Plumbing

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A complex arrangement of rigid steel piping and stop valves regulate flow to various parts of
the building

Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications.
Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to
convey fluids.[1] Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable
water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not
limited to these applications.[2] The word derives from
the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman
era were lead pipes.[3]
In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and
sanitation.[4][5]
Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers although they work with piping as
part of their trade and their work can include some plumbing.

Contents

 1History
 2Systems
 3Water pipes
o 3.1History
 4Difference between pipes and tubes
o 4.1Materials
 4.1.1Steel
 4.1.2Copper
 4.1.3Plastic
o 4.2Gallery
  5Components
o 5.1Sealants
 6Equipment and tools
 7Problems
 8Regulation
o 8.1Australia
o 8.2The United Kingdom
o 8.3The United States
 9See also
 10References
 11Notes
 12Further reading
 13External links

History
See also: History of plumbing and Sanitation in ancient Rome

Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman Baths in Bath, England

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations (such as the Greek, Roman,

Persian, Indian, and Chinese cities) as they developed public baths and needed
to provide potable water and wastewater removal for larger numbers of
people.[6] Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use
of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus
Valley Civilization by 2700 BC.[7] The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to
prevent water theft. The word "plumber" dates from the Roman
Empire.[8] The Latin for lead is plumbum. Roman roofs used lead in conduits and
drain pipes[9] and some were also covered with lead. Lead was also used
for piping and for making baths.[10]
Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of
expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use
of lead pipes. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation
stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very
slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely
populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began
pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or
control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had consisted of
collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the
development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated
open sewage ditches and cesspools.
Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to
separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other
bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace
in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period,
copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper
tubing utilizing soldered fittings.
The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of
increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper
piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.[11]

Systems

Copper piping system in a building

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:[12]

 potable cold and hot tap water supply

 plumbing drainage venting
 sewage systems and septic systems with or
without hot water heat
recycling and graywater recovery and treatment
systems
 Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage
 fuel gas piping
  hydronics, i.e. heating and cooling systems utilizing
water to transport thermal energy, as in district
heating systems, like for example the New York City
steam system.

Water pipes
Not to be confused with Hookah or Bong.

A system of copper water tubes used in a radiator heating system.

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,[a] that

carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal
water system), as well as inside the building.
History
Main article: History of water supply and sanitation

Old water pipe, remnant of the Machine de Marly near Versailles, France

Lead was the favoured material for water pipes for many centuries because
its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. Such use was so
common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead.
This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health
hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and
high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early
20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was
commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy
solder instead in order to eliminate lead hazards.[13]
Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned
people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the
Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the
water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount
of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would
have had easy access to piped water,[14] an unfortunate result of lead being used
in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink (for example as
a preservative in wine).[15] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on
the owner to prevent water theft.
Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th
centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs which were tapered at the end with
a small hole in which the water would pass through.[16] The multiple pipes were
then sealed together with hot animal fat. Wooden pipes were used in
Philadelphia,[17] Boston, and Montreal in the 1800s. Built-up wooden tubes were
widely used in the USA during the 20th century. These pipes (used in place of
corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes) were made of sections cut from
short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins
produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were
installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under
highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.
Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper before
the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be
used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes (except for terminal
fittings) in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between
dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[18]
Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with
various materials.[19]

Difference between pipes and tubes

Typical PVC municipal water main being installed in Ontario, Canada

A plastic water pipe being installed. Note that the inner tube is actually transporting the
water, while the outer tube only serves as a protective casing

The difference between pipes and tubes is a matter of sizing. For

instance, PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe are
measured in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is
measured nominally, basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow
for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the
same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same
size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female
adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form
"pipe" is often used as a plural.[20]
Pipe is available in rigid joints, which come in various lengths depending on the
material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints or soft
tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid joints or
flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, whether it is a rigid joint or flexible roll,
does not affect the sizing.[20]
The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Because piping and
tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost.
Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure
tolerances. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore
polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as
the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases
with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special
cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the
system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is
available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain
pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code),
type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K'
(thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter).
Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.[21] 1/2" L copper has the same
outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a
result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in
flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper
has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.[citation needed]
Materials
Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using
pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed
wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly
water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years
ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s.
Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most
waste (also known as "soil")[22] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[22]
The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is
typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made
through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or
welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques
such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding.
These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing
fittings article.
Steel
Main article: Galvanized pipe
Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found
with nominal pipe sizes from 3⁄8 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely
used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National
Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female
tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized
steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively
expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe
threader. It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to
satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels,
apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely
durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the
most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.
Most typical single family home systems won't require supply piping larger
than 3⁄4 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to
become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the
inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has
degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a
service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less
in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.
Copper
Main article: Copper tubing
Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter
half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the
dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for
alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.
Plastic
Main article: Plastic pipework

Plastic hot and cold supply piping for a sink

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV)
pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced
experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture
until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to
plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured
in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the
reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics
manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked
polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have
become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

 PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain

pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal
water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands
for polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a common
replacement for metal piping. PVC should be used
only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used
for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are
made with primers and solvent cements as required by
code.[23]
 PP – The material is used primarily in housewares,
food packaging, and clinical equipment,[24] but since the
early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide for
both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat
fused, being unsuitable for the use of glues, solvents,
or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in green
building projects.[25]
 PBT – flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which
is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with
a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT
tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a
class-action lawsuit over failures of this system.[citation
needed]
However, PB and PBT tubing has since returned
to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed
locations" such as risers.
 PEX – cross-linked polyethylene system with
mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and
crimped steel or copper rings.
 Polytanks – plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground
water tanks, above ground water tanks, are usually
made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable
water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.
 Aqua – known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum
sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched
between layers of PEX, and connected with modified
brass compression fittings. In 2005, a large number of
these fittings were recalled.[further explanation needed]
Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and
pipes in buildings are now made of copper,[26] brass, plastic (particularly cross-
linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-
family homes[27]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved
away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States,[28] although
lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[29] and lead
was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in
1986.[28] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast iron, or lead.[30][31]
Gallery


Monument to water pipe in Mytishchi (Russia)

A specific water pipe made for use with pressure vessels.

The pipe can sustain high pressure-water and is relatively
small

Concrete water pipe


 Connecting to an existing water line (white pipe) with a
stainless steel tapping sleeve and valve (red). A concrete
thrust block is being formed behind the new connection.

Components
See also: Piping and plumbing fittings, Valves, and Plumbing fixtures
In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings such as valves, elbows, tees,
and unions. are used in plumbing systems.[32] Pipe and fittings are held in place
with pipe hangers and strapping.
Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that use water and can be
connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures",
in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or
maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-
users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets[33] (also known
as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking
fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.
Sealants
Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many
plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.[34]

Equipment and tools

A plumber tightening the fitting on a gas supply line.

Plumbing equipment includes devices often behind walls or in utility spaces

which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps,
expansion tanks, back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water
softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.
There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many
simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools,
other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make
the job easier.
Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe
bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such as soldering torches
and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems
more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of
hidden leaks or other problems; they also use hydro jets, and high pressure
hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line
replacement.
Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized
equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw
sewage.[citation needed]

Problems
Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter
refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after
it is delivered by the utility".[35] Community water systems have been known for
centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera. However,
"opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more
recently: Legionella pneumophila, discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which
people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected
with.[36] Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow
include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that
favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low
disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a
relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects
them from disinfection.[36]

Regulation
A pipe wrench for holding and turning pipe

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or

quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health,
safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and
other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes
to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction
to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically
secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.[citation needed]
Australia
In Australia, the national governing body for plumbing regulation is the Australian
Building Codes Board. They are responsible for the creation of the National
Construction Code (NCC), Volume 3 of which, the Plumbing Regulations
2008[37] and the Plumbing Code of Australia,[38] pertains to plumbing.
Each Government at the state level has their own Authority and regulations in
place for licensing plumbers. They are also responsible for the interpretation,
administration and enforcement of the regulations outlined in the NCC.[39] These
Authorities are usually established for the sole purpose of regulating plumbing
activities in their respective states/territories. However, several state level
regulation acts are quite outdated, with some still operating on local policies
introduced more than a decade ago. This has led to an increase in plumbing
regulatory issues not covered under current policy, and as such, many policies
are currently being updated to cover these more modern issues. The updates
include changed to the minimum experience and training requirements for
licensing, additional work standards for new and more specific kinds of plumbing,
as well as adopting the Plumbing Code of Australia into state regulations in an
effort to standardise plumbing regulations across the country.
The United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of
Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that
the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;[40] there are no systems in place to
monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners
who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves,
despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are
undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council
(WPC).[41][42] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World
Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of
Plumbing.[43]
The United States
In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by
state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection
Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and
pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.[44]
Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

 ASME A112.6.3 – Floor and Trench Drains

 ASME A112.6.4 – Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
 ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 – Plumbing Supply
Fittings
 ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 – Enameled Cast Iron
and Enameled Steel Plumbing Fixtures
 ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 – Ceramic Plumbing
Fixtures

See also
 Active fire protection
 Copper pipe
 Domestic water system
 Double-walled pipe
 EPA Lead and Copper Rule
 Fire hose
 Flange
  Garden hose
 HDPE pipe
 Heat pipe
 Hose
 MS Pipe, MS Tube
 Passive fire protection
 Pipe
 Pipe and tube bender
 Pipefitter
 Pipe network analysis
 Pipeline transport
 Piping and plumbing fittings
 Pipe support
 Plastic pipework
 Plastic pressure pipe systems
 Plumbing & Drainage Institute
 Plumbosolvency
 Sanitation in ancient Rome
 Tube
 Victaulic
 Water supply network

References
1. ^ Muscroft, Steve (March 14, 2016). Plumbing.
Elsevier. p. 3.
2. ^ Blankenbaker, Keith. Modern Plumbing. Goodheart
Willcox.
3. ^ "What Is The Origin Of The Word
"plumbing"?". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. May 12, 1942.
Retrieved December 27, 2013.
4. ^ "Health Aspects of Plumbing".
5. ^ Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization, Modern Marvels
video series, The History Channel, AAE-42223, A&E
Television, 1996
6. ^ "Archaeologists Urge Pentagon To Keep Soldiers
From Destroying". Herald-Journal. March 19, 2003.
Retrieved December 27, 2013.
7. ^ Teresi et al. 2002
8. ^ Pulsifer, William H. Notes For a History of Lead, New
York University Press, 1888. pp. 132, 158
9. ^ Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, Vol. 2, A &
C Black, 1892
10. ^ Historical production and uses of lead. ila-lead.org
11. ^ "Public Notice .Lead Contamination Informative City
Ok Moscow Water System". Moscow-Pullman Daily
News. August 12, 1988. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
12. ^ "Basic Plumbing System". Retrieved January 4, 2016.
13. ^ "Lead in Drinking Water". Epa.gov. Retrieved January
22, 2014.
14. ^ Hansen, Roger. "WATER AND WASTEWATER
SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL ROME". Waterhistory.org.
Retrieved January 22, 2014.
15. ^ Grout, James. "Lead Poisoning and Rome".
Encyclopaedia Romana. 2017.
16. ^ "Wooden water pipe". BBC. Retrieved January
22, 2014.
17. ^ Rosenwald, Mike (February 11, 2019). "Philadelphia's
plumbing revolution: wood pipes -
Retropod". Washington Post.
18. ^ "Types of Pipe Material". Virginia's Community
Colleges. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
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Equipment as of 2010. PwC. March 2012. Retrieved
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20. ^ Jump up to:a b "Difference between Pipes and Tubes".
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21. ^ "Wall thickness does not affect pipe o" (PDF).
Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2013.
Retrieved January 22, 2014.
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to:a b http://www.cispi.org/products/types.aspx[permanent dead
link]
Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute
23. ^ "What's the difference between PVC and CPVC
pipe?".
24. ^ Bidisha Mukherjee. "Polypropylene Properties and
Uses". Buzzle. Archived from the original on February
8, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
25. ^ "Walking The Talk". pmengineer.com.
26. ^ Copper Tube Handbook, the Copper Development
Association, New York, USA, 2006
27. ^ California’s PEX Battle Continues. Builderonline.com
28. ^ Jump up to:a b Macek, MD.; Matte, TD.; Sinks, T.;
Malvitz, DM. (January 2006). "Blood lead
concentrations in children and method of water
fluoridation in the United States, 1988–1994". Environ
 Health Perspect. 114 (1): 130–
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29. ^ Rabin, Richard (March 6, 2017). "The Lead Industry
and Lead Water Pipes "A MODEST
CAMPAIGN"". American Journal of Public
Health. 98 (9): 1584–
1592. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.113555. ISSN 0090-
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30. ^ Uniform Plumbing Code, IAPMO
31. ^ International Plumbing Code, ICC
32. ^ "Miscellaneous Valves". Archived from the original on
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33. ^ "Basic Plumbing Principles". The Evening
Independent. November 10, 1926. Retrieved December
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34. ^ "Key To Pop-up Drain Is Fresh Plumber's
Putty". Daily News. January 12, 2003.
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Fixture in Hospitals and Homes". Environ Health
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A217. PMC 4528999. PMID 26230512. Archived
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Retrieved August 1, 2015.
36. ^ Jump up to:a b Joseph O. Falkinham III; Elizabeth D.
Hilborn; Matthew J. Arduino; Amy Pruden; Marc A.
Edwards (August 2015). "Epidemiology and Ecology of
Opportunistic Premises Plumbing Pathogens:
Legionella pneumophila, Mycobacterium avium, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Environ Health
Perspectives;. 123 (8). doi:10.1289/ehp.1408692. PMC
4529011. Archived from the original on May 31, 2015.
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37. ^ "PLUMBING REGULATIONS 2008 - REG 11
Plumbing work that may be carried out by unlicensed or
unregistered persons". classic.austlii.edu.au.
Retrieved November 13,2018.
38. ^ "The Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) - Australian
Government". ablis.gov.au. November 14, 2018.
Retrieved November 14, 2018.
39. ^ "Regulatory Framework | Australian Building Codes
Board". www.abcb.gov.au. Retrieved November
13, 2018.
 40. ^ "The Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating
Engineering (CIPHE)". Retrieved March 29, 2014.
41. ^ "World Plumbing Council". Retrieved October
11, 2009.
42. ^ "WHO Health aspects of plumbing".
Retrieved October 11, 2009.
43. ^ "World Plumbing Council". Archived from the
original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved October
11, 2009.
44. ^ "Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking Water Act:
Prohibition on Use of Lead Pipes, Solder, and Flux".
Retrieved December 20, 2016.

Notes
1. ^ Materials used to make water pipes are polyvinyl
chloride, polypropylene, polyethylene, ductile iron, cast
iron, steel, copper and formerly lead.

Further reading
 Teresi, Dick (2002). Lost Discoveries: The Ancient
Roots of Modern Science--from the Babylonians to the
Maya. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 351–
352. ISBN 0-684-83718-8.

External links
 Media related to Plumbing at Wikimedia Commons
 The dictionary definition of plumbing at Wiktionary
 Quotations related to Plumbing at Wikiquote
 Plumbing at Wikibooks
 ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine:
Lead Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services
 Lead Water Pipes and Infant Mortality in Turn-of-the-
Century Massachusetts
 Case Studies in Environmental Medicine - Lead
Toxicity
 ToxFAQs: Lead
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 This page was last edited on 16 November 2019, at 15:41 (UTC).
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