease) should be removed prior to any testing. Where the general direction of the discontinuity is unknown, it may be necessary to test from several directions. The direction of the ultrasonic sound beam should be perpendicular to the direction of the grain flow whenever possible. Established standards should be used to give reproducible and reliable results. To aid interpretation, technicians must have knowledge of possible sources of noise that might be mistaken for meaningful ultrasound. The technician should know details about the item being examined, including configuration, material properties, wave propagation in the test item and potential discontinuities. DODDDODDDDDDD00DS A discontinuity is any intentional or unintentional interruption in the physical structure or Configuration of a part. Nondestructive testing (NDT) is the process by which discontinalies are located. As part of the NDT process, evaluation criteria are applied to determine the discontinuities that are discovered may or may not affect the usefulness of the part. indications (responses to 2 nondestructive test) are classified as false, nonrelevent or relevant. * A false indication is an indication produced by something other than 2 discontinuity: many times a false indication arises from improper handling * Anonrelevant indication is an indication that is caused by a condiGon or type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. A nonrelevant indication may also result from 2 misdpplied test or may be an indication that is too small to be considered relevant Nonrelevant indications usually result from intentional interruptions in a part such as 2 change in section geometry, thickness or hardness, or by a physical condition that is not 2 procedures. * Arelevant indication is the result of an actual discontinuity and must be evaluated bya qualified inspector to determine the severity of the discontinuity. Finding and evaluating relevant indications at an early stage is a critical step in preventing discontinuities from becoming more serious, causing system or catastrophic failure, while the intended part orThis module summarizes the characteristics of various types of relevant indications which result from discontinuities that may be detected by ultrasonic testing (UT). Capabilities and limitations of UT when applied for the detection of a specific discontinuity are shown. The discontinuities in this module are divided into four categories: inherent, primary processing, secondary processing and service. * Inherent discontinuities originate from the solidification of cast or molten metal. Inherent discontinuities may also have their origin in other bulk consolidation methods, such as press and sinter, as well as composites. * Primary processing discontinuities arise from the hot or cold working of an ingot into forgings, rod and bar, pipe and tube, and from welding. As with inherent discontinuities, primary processing discontinuities may be found in composite materials, as well * Secondary processing discontinuities stem from secondary processes and finishing operations such as machining, grinding, heat treatment and plating. * Service-induced discontinuities are caused during the use of the part. The discontinuities discussed in the following sections are only some of the many hundreds that are associated with various industrial products. 4 This group of discontinuities occurs during the initial melting and refining processes (ingots) and during solidification from the molten state (castings). Such discontinuities are present before rolling or forging is performed to produce intermediate shapes. UT is recommended for the following inherent discontinuities: * Cold shuts * Pipe * Shrinkage cracks‘Cold Shuts Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous cast material. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally appear as smooth indentations on the cast surface and may resemble a forging lap. Metallurgical Analysis: Produced during the casting of molten metal. Cold shuts may result from splashing, surging, interrupted pouring or the meeting of two streams of metal coming from different directions. Cold shuts are also caused by the solidification of one surface before other metal flows over it; the presence of interposing surface films on cold, sluggish metal; or any factor that prevents fusion where two surfaces meet. Cold shuts are more prevalent in castings formed in a mold having several sprues or gates. They are also more prevalent in magnesium castings than aluminum because of the speed with which magnesium sets. & Cold shut in 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) aluminum casting. (HB-RT) [ 0000 Appearance: Cold shuts typically form a tight line of disbond between the two segments of unfused metal. Similar to lack of fusion in welding. Recommendations: 1. Since many casting discontinuities are oriented completely at random, it is recommended, when possible, to perform compression wave ultrasonic tests in three directions of 90° to each other. 2. Calibration is usually based on the response from drilled flat-bottom holes of varying depths but also may be based on the height of the back reflection. 3. Amplitude and size are used to determine acceptability. Precaution: Because of the nature of the casting and cooling process, cast material may exhibit larger grain sizes than non-cast material. In coarser material, such as cast iron, the lange grain size may cause the sound beam to reflect and scatter with a resultant loss of returned sound. Thus, 2 technician may believe a full test has been performed whereas the sound is not fully penetrating the test object.Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous ingots and in rolled material. Commonly, known as “stringers” when the billet is rolled into bar stock. Also found in slag in welds and mold material in castings. Location in Part: Typically subsurface. May become exposed to surface during machining. ad Inclusions less dense than surrounding material in 3.2 mm (0.125 in.) aluminum casting. (HB-RT) Characteristics/Appearance: During refining, additives to the molten metal may collect to form large clumps as the ingot solidifies. After working, nonmetallic inclusions appear as short, straight, thin indications that may be numerous, intermittent, well dispersed or found in heavily concentrated bands. Inclusions can become stress risers in forged parts because of their discontinuous nature. Metallurgical Analysis: Caused by oxides, sulfides or other refractory materials and impurities that are entrapped in the molten metal as it solidifies in the ingot mold. They are normally lighter than the metal and the majority of inclusions and slag rise to the top while the metal is still in the liquid state. Most of this material is removed during cropping operations. Nonmetallic inclusions, when further processed, can produce laminations, seams and cracks in finished material. Rationale: Ultrasonic pulse-echo testing is the most widely used method for primary mill products, including steels, stainless steels, nickel and nickel alloys, cobalt and cobalt alloys, and other nonferrous alloys. Limitation: Aluminum ingots intended for fiat rolling are sometimes not tested ultrasonically Inclusions in ingots are transferred to rolls but their shape and size change so much that it is difficult to predict whether they will produce rejectable plates. Recommendations: 1. Larger transducer diameters provide a good signal-to-noise ratio because of their smaller beam spread 2. In process control, ingots are placed in an immersion tank and typically scanned with a 5 MHz transducer (in rare cases, a 2.25 MHz ‘transducer is used). 3. Ingots with round cross sections are tested in 2 rotary test system (Source: LUT)Description: Found mostly in steel and other metals poured into ingot molds. Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Central cavity that becomes tight and elongated during Radiograph of elongated voids. (CT-RT) forming operations. Metallurgical Analysis: Pipe is formed when an ingot cools more rapidly at the outside surfaces, thereby causing the formation of a central cavity as the result of shrinkage. Pipe has a tendency to remain centrally located as the ingot is rolled down to blooms and billets. Radiograph of large, irregular void. (HB-RT) Appearance: A cavity formed during a z s soleification and found in the upper part of the (jets ean aaa aaa ingot. Because the entrapped gas tends to form SS Scania rounded tubes with smoother sdes) pipe docs | eum Se not result in as sharp a reflector as shrinkage and shrink cracks. However, because of the change in velocity between the gas and the metal, pipe can be easily found ultrasonically. Advantage: Ultrasonic testing is the most effective nondestructive testing method for detecting subsurface discontinuities commonly Gn ee found in mill products such as bar, plate and ae aot ee pera tubes. areas of segregation are relatively large, they Recommendation: Test system performance _ cannot be easily seen ultrasonically. Other characteristics must be sufficient for the discontinuities associated with ingots, such as required test in accordance with ASTM E 317. nonmetallic inclusions and shrinkage voids, are generally larger in size than segregations and are better reflectors of sound.Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous castings. Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Shrinkage cracks are sharp, clean-cut indications that usually appear in groups. In some cases, a very fine branchlike pattern can be observed. Metallurgical Analysis: Shrinkage cracks develop during the cooling of solidified metal as a result of the great contraction that occurs during the cooling process. This contraction causes tensile stress, which may result in the rupture of the metal. Shrinkage cracks are concentrated where there is a change in cross sections because thinner areas solidify and cool faster than thicker cross sections. l ! QL0009 Appearance: Shrinkage voids and cracks are The jagged shape of 2 crack results in 2 distinctive indication both good reflectors of sound and can be a ee readily seen ultrasonically due to the sharp » edges of the void and the large change in sound velocity between the void and the metal. In normal indications, the damping in the 8 transducer causes the right side of the signal to i drop off quickly. However, because a crack is jagged, multiple returns result, causing the screen signal to be much wider. Advantage: Pulse-echo beams, normal beams and phased arrays are used to detect and locate discontinuities in castings, such as shrinkage 3 cracks and voids. Precaution: Most casting discontinuities are oriented at random. Consequently, compression wave ultrasonic testing in three directions 90° 0 to each other is recommended when possible. 1 ‘Accumulation of magnetic particles indicating a shrink crack. (GD-MT) 45°67 8 9 0 Sound path (time) BMaterial Longitudinal Velocity (km/s) Shear Velocity (km/s) Aluminum, galvanized 6.25 3.10 Beryllium 12.80 8.71 Brass (naval) 443 2.12 Copper 4.66 2.26 Lead, antimony (6%) 2.16 0.81 Magnesium 5.79 3.10 Nickel 5.63 2.96 Steel 5.85 3.23 Stainless steel, austenitic 5.66 3.12 Titanium 6.10 3.12 Tungsten 5.18 2.87 Air 0.33 = Plate glass 5.77 3.43 Quartz (natural) 5.73 = Water 1.49 = DODO00CC0D0000o00 This group of discontinuities is found or produced by forming or fabrication operations inducing rolling, forging and welding. UT is recommended for the following primary processing discontinuities. (Note: secondary processing discontinuities resulting from machining, qanding, plating and heat treating are not ae eee method.) Rolling, Forging and Extruding Welding I - | * Bursts * Concave root surface * Cupping * Drop-through * Forging laps * Heat affected zone cracking * Hydrogen flake } * Inclusions (welding) * Laminations | * Incomplete fusion Mandrel drag * Lack of penetration * Seams * Porosity (gas) * Seams (rolled threads) * Unconsumed insert * Tubing cracks * Undercut Unfused porosityDescription: Found in ferrous and nonferrous forgings and other processed material Location in Part: Surface or internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Straight or irregular cavities varying in size from wide open to very tight. Usually parallel with the grain. Found in wrought material that has been forged, rolled or extruded. Metallurgical Analysis: Forging bursts are surface or internal ruptures caused by processing at too low a temperature, excessive working or excessive metal movement during forging, rolling or extruding operations. A burst does not have a spongy appearance and, therefore, is distinguishable from pipe, even when it occurs at the center. Bursts are often large and are very seldom healed during subsequent working. eel Appearance: Bursts are definite breaks in the material and resemble a crack, producing 3 very sharp reflection on the display Rationale: Normally used for the detection of internal bursts. UT is capable of detecting varying degrees of burst, a condition not detectable by other NDT methods Limitation: Orientation of the burst in relation to the probe may infiuence the test results. The fig stainless Steel rim bursts. Forging bu" producing many A-scan ions of various amplitudes. In comparison with signals from other discontinuities, th reflections from inclusions may also vary in amplitude but are more likely to be widely scattered. The indication from a crack, on the other hand, is sometimes continuous for as much as one fourth of the circumference of the rim, with. complete loss of reflection from the far surface. (HB-UT)Description: Found in extrusions. Also known as “chevron cracking.” Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Cupping appears as a series of internal ruptures. An internal, frequently large discontinuity. Chevron cracking in a machined or cross-sectioned part should be visually evident. Metallurgical Analysis: During drawing or extruding operations, cupping occurs when the interior of the metal does not flow as rapidly as the surface. Ilustration of cross section of bar showing severe upping formed during drawing or extruding. (HB-MT-2) QUEUES exteses borane tos ‘Appearance: Produces a sharp peak on the display similar to a burst or other void. In a visual inspection of a cross section of the extrusion, the cupping will appear as cracks, frequently V-shaped. Cupping results in definite breaks in the material and resembles a planar crack, thereby producing a very sharp reflection technique: Smaller diameter round stock car on the display. ee nase z Controlled speed, slowing the seach writs > ae Normally used for the detection of : Advantage: UT can readily detect internal flaws the test object can be tested directly through such as cupping not easily detected by some thickness (down the radius), at angles up and peace pemetnods down the axis of the test object and at angles around the circumference of the test object. For larger diameter round stock, a full immersion tank is used. For short pieces of round stock, it may be necessary to perform the test using the contact method.Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous forgings. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Wavy lines, usually not very pronounced or tightly adherent because they typically enter the surface at a small angle, Laps may have surface ‘openings that have been smeared closed Forging laps are found in forgings, plate, tubing, bar and rod. Metallurgical Analysis: Similar to seams, forging laps may result from improper rolling, forging or sizing operations. During the processing of the material, corners may be folded over or an overfill may exist during sizing that results in material being flattened but not fused into the surface. Laps may occur on any part of the item. Appearance: UT indications of laps appear as definite interfaces within the met Rationale: Normally used to test wrought material prior to machining Micrograph of a lap. Magnetic particles attracted to the flux leakage of a forging lap, probably caused by poor die design. (GD-MT) Limitation: Not normally used to detect laps on rolled threads because configuration of the test part is the restricting factor. Recommendation: Surface wave technique permits accurate evaluation of the depth, length and size of laps. The forging process uses high pressure compressive force to cause plastic deformation of metal into,a desired shape. Depending on size, shape, material type and complexity, the test object may be heated to well above the recrystallization temperature. Pressure may be applied by a press, rollers or by repetitive blows of a hammer. As with the other forming processes, inherent discontinuities will be stretched and flattened in the direction in which the metal moves. 2 In addition to the distortion of inherent also form. Forging bursts arise when the metal being worked cannot withstand the tensile stress that occurs during the forging process. Cracking may occur when there is differential cooling at changes in thickness. Both types of discontinuities can be found ultrasonically using either straight or angle beam testing, or a combination of both.‘ound in ferrous material. Descriptio Location in Part: Internal fissures. Characteristics /Appearance: Hydrogen flakes appear as internal fissures in a fractured surface; flakes appear as bright silvery areas. On an etched surface, they appear as short discontinuities. Sometimes known as “chrome checks” and “hairline cracks” when revealed by machining. Flakes are extremely thin and are Cross section of hand forging showing flake condition in generally aligned parallel with the grain. They center of materia are usually found in heavy steel forgings, billets and bars. Metallurgical Analysis: Flakes are internal fissures attributed to stresses produced by localized transformation and decreased solubility of hydrogen during cooling after hot working. Usually found only in heavy alloy steel forgings. Appearance: On the A-scan presentation, hydrogen flake appears as “hash” or grass” on the screen — numerous small vertical indications — or as a loss of back reflection. Rationale: Used extensively for the detection of hydrogen flake. Recommendations: 1. Material in the wrought condition can be screened successfully using either the immersion or the contact method. The surface condition will determine the most suitable method. 2. Hydrogen flakes are detected by straight beam examination. 23Description: Laminations are flattened impurities that are extremely thin, Found in plate and sheet metal, as well as forgings. Location in Part: Surface and internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally aligned parallel to the work surface of the material. May contain a thin film of oxide between surfaces. Found in forged, extruded and rolled material. Metallurgical Analysis: Laminations are separations or weaknesses that may be the result of elongated pipe, blisters, seams, inclusions or segregations that are made directional by rolling. This results in weak metal bonds that are usually aligned parallel to the major work direction in the metal. Laminations are generally not continuous across their length or width and may result in intermittent discontinuity signals and/or a loss of back wall signal, as seen here. (CTB-UT) Lass of wall si Amplitude Sound path (time) Appearance: Definite interface with a loss of back reflection. Laminations may be at any depth in the rolled product. Rationale: For heavier gage material, the geometry and orientation of laminations (Perpendicular to the beam) make UT an optimal method for their detection. Advantages: 1. Automatic and manual contact or immersion methods are adaptable. 2. Through-transmission and reflection techniques are applicable for very thin sections. 3. Numerous wave modes may be used, depending upon the material thickness or method selected for testing, Recommendation: On thinner sections, a delay-line transducer may be needed so that the near-field effects are contained in the delay Precaution: Most laminations can be detected length and width and may resuit in mtemnitiect screen Signals and/or 2 loss of backacil somal amplitude. Lamination in 25.4 mm (in) bar. Lamination in plate showing surface orientation, 25Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous, thin- and thick-wall seamless tubing. Inherent to the tubing manufacturing process. Location in Part: Internal surface of tubing. Characteristics/Appearance: Mandrel drag ranges from shallow, even gouges to ragged tears, Often a slug of the material is embedded within the gouged area. Metallurgical Analysis: During the manufacture of seamless tubing, the billet is ruptured as it passes through the offset rolls. As the piercing mandrel follows this fracture, a portion of the material may break loose and be forced over the mandrel. As it does, the surface of the tubing may be scored or have the slug embedded into the wall. Certain types of material are more prone to this type of discontinuity than others. Appearance: Configuration of mandrel drag or tear produces very sharp and noticeable indications on the display screen. Rationale: Normally used for the screening of thick-wall pipe or tube for mandrel drag Advantage: Can be used to test both ferrous and nonferrous pipe or tube. Gouge on inner surface of pipe. COO00S Recommendations: 1 Transducers are fitted with suitable wedges or shoes for curved test surfaces. 2. Manual scanning speeds normally should not exceed 150 mm/s (6 in 3. The overlap of each scan path is 20% minimum 27Description: Found mostly in bar stock. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics /Appearance: Well defined, straight and parallel to the direction of the metal flow. Lengthy, often quite deep, and sometimes very tight. Usually occur in parallel fissures with the grain and, at times, spiral when associated with rolled rod and tubing. Metallurgical Analysis: Seams originate from blowholes, cracks, splits and tears that are introduced during earlier processing and elongated in the direction of rolling, forging or extruding. The distance between adjacent interfaces of the discontinuity is very small. Serious stress risers may be rejectable depending on depth, area in which they are present and the intended use of the product. Typical screen display of a seam detected with longitudinal waves sent into the test object, perpendicular to the surface, Notice absence of back surface reflection. 1 D Initial pulse. Discontinuity. (Source: CT-UT) Appearance: UT indications of seams appear as definite interfaces within the metal. Rationale: For subsurface seams, UT is suitable provided that necessary sensitivity levels can be attained. Limitations: 1.If extremely shallow, magnetic particle testing is the preferred method, followed by ultrasonic testing to determine depth. Not a recommended method of locating seams in rolled threads because thread configurations restrict capability of UT. Recommendations: 1. Surface wave technique permits accurate evaluation of depth, length and size of seams. 2.Being through-thickness in orientation and depending on the depth, seams may be detected using angle beam testing 2 inclusions and porosity. Delamination, or the separation of plies, can result from shock loading, impact or cyclic stresses. Depending on the materials used to create 2 composite, ultrasonic testing can be used to test these structures. If the composite is thin, it may be necessary to use a delay line in front of the transducer or switch to an immersion technique so that the near-field effects are contained in the delay line or water path and are not introduced into the testing.Description: Found in nonferrous and ferrous material. Location in Part: Inner surface or inside diameter (ID). Characteristics/Appearance: Parallel to the direction of grain flow. Metailurgical Analysis: Tubing ID cracks may be attributed to one or a combination of the following: 1) improper cold reduction of the tube during fabrication, 2) foreign material embedded on the inner surface of the tube causing embrittlement and cracking when the cold-worked material is heated during the annealing operation and 3) insufficient heating rate to the annealing temperature with possible cracking occurring in the 645-760 °C (1200-1400 °F) range. Appearance: Longitudinal cracks in the path of the sound beam reflect the sound and are indicated on the test system’s monitor. With angle beam testing, the more nearly _ perpendicular the discontinuity is to the sound beam, the larger the reflected signal Rationale: UT is normally used on tubing. Advantage: A wide variety of equipment and transducers is available for screening tubing for internal discontinuities of this type. Typical crack on the inside diameter of tubing. Amplitude ~< Sound path (time) ‘Transducer positions relative to a crack and corresponding screen indications. As the sound beam begins to move across the crack, the leading edge of the beam is reflected before the signal is maximized, resulting in a low amplitude signal to appear on the far right of the screen (A). When the centerline of the beam reaches the crack, the signal is usually at maximum strength (B). As the sound beam moves past the crack, the signal continues to move to the left, decreasing in amplitude until it drops off the screen (C). (Hout) SHAH 0000 Limitation: It may be difficult to prepare 2 reference standard for small tubing with inside surface Giameters 2s small as 3 mm (0.1 in). A naturally ocomming discontinuity may be used as 2 reference standard instead. Recommendation: Pipe and tube are routinely tested by the transverse wave technique in which the sound beam is propagated in opposite directions both Groumferentially and axially Micrograph of tubing crack 31Description: Found in aluminum. Location in Part: Internal. Characteristics/Appearance: Wafer-thin fissures aligned parallel with the grain flow. Found in wrought aluminum that has been rolled, forged or extruded. Metallurgical Analysis: Unfused porosity is attributed to porosity in the cast ingot. During rolling, forging or extruding operations, it is flattened into wafer-thin shape. If the internal surfaces of these discontinuities are oxidized or are composed of foreign material, they will not fuse during the subsequent processing, which results in an extremely thin interface or void Unfused porosi 3.18 mm (0.125 in.) at right. Fractured specimen showing unfused porosity. DOOC00000 Appearance: Ultrasonic signal is scattered by porosity and can be detected by a loss of signal from the back part. Method manufacture and sub: configuration det unfused porosity Rationale: Used unfused porosity Advantages: ine the orientation of the ferial surface. for the detection of 1. Raw materials may be tested in the “as received” configuration. 2. UT “fixes” the location of the void in all three directions. Limitation: Porosity can be difficult to calibrate. Usually, acoustic attenuation is a criterion but calibration standards must match the test object. 33, Typical enfused parasite5 ee including travel speed or the addition of Concave Root Surface sufficient material. Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Commonly known as “suck back.” Location in Part: Surface. Sometimes occurs on inaccessible back side of weld. Characteristics/Appearance: The root of the weld takes on a concave appearance Metallurgical Analysis: Concave root surface is caused by excessive shrinkage of the weld-deposited root bead. A concave root occurs when the molten weld solidifies without sufficient filler or weld metal being added to the molten zone to supply the volumetric shrinkage that takes place during solidification This condition is promoted by excessive amperage, excessive joint fit-up gaps and out-of-position welding; however, it can be caused by improper welding technique, DOODDDO000000000 Appearance: Concave root should give a wide Recommendation: If the weld cap or outside indication that is less than the normal back wall diameter (OD) is flush or fiattopped, a straight thickness. beam should be used to verify the results of the Advantage: UT is the preferred method to angie beam exam. detect concave root, especially when the inside diameter (ID) is inaccessible. Photomacrograph of concave root surface. (EPRI) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Submerged arc welding (SAW) Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) |Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) |Flux-cored arc welding-self shielded (FCAW-S) [Flux-cored arc welding-gas shielded (FCAW-C) ><| ><] ><] ><] de] pe] UiDescription: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Also known as “convexity” and “excessive penetration.” Location in Part: Surface Characteristics/Appearance: Drop-through is an undesirable sagging (convex appearance) and excessive root bead width at the weld root. Metallurgical Analysis: Drop-through is usually encountered when the welding temperature is near the melting temperature of the base metal. It can be caused by overheating with rapid diffusion or alloying between the filler metal and the base metal. This condition is largely associated with welder inexperience and improper welding technique. DOQ0CO0O0DD0N0ODD forcement. Photomacrograph of drop-through. (EPRI) Appearance: As with concave root surface, Recommendation: As with the detection of | drop-through should give a wide indication that concave root surface, if the weld cap or outside is more than the normal back wall thickness. diameter (OD) is flush or fiat-topped, 2 straight Advantage: UT is the prefered method to beam shouid be used to verify the results of the detect drop-through, especially when the inde 2ngle beam exam. diameter (ID) is inaccessible. Weld Terminology Single vee-weld with backing bar ~7 >> Weld root Double vee-weld a Backing bar 7 (Source: CTB-UT)Description: Found during welding of ferrous and nonferrous material Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: This type of cracking is often quite deep and very tight. It usually runs parallel with the weld in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the weldment. Metallurgical Analysis: Hot cracking of the HAZ of weldments increases in severity with increasing carbon content. Steels that contain more than 0.3% carbon are prone to this type of failure and require preheating prior to welding. Cracks in the HAZ are promoted by high restraint of the joints and improper electrode control. ‘Magnification of a crack in the heat affected zone of a weld. ‘A cold lap (1) masks the entrance to the crack (2). MOQOCC00CD00O00OO Appearance: The width of the HAZ will vary depending on the amount of heat input into the weld, interpass temperatures and cooling rate. The configuration of the surface roughness (sharp versus rounded root radii and the slope condition) is a major factor in defiecting the sound beam. Micrograph of the crack shown on the previous page. Rationale: Ultrasonic testi where specialized applications have been developed Recommendation: specihicatio 254anQ included in th ultrasonic test. 39Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material Location in Part: Surface and subsurface. Characteristics/Appearance: Inclusions may be any shape; however, tungsten inclusions are generally round. Inclusions may be metallic or nonmetallic and may appear individually or be linearly distributed or scattered throughout the weldment. The most common are slag and tungsten inclusions. Metallurgical Analysis: Metallic inclusions are generally particles of metals of different density as compared to the density of the weld or base metal. Nonmetallic inclusions are oxides, sulphides, slag or other nonmetallic foreign material entrapped in the weld or between the weld metal and the base metal. Slag inclusions are generally created by molten fluxes employed in arc welding operations. In multilayer welding operations, failure to remove slag between passes can result in slag inclusions in these zones. Tungsten inclusions generally occur when particles of tungsten electrodes are transferred into the weld deposit. Cross section of weld showing internal inclusions, Inclusions trapped in weld Appearance: Inclusions appear as definite interfaces within the metal. Small clusters of inclusions on different planes cause a loss in back reflection. Slag signals on the screen often show up as a cluster of side-by-side signals with individual signal amplitudes that vary in height and position as the centerline of the sound beam is reflected from various contours of the slag. Precautions: 1. Inclusion orjentation in relationship to the ultrasonic beam is critical 2. Tungsten inclusions can give a screen signal similar to that of a gas pore, though the metal-to-metal interface does not give nearly as good of a reflection as does a pore. 3. Numerous small, scattered conditions cause excessive “noise.” 4 joa ge Les eos. Sound path (time) 0can be caused by improper weaving, low welding current or too fast of a welding speed Incomplete Fusion Description: Found in multi-pass welds. Also referred to as “lack of fusion.” Location in Part: Can be found at any point in the weld Characteristics/Appearance: Incomplete fusion is the failure of adjacent weld metal and base metal, or of weld metal and weld metal, to fuse together. It usually has an angular orientation with the surface. Metallurgical Analysis: Incomplete fusion results when base metal or a previously deposited weld is not raised to the melting point at the point of weld deposit fusion. Failure to remove slag, mill scale, oxides or other material alien to the metal alloy from weld joint surfaces can also prevent the deposited metal from fusing. This condition Photomacrograph of interbead incomplete fusion. (EPRI) Appearance: If lack of fusion is located lower Precaution: if the lack of fusion is near the top _ down in the weld, a very solid signal maybe _of the weld, it will not be seen in the first leg of seen since the sound beam will hit the lack of _ the sound beam. Sidewaill lack of fusion is fusion nearly perpendicular to the fiat surface of _usually best seen ultrasonically in the second leg the weld. If a strong second-leg signal is seen, it from the same side of the weld. indicates the probability of sidewall lack of fusion in the upper portion of the weld. Limitations: 1.Interbead lack of fusion can be difficult to locate and identify because it does not lie flush against the groove sidewall but may be in any orierttation between weld beads. 2. Common bevels in weld joints do not often complement the angles used in UT. Recommendation: Angle beam UT techniques easily detect lack of fusion Photomacrograph of sidewall incomplete fusion. (EPRI) 43|Lack of Fusion B- and C-Scans a ‘A C-scan image of lack of fusion in a double vee weld displays a map of the ultrasonic signal amplitude. Data is collected from the first and second transducer positions, as shown. As the transducer is moved toward the weld centerline, data from the first position oot come into view. High signal amplitudes are Data om second shaded light and low amplitudes are darker. eas aera In angle beam tests, signals are returned only E = Discontinuity E 1 from echoes that reflect back to the transducer. = “pees 1 The bottom of the display shows a B-scan ~ 4 image that represents a horizontal slice or cross Eweld centertines q section of amplitude through the cursor on the. ati d C.scan display. During analysis, viewing Horontal sce —- thresholds can be set to various amplitude 1 levels and the indications appropriately sized had Abbigide, for acceptance or rejection criteria. fi avin DOD000000 Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous weldments. Also referred to as “incomplete penetration” (IP). Location in Part: (Source: HUD internal or external. Characteristics/Appearance: Generally irregular and filamentary, occurring at and running parallel with the weld. Metallurgical Analysis: Can be caused when insufficient root gap is provided during fit-up operations or when residual welding stresses cause the established gap to be closed. Can also be caused by the root face of the joint not reaching fusion temperature before weld metal was deposited. Other causes include too fast of a welding rate, too large of a welding rod or too cold a bead. (Continued on next page.) 1e root 45Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous weldments. Location in Part: Surface or subsurface. Characteristics /Appearance: Rounded or elongated, teardrop shaped, with or without a sharp discontinuity at the point. Scattered uniformly throughout the weld or isolated in small groups. May also be concentrated at the root or toe. Pores may also occur as nonspherical pockets along grain boundaries or as elongated tubular voids called “piping porosity” or “wormholes.” Metallurgical Analysis: Porosity in welds is caused by gas entrapment in the molten metal. These gases may be released by the cooling weld metal because of reduced solubility as the temperature drops or from gases formed by chemical reactions in the weld. Porosity is also caused by too much moisture on the base or filler metal or improper cleaning or preheating. Cross section of weld showing extent of porosity. Appearance: Formed when gas is trapped in a weld, pores are generally rounded voids with a smooth intemal surface. Because the diameter of a gas pore is usually a very small percentage of the cross-sectional area of the sound beam, the signal from a pore retums a very small amount of sound, resuiting in a very discrete signal often of low amplitude. Overall, the result is a single, narrow, sharp signal that pops up on the screen at only one location and then disappears immediately without moving sideways to an appreciable degree. Advantage: UT equipment is highly sensitive and capable of detecting microseparations Precaution: In the case of cluster porosity or closely aligned pores, the screen display may show several signals very close together that may be confused with slag inclusions. 49 DODO reflected back to the transducer and a ‘sound in the lower portion of the sound cone again reflected away from the transducer. The indication from a large pore (D)is shown in comparison. (CTB-UT)Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Surface at the root bead. Metallurgical Analysis: Unconsumed insert results from preplaced filler metal that is not completely melted and fused in the root joint. This condition is caused by low welding current, improper weaving procedure, improper joint design and improper welding speed. HOH Photomacrograph of unconsumed insert. (EPRI) ee DO0000 Appearance: Unconsumed insert appears on the display as a definite break or discontinuity resembling lack of fusion or lack of penetration and gives a very sharp reflection. Rationale: UT is commoniy used for specific applications, such as the detection of unconsumed insert. Recommendation: Since unconsumed insert is at the root of the weld, the screen signal may not be fully maximized when the transducer hits the near edge of the weld cown. As with the detection of incomplete penetration, 2 higher angle trensducer (70°) may be necded to get dose enough to fully manamize the sqnal or the weld crown may need to be ground flush.Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous welded material. Location in Part: Found at any point where weld metal and base metal meet. May be internal or external. Characteristics/Appearance: Undercut is a groove that is melted into the base metal along the edge of the weld and left unfilled by the weld metal. Metallurgical Analysis: Undercutting is generally regarded as a serious discontinuity because the result is a reduction in the neste inl reser taicldeoreeral Photomacrograph of undercut on the outside diameter. (EPR) therefore a reduction in its load-carrying capability. Undercut is the result of improper welding procedures such as excessively high amperage or large welding rod. 54 Appearance: May result in 2 Signal fromthe —Precautions: toe of the weld. sf = ¢ Recommendations: normal testing. a 1. Straight beam or angle beam ultrasonic 2 Undercut can mask other discontinuities 2t testing is used for most welding the scanning location. discontinuities. 2. If a toe signal is seen where undercut is Present, it should be removed by grinding to Confirm that the undercut caused the screen signal. 3. Due to the location at the outside diameter (OD) of the weld, a second leg exam is necessary to detect undercut. 35» Fillet cracks Description: Found in ferrous and nonferrous bolts. Location in Part: Surface. Characteristics/Appearance: Located at the junction of the fillet with the shank of the bolt and progressing inward. Metallurgical Analysis: Fillet cracks occur where a marked change in diameter occurs, such as at the head-to-shank junction where stress risers are created. During the service life of a bolt, repeated loading takes place Appearance: Since fillet cracks are a definite break in the material, the screen display pattem will be a very sharp Rationale: Used extensi service-associated discor Advantages: 1.A wide selection of transducers and equipment enable on-the-spot evaluation for fillet cracks. 2. Crack propagation can be monitored by using ultrasonic testing. 7 (HHH This group of discontinuities is related to the various service conditions such as stress corrosion, fatigue and wear. UT is recommended for the following service discontinuities: (bolts) © Intergranular corrosion cracking whereby the tensile load fluctuates in magnitude due to the operation of the mechanism. These tensile loads can cause fatigue failure starting at the point where the stress risers occur. Fatigue failure, which is a surface phenomenon, starts at the surface and propagates inward. Fracture area showing tangency point failure. Cross section of fatigue crack showing tangency point in the radius. Lifound in nonferrous materials such as stainless steels and aluminum but can also be found in some of the fertitic stainless grades and mild steel typically in the form of exfoliation. Location in Part: Surface or internal. Characteristics /Appearance: Intergranular corrosion cracking appears as a series of small micro-openings with no definite pattern. May appear individually or in groups. The insidious nature of intergranular corrosion results from the fact that very little corrosion or corrosion product is visible on the surface. Intergranular corrosion may extend in any direction following the grain boundaries of the material. Metallurgical Analysis: The metallurgical structure of some materials (for example, unstabilized 300 series stainless steel) is Appearance: Loss of material indication on scope or meter. Back wall reflection can become weak, lose sharpness and disappear due to corrosion. Advantage: Can measure hidden or enclosed areas if other side is accessible. Limitations: 1. Sometimes hard to map exact locations of corrosion. 2. Depth cannot be determined without physically removing corrosion. Recommendation: The optimum frequency for intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC) is 1.5 MHz. Other frequencies are not as effective in detecting this discontinuity. Description: Intergranular corrosion is typically Micrograph of intergranular corrosion showing lifting of the surface from subsurface corrosion. naturally prone to intergranular corrosion. Other materials become susceptible to intergranular corrosion during improper stress relieving or heat treating. Either of these conditions coupled with a corrosive atmosphere results in intergranular attack. AHHAHHHEH 00 Precautions: 1. Metallurgical structure resulting from corrosion can cause 2 loss of retum signal making detection and measurement Gitiasit 2. Depth gages can sometimes be confused by the retum signals and not give accurate thickness readings Micrograph showing nature of intergranular corrosion. Only minor evidence of corrosion is evident from the surface. 59.Birks, A. S. and R.E, Green, Jr, tech. eds., and P. Mcintire, ed. Nondestructive Testin. 1 I » and P, , ed. ive Testing Handbook, second edition: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (1991). EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Characteristics of Pipe Weld Defects. Palo Alto, CA: Electric Power Research Institute (1980). Hout, |. “Practical Contact Ultrasonics — Defect Characterization and False Indications.” The NOT Te ions. fechnician. Vol. 4, No. 2. ‘Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (April 2005): pp. 35. in Marks, P. T. Ultrasonic Testing Classroom Training Book. Columbus, OH: The American Soci uctiv ae in Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Ultrasonic, Fort Worth, peice et 9 sonic, Fort Worth, TX: General Dynamics, Convair Workman, G. L. and D. Kishoni, tech. eds., and P. O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, tt Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2007). ird edition: Volume 7, CTB-UT: Marks, PT. Ultrasonic Testing Cassroom Training Book. Columbus, Ott: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, inc. (2007). CERT: Nondestructive Testing Classroom Treiniing Handbook, second edition: Radiographic Testing. Fort Worth, TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1983) CEUT: Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Ultrasonic. Fact Worth, TX: General Dyramics, Convair Division (1981). Chapter 4. EPRI: EPRI NP-1590-SR, NDE Charocteristics of Pipe Weld Defects. Palo Aito, CA: Electric Power Reseaech lnssnte (1580) GD-MT: Nondestructive Testing Programmed Instruction Handbook, fourth edition: Magnetic Partcie. Fort Wert, TX: Genexat Dynamics, Convair Division (1977). HB-MT-2: Schmidt, |. T. and K. Skeie, tech. eds., and P. McIntire, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, second esiton: Volume 6, Magnetic Particle Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, inc. (1969) HB-RT: Bossi, R.H., FA. Iddings and G. C. Wheeler, tech. eds., and P. O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook third edition: Volume 4, Radiographic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2002). HB-UT: Workman, G. L. and D. Kishoni, tech. eds., and P. O. Moore, ed. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, third edition: Volume 7, Ultrasonic Testing. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (2007). Houf: Houf, |. “Practical Contact Ultrasonics — Defect Characterization and False Indications.” The NDT Technician. Vol. 4, No. 2. Columbus, OH: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (April 2005): pp. 3-5. Note: All images are used by permission. Images without citations are from Chapter 7: “Comparison and Selection of NDT Processes” in the Nondestructive Testing Classroom Training Handbook, second edition: Ultrasonic. Fort Worth, ‘TX: General Dynamics, Convair Division (1981). 61Quantity Unit Symbol Relation to Other St Units Capacitance farad F ow Conductance siemens s av Energy joule J Nm Frequency (periodic) hertz He us Force newton N kg-mvis? Inductance henry H Woia Electric charge coulomb G As Electric potential electromotive) volt v wa Electric resistance ohm a VA Magnetic flux weber Wo Vs Magnetic flux density tesla T Woim? Plane angle radian rad 1 Power watt Ww Vs Pressure (stress) pascal Pa Nim? Solid angle steradian sr 1 Temperature degree celsius < K Volume liter 4 dm? To Get St Unit Angie Area Distance Energy Power Force Torque (couple) Pressure Frequency (cycle) Mass ‘Temperature (increment) ‘Temperature (scale) Temperature (scale) Non-St Unit Multiply by minute (min) 2.908 882 9 10+ degree (deg) 1.745 329 102 square inch (in) 645 angstrom (A) on inch Gin.) 254 Brish thermal unit (BTU) 1.055 ‘lorie (ca), thermochemical 4.184 British thermal unit per hour (BTU) 6.293 pound force 4448 foot-pound (ftlo)) 1:36 pound force per square inch (Ib; in2) 6.89. - oyde per minute 60" pound (Ib,) o4s4 degree fahrenheit ("F) 0556 degree fahrenheit *F) (F-32)+18 degree fahrenheit *F) (CF 32) +18 + 273.15 radian (rad) radian (rad) square millimeter (mm?) nanometer (nm) millimeter (mm) Keiljoule (ki) joule ) watt (W) newton (N) newton meter (Nim) Kilopascal (kPa) hertz (Hz) Kilogram (kg) kelvin (K) or degree celsius (*C) degree celsius (°C) kelvin (K) a