Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Foreword..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Preface...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 1: What Is This Book About? .......................................................................................................... 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Establishing a Critical Discourse......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Ways of Looking.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Game Design Schemas ......................................................................................................................... 4
Game Design Fundamentals ................................................................................................................. 5
Further Readings..............................................................................................................................................................................................6
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2: The Design Process....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Iterative Design..................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Commissions..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Game Design Exercises ........................................................................................................................ 3
Creation .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Modification..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Analysis...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 8
The Design and Testing of the Board Game- Lord of the Rings........................................................................................................................................9
Design Process......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Scripted Game System..............................................................................................................................................................................10
Playtesting...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
More Changes.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
The Road Goes Ever On ..................................................................................................................... 13

Unit 1: Core Concepts ..................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter List...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
How does play happen? ......................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter 3: Meaningful Play................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Meaningful Play.................................................................................................................................. 1
Meaning and Play ................................................................................................................................. 2
Two Kinds of Meaningful Play...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Discernable..................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Integrated............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Chapter 4: Design ............................................................................................................................................ 1

Introducing Design..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Some Definitions of Design.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Design and Meaning ............................................................................................................................. 4
Semiotics: A Brief Overview.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Four Semiotic Concepts..............................................................................................................................................................................5
A Sign Represents Something Other Than Itself.........................................................................................................................6
Signs Are Interpreted..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Meaning Results When a Sign Is Interpreted........................................................................................ 7

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Chapter 4: Design
Context Shapes Interpretation...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10

Chapter 5: Systems .......................................................................................................................................... 1

Introducing Systems.............................................................................................................................. 1
The Elements of a System.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Framing Systems.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Open and Closed Systems...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Chapter 6: Interactivity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Interactivity ....................................................................................................................... 1
Defining Interactivity................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
A Multivalent Model of Interactivity...................................................................................................................................................................................................3
But Is it "Designed" Interaction? ............................................................................................................... 4
Interaction and Choice....................................................................................................................................... 5
Choice Molecules...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Anatomy of a Choice ............................................................................................................................ 8
Space of Possibility...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 12
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13

Chapter 7: Defining Games...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Play and Game ........................................................................................................................................................... 2
Comparing Definitions.......................................................................................................................... 3
Definition 1: David Parlett ............................................................................................................. 4
Definition 2: Clark C. Abt................................................................................................................................................................4
Definition 3: Johann Huizinga........................................................................................................ 5
Definition 4: Roger Caillois ........................................................................................................... 6
Definition 5: Bernard Suits...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Definition 6: Chris Crawford.......................................................................................................... 7
Definition 7: Greg Costikyan ......................................................................................................... 8
Definition 8: Elliot Avedon and Brian Sutton-Smith......................................................................................................8
A Comparison.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Our Definition.................................................................................................................................................................................................11
The Puzzle of Puzzles ......................................................................................................................................11
Role-Playing Games ........................................................................................................................... 12
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14

Chapter 8: Defining Digital Games.................................................................................................................................. 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
The Computer Is Not a Computer.............................................................................................................................................................................................................1
What Can It Do? ................................................................................................................................... 2
Integration......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7

Chapter 9: The Magic Circle .......................................................................................................................... 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Boundaries ............................................................................................................................................ 2

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Chapter 9: The Magic Circle
Enter In....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Temporary Worlds.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
The Lusory Attitude........................................................................................................................................................................................5
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 7
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7

Chapter 10: The Primary Schemas.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

A Conceptual Framework...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
What Is a Schema?..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
RULES: Formal Schemas...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
PLAY: Experiential Schemas ............................................................................................................... 4
CULTURE: Contextual Schemas ......................................................................................................... 5
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5

Commissioned Game 1 — Richard Garfield...................................................................................................................................................................1

Rules .................................................................................................................................................... 1
Scoring....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Design Notes.......................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Sibling Rivalry ............................................................................................................................... 4

Unit 2: Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter List...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 11: Defining Rules................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
A Deck of Cards....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Other Kinds of Rules ............................................................................................................................ 3
Qualities of Rules............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Rules in Context...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Chapter 12: Rules on Three Levels ................................................................................................................ 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Tic-Tac-What?...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Under the Hood.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Being a Good Sport......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Three Kinds of Rules ............................................................................................................................ 4
Operational Rules.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Constituative Rules..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Implicit Rules ................................................................................................................................. 4
The Rules of Chutes and Ladders .................................................................................................................... 4
Chutes and Ladders: Operational Rules .................................................................................................. 6
Chutes and Ladders: Constituative Rules..........................................................................................................................................................................6
Chutes and Ladders: Implicit Rules ............................................................................................... 7
The Identity of a Game ......................................................................................................................... 8
Specificity of Rules.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Designing Elegant Rules................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 12
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12

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Chapter 13: The Rules of Digital Games ....................................................................................................... 1
Rules as a Whole..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
So What Are the Rules?...............................................................................................................................................................................2
The Rules of Tetris...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Rules and Not Rules.............................................................................................................................. 4
Wheels Within Wheels ......................................................................................................................... 5
Constituative..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Operational.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Implicit ........................................................................................................................................... 7
Why Rules?..........................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8

Chapter 14: Games as Emergent Systems....................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Emergent Systems.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Complexity......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Messengers and Buildings .................................................................................................................... 3
Simple Complexity ............................................................................................................................... 4
What Complexity Is Not................................................................................................................................................. 5
Four Kinds of Systems............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Two Horrible Games....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Emergence........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Parts and the Whole ............................................................................................................................ 10
Object Interactions.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Life, the Game .................................................................................................................................... 12
Bottom-Up Behaviors........................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Emergence in Games .......................................................................................................................... 15
Designing Surprise.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Engine Tuning..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Second-Order Design............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 20
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21

Chapter 15: Games as Systems of Uncertainty ............................................................................................. 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Uncertainty......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Certainty, Uncertainty, and Risk................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
The Feeling of Randomness..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Probability in Games............................................................................................................................. 5
Dice Probability .................................................................................................................................... 5
Chance and Game Play ............................................................................................................................................ 7
Case Study One: Thunderstorm...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Thunderstorm ................................................................................................................................. 9
Case Study Two: Pig...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Pig.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Breakdowns in Uncertainty........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Breakdown 1: Computer Randomness................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Breakdown 2: Strategizing Chance ........................................................................................................13
Breakdown 3: Probability Fallacies.............................................................................................. 14
Meaningful Chance......................................................................................................................................................................................15
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 16
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17

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Chapter 16: Games as Information Theory Systems.....................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing "Information"..................................................................................................................... 1
Information Theory........................................................................................................................................................................................2
Probability and Guesswork...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Noise in the Channel......................................................................................................................................................................................5
Redundancy in the System..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Balancing Act.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................... 9
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................10

Chapter 17: Games as Systems of Information.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing a Different Kind of Information.............................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Perfect and Imperfect Information...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Enchanted Information.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Each turn, Enchanted ............................................................................................................................ 6
Hiding and Revealing Systems...................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8

Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems..................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Cybernetic Systems........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Elements of a Cybernetic System ......................................................................................................... 2
Feedback Systems in Games............................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Positive and Negative Basketball........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Racing Loops ........................................................................................................................................ 7
Positive Feedback in a Game...................................................................................................................................................................9
Dynamic Difficulty Adjustment ......................................................................................................... 10
A Simple Die Roll........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Putting Feedback to Use ..................................................................................................................... 12
Afterword: Don't Forget the Participant ............................................................................................. 13
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15

Chapter 19: Games as Game Theory Systems .............................................................................................. 1

Introducing Game Theory?...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Decision Trees ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Strategies in Game Theory...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Game Theory Games ............................................................................................................................ 6
Cake Division ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Playing for Pennies ............................................................................................................................. 11
The Prisoner's Dilemma......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Game Theory and Game Design.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15

Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict.......................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Conflict.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Conflict Case Studies....................................................................................................................................................................................2
Centipede............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Joust..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Gauntlet .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Competition and Cooperation..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
New Games..........................................................................................................................................................................................................8

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Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict
The Goal of a Game.......................................................................................................................................................................................9
The Level Playing Field of Conflict ................................................................................................... 11
Pig Redux......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15

Chapter 21: Breaking the Rules ..................................................................................................................... 1

Introducing Rule-Breaking ................................................................................................................... 1
Kinds of Rule-Breaking......................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Player Types...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Standard Players....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Dedicated Players...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Unsportsmanlike Players...................................................................................................................................................................5
Degenerate Strategies.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Degenerate Strategy Ecosystems.............................................................................................................................................................................................7
Cheats and Spoil-Sports...............................................................................................................................................................................8
Five Player Types Compared.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Sanctioned Violations: Professional Sports..............................................................................................................................................................................................................10
Sanctioned Cheating: Illuminati.......................................................................................................... 11
Hacks, Cheats, and Mods: Digital Rule-Breaking.......................................................................................................................................................................................13
Easter Eggs................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Cheat Codes............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Game Guides and Walkthroughs...............................................................................................................................................................................................13
Workarounds ................................................................................................................................ 14
True Cheating.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Hacks.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Spoil-Sport Hacking................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Rule-Breaking as a Game Design Practice................................................................................................................................................................15
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 17
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17

Commissioned Game 2 — Ironclad........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

A game for 2 players...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Playing Ironclad: The Spectacle of Mechanical Destruction..............................................................................................................................2
Playing Ironclad: The Technique of Scholarly Discourse..........................................................................................................................4
Design Notes.......................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Ironclad.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Unit 3: Play ....................................................................................................................................................... 1

Chapter List...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 22: Defining Play...................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Play...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
What Is Play?..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
A General Definition of Play.................................................................................................................................. 4
Play is free movement within a more rigid structure...................................................................... 4
Transformative Play.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Being Playful ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Ludic Activities..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Game Play.............................................................................................................................................................................................................9

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Chapter 22: Defining Play
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11

Chapter 23: Games as the Play of Experience............................................................................................... 1

Introducing Experience................................................................................................................................................................................1
Qualities of Experience.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Designing Interactive Experiences ....................................................................................................... 4
The Core Mechanic.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Core Mechanics in Context................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Tag...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Verbal Tennis ................................................................................................................................. 5
LOOP...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Breaking Out of Breakout..........................................................................................................................................................................7
Variations on a Core Mechanic...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Timed Play ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Breakthru...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Steering, Catching, and Invisible Bricks.............................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Breaking Out ................................................................................................................................ 10
Repetitive Play ............................................................................................................................. 10
Putting It All Together.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 14
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15

Chapter 24: Games as the Play of Pleasure.....................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing the Play of Pleasure........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Rule-Bound.................................................................................................................................................................................... 2
Autotelic Play........................................................................................................................................ 3
Enter. Play. Stay.................................................................................................................................... 5
Typologies of Pleasure.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Game Flow.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Sculpting Desire..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Patterns of Pleasure...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
The Role of the Goal..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................14
Goals Within Goals...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Conditioned Pleasure .......................................................................................................................... 17
Rewards and Schedules......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................18
Boredom and Anxiety: Flow Redux ................................................................................................... 22
Anxiety and Boredom on the High Seas.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................24
Meaningful Pleasure ........................................................................................................................... 26
Against "Addiction"..............................................................................................................................................................................................................29
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 31
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................32

Chapter 25: Games as the Play of Meaning .................................................................................................. 1

Introducing the Play of Meaning .......................................................................................................... 1
Two Kinds of Representation ............................................................................................................... 2
Systems of Meaning.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
System and Context .............................................................................................................................. 3
Emergent Representations .................................................................................................................... 4
The Context of Meaning.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Down the Rabbit Hole .......................................................................................................................... 6
In the Queen's Court.............................................................................................................................. 7

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Chapter 25: Games as the Play of Meaning
Framing Play........................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Metacommunication and Play...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Captured by the Game......................................................................................................................... 10
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 11
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12

Chapter 26: Games as Narrative Play............................................................................................................ 1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Narrative Play..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Narrative Tensions.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
A Framework for "Narrative" ............................................................................................................... 4
Thunderstorm......................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Two Structures for Narrative Play......................................................................................................................... 7
Narrative Goals................................................................................................................................................... 9
Confict................................................................................................................................................. 11
Uncertainty............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Core Mechanics .................................................................................................................................. 13
Narrative Space..............................................................................................................................................................................................14
Digital Game Spaces..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Spaces of Adventure ........................................................................................................................... 20
Narrative Descriptors...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................22
Worlds and Stories.......................................................................................................................................................................................25
Crafting Game Narratives...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................27
Games as Narrative Systems........................................................................................................................................................................................................................28
Cutscenes ............................................................................................................................................ 30
Retelling Game Stories ....................................................................................................................... 35
The Replay................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Recams.................................................................................................................................................................................................................37
Games Within Games ......................................................................................................................... 38
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 39
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................40

Chapter 27: Games as the Play of Simulation..............................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Simulation ......................................................................................................................... 1
Defining "Simulation"........................................................................................................................... 2
Game and Non-Game Simulations ....................................................................................................... 3
Meaningful Play and Simulation........................................................................................................... 5
Procedural Representation .................................................................................................................... 7
Represented Conflict...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Procedural Characters........................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Designing Simulations.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Learning from Wargames ................................................................................................................... 22
The Field of Battle .............................................................................................................................. 23
Simulation in Context ......................................................................................................................... 25
A Balanced Approach.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................26
The Value of Reality...................................................................................................................................................................................28
Framing the Simulation....................................................................................................................... 29
The Immersive Fallacy........................................................................................................................ 31
Metacommunicative.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................32
Remediating Games................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................33
The Character of Character.....................................................................................................................................................................34

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Chapter 27: Games as the Play of Simulation
Hacking the Holodeck..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................36
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 37
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................38

Chapter 28: Games as Social Play........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Social Play.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Social Relations .................................................................................................................................... 2
Player Roles .......................................................................................................................................... 2
Three Emergent Social Games.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Little Max.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Mafia .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Stand Up.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 9
Bounded Communities........................................................................................................................ 10
Contract for Artifice.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Knowing the Rules.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Transformative Social Play.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Ideal and Real Foursquare .................................................................................................................. 16
When Players Won't Be "Nice" .......................................................................................................... 18
Forbidden Play..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................19
Metagame: the Larger Social Context ................................................................................................ 22
A Metagame Model ............................................................................................................................ 23
Designing the Metagame .................................................................................................................... 25
The Limits of Social Play ................................................................................................................... 27
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 27
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................28

Commissioned Game 3 — Sneak..................................................................................................................................................................................................1

A game for 3 or more players ................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Materials.......................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Setting up........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Assigning Camps.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Turns.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Drawing Challenges ....................................................................................................................... 2
Purchasing Information............................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Next matches ............................................................................................................................................... 3
During the Game ............................................................................................................................ 3
Winning...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Design Diary.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Sneak .............................................................................................................................................. 4
Initial Notes ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Cloak and Dagger :Rules for Playtest 1 ......................................................................................... 5
Notes from Playtest 1 ..................................................................................................................... 6
Sneak :Rules for Playtest 2....................................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Notes from Playtest 2 ..................................................................................................................... 9
Notes from Playtest 3 ...................................................................................................................... 9
Notes from Eric and Katie's playtesting.................................................................................................................10

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Unit 4: Culture ................................................................................................................................................. 1
Chapter List...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Chapter 29: Defining Culture..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Culture.........................................................................................................................................................................................2
Culture: A Framework.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Cultural Structures: A List.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Cultural Meanings: A Few Examples......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Cultural Texts: Trafficking in Signs ..................................................................................................... 6
Redefinition: Locating Design................................................................................................................................................................7
Summary...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8

Chapter 30: Games as Cultural Rhetoric ...................................................................................................... 1

Introducing Cultural Rhetoric..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
What is Rhetoric?............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Seven Rhetorics of Play......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Two Examples ...................................................................................................................................... 5
The Landlord's Game ..................................................................................................................... 5
Vampire: The Masquerade..................................................................................................................................................................................................7
Rhetorics of Gender ........................................................................................................................................... 8
Boy Games.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Flipping the Gender Bit....................................................................................................................... 10
Transforming Spaces .......................................................................................................................... 13
Battling Toys..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17
Toys: A social game for two players ............................................................................................ 18
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 20
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21

Chapter 31: Games as Open Culture...................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Introducing Open Culture ..................................................................................................................... 1
Inventing Jenny.................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Player-as-Producer..........................................................................................................................................................................................3
Meaningful Production ......................................................................................................................... 4
Open Source Games.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Game Systems......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Escape from the Dungeon.......................................................................................................................................................................11
Telefragging Monster Movies...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Circle Back..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 16
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................17

Chapter 32: Games as Cultural Resistance................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Introducing Cultural Resistance..................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
DIY Gaming..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Resistant Strategies..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Strategies of Alteration................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
SOD.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Sailor Moon Wad ........................................................................................................................... 4
SimCopter Hack ............................................................................................................................. 5
Strategies of Juxtaposition.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5

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Chapter 32: Games as Cultural Resistance
Frag Queens................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Blacklash ........................................................................................................................................ 5
Los Disneys ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Strategies of Reinvention ............................................................................................................... 6
Universal Square ............................................................................................................................ 7
Counter-Strike ................................................................................................................................ 7
Additional Lines of Resistance...................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Friction on the Playground.................................................................................................................... 9
Resist! ................................................................................................................................................. 10
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 11
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12

Chapter 33: Games as Cultural Environment............................................................................................... 1

Raise the Red Flag ................................................................................................................................ 1
Introducing Cultural Environment........................................................................................................................................................2
Back to Basics..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Shall We Play a Game?..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Web-based......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Fictional game content disguised as reality....................................................................................................................................................................5
Decentralized content...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Game events occurred outside the web ........................................................................................................ 5
Episodic content ............................................................................................................................. 6
Distributed problem-solving..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6
Interaction between authors and players ........................................................................................ 6
Line blurred between players and game designers...............................................................................................................................................6
The Invisible Playground............................................................................................................................................................................7
Public Spaces............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Real-World Interaction............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................8
Emergent Storytelling.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Meta-Narratives.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Current Events.......................................................................................................................................................................................10
Ideological Environment...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................11
Lived Conflict........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................12
Interventions Shaking It Up ......................................................................................................... 12
Game Design Fundamentals ............................................................................................................... 13
The Artificial Question ....................................................................................................................... 14
Final Framings .................................................................................................................................... 15
Further Reading .................................................................................................................................. 16
Summary.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16

Commissioned Game 4 — Caribbean Star............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Overview............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Rules ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Design Notes.......................................................................................................................................................................................................4
Caribbean Star .................................................................................................................................................... 4
Racing Games vs.Fighting Games ................................................................................................. 5
First Rules Draft.......................................................................................................................................... 6
Playtest Notes...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9
Final Revisions: Friday June 22, 2001........................................................................................................10
ADDITIONAL READING AND RESOURCES ........................................................................ 11
CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 12

1
1
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 1

List of Games Cited .......................................................................................................................................... 1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
A..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
B..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
C..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
D..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
E.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
F ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
G..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
H..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
I ............................................................................................................................................................. 1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
J...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
K..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
L.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
M......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
N..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
O..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
P ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

1
2
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Q..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
R..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
S ............................................................................................................................................................ 1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
T......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
U..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
V..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
W.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Y..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

Index..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Z......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1

List of Figures.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 6: Interactivity ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 8: Defining Digital Games ...................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 10: The Primary Schemas........................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 12: Rules on Three Levels.........................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 13: The Rules of Digital Games.........................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 14: Games as Emergent Systems............................................................................................. 1
Chapter 15: Games as Systems of Uncertainty.......................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 17: Games as Systems of Information........................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems ........................................................................................... 1
Chapter 19: Games as Game Theory Systems..............................................................................................................................2
Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict......................................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Commissioned Game 2 — Ironclad.......................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 22: Defining Play .................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 23: Games as the Play of Experience........................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Chapter 24: Games as the Play of Pleasure........................................................................................... 2
Chapter 26: Games as Narrative Play ................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 27: Games as the Play of Simulation....................................................................................... 3
Chapter 28: Games as Social Play ........................................................................................................ 3
Chapter 30: Games as Cultural Rhetoric............................................................................................... 3
Chapter 31: Games as Open Culture.....................................................................................................................................................................................................3
Chapter 32: Games as Cultural Resistance....................................................................................................................................................................4

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 Table of Contents

Table of Contents
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 15: Games as Systems of Uncertainty.......................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 30: Games as Cultural Rhetoric............................................................................................... 1

List of Sidebars...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 2: The Design Process.............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 5: Systems ............................................................................................................................... 1
Commissioned Game 1 — Richard Garfield.............................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 11: Defining Rules .................................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 12: Rules on Three Levels.........................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 20: Games as Systems of Conflict......................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Commissioned Game 2 — Ironclad.......................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Chapter 22: Defining Play..................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 24: Games as the Play of Pleasure........................................................................................... 1
Chapter 26: Games as Narrative Play ................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 27: Games as the Play of Simulation....................................................................................... 2
Chapter 28: Games as Social Play ........................................................................................................ 2
Commissioned Game 3 — Sneak ......................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 32: Games as Cultural Resistance...................................................................................................................................................................2
Commissioned Game 4 — Caribbean Star.......................................................................................................... 2

xiii
Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman

The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England

book design and photography | Katie Salen

© 2004 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical
means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing
from the publisher.

This book was set in 8.8-point Myriad by Katie Salen and was printed and bound in the United States of
America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Salen, Katie. Rules of play : game design fundamentals / Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. p.cm. Includes
bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-262-24045-9 (hc : alk. paper)

1. Computer games-Design. 2. Computer games-Programming. I. Zimmerman, Eric. II. Title.

QA76.76.C672S25 2003 794.8'1526-dc21 2003045923

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

To those for whom the game is made.

Mr. Triggs, Tom Ockerse, H.F., and Dad; Enid, Gil, Laura, and Zach
In gratefulness and love.

Thank you to the many individuals who gave their time, expertise, support, friendship, and ideas; tothe game
designers and developers who created the incredible body of work we examined in thecourse of our study,
including Reiner Knizia, James Ernest, Kira Synder, Frank Lantz, and RichardGarfield, who all contributed
original work to this volume; to our fearless readers John Sharp, FrankLantz, Henk van Assen, Ranjit
Bhatnagar, Nancy Nowacek, Mark Owens, Peter Lee, and Julian Kücklich;to our own teachers and students
who helped inspired clarity and invention; to Doug Sery and therest of MIT Press; and most of all to our
families and friends, who waited patiently for us to join themback in the real world. We could not have done it
without you.

< Day Day Up >

< Day Day Up >

Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals 1

2 Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals

Rules of Play - Game Design Fundamentals 1

micro-level to see how the internal machinery operates. But entire games themselves can also be
identified as signs. Viewing them from a macro- rather than micro-perspective allows us to look
at games from the outside, seeing them as signs within larger sign systems. The game of Tic-Tac-
Toe, for instance, could be seen as a sign representing childhood play, whereas the game of
Assassin might stand for college mischief in the 1980s or the film The 10th Victim, which
inspired the game.